c


„
 

BIOMETRICS refers to the automatic identification of person based

on his physiological/behavioural characteristics. This method of identification is
preferred for various reasons; the person to be identified is required to be physically
present at the point of identification; identification based on biometric techniques
obviates the need to remember a password or carry a token. With the increased use of
computers or vehicles of information technology, it is necessary to restrict access to
sensitive or personal dat a . By replacing PINs, biometric techniques an potentially
prevent unauthorized access to fraudulent use of ATMs, cellular phones, smart
cards, desktop PCs, wor kstations, and computer networks. PINs and passwords may be
forgotten, and token based methods of identification like passports and driver¶s licenses
may be forged, stolen, or lost. Thus biometric systems of identification are enjoying a
renewed interest. Various types of biometric systems are being used for real±time
identification; the most popular are based on face recognition and fingerprint
matching. However there are other biometric systems that utilize iris and retinal scan,
speech, facial thermo grams, and hand geometry.

A Biometric system i s e s s e n t i a l l y a pattern recognition system,

which makes a personal identification by determining the authenticity of a specific
physiological or behavioural characteristics possessed by the u s e r . An important
issue in designing a practical system is to determine how an individual is identified.
Depending on the context, a biometric system can be either a verification
(authentication) system or an identification system. There are two different ways to
resolve a person¶s identity: Verification and Identification. Verification (Am I whom I
claim I am?) involves confirming or denying a person¶s claimed identity. In
identification one has to establish a person¶s identity (who am I ?). Each one of these
approaches has its own complexities and could probably be solved best by a certain
biometric system.

Biometrics is rapidly evolving technology, which is bei ng us ed i n

forensics such as criminal identification and prison security, and has the potential to be
m
m



c


?
c


used in a large range of civilian application areas. Biometrics can be used transactions
conducted via telephone and Internet (electronic commerce and electronic banking) .
In automobiles, biometrics can replace keys with key -less entry devices.

mm



c


?
c




 

Biometrics dates back to the ancient Egyptians, who measured p e o p l e

to identity them. But automated devices a ppear ed wi t hi n l i vi ng memory. One of
the first commercial devices introduced less than 30 years ago. The system is called
the indent mat. The machine measured finger length and installed in a time keeping
system. Biometrics is also catching on computer and communication system as well as
automated teller machines (ATM¶s).
Biometrics devices have three primary components. One is an automated
mechanism that scans and captures a digital / analog image of living personal
characteristics. Another handles compression, processing, storage and comparison of
image with the stored data. The third interfaces with application systems. These
pieces may be configured t o suit differ ent situations. A common i s s u e is w h e r e
the stored image resides: on a c a r d , presented by the person being verified or at a host
computer.
Recognition occurs when an individual¶s image is matched with one of a
group of stored images. This is t he way the human br ai n performs most day to day
identifications. For the brain this is a relatively quick and efficient process, where as for
computers to recognise that a living image matches one of many it has stored, the
job can be time consuming and costly.

mm



c


?
c


·



 

Biometrics encompasses both physiological and behavioural

characteristics. This is illustrated in Figure1characteristic is a relatively stable physical
f e a t u r e s u c h a s finger print, hand silhouette, iris pattern or facial
features. These factors are basically unalterable without trauma to the individual.
A behavioural tract, on the other hand, has s o m e physiological basis, but
also reflects person¶s p h y s i o l o g i c a l makeup. The m o s t common trait used in
identification is a person¶s signature. Other behaviours used include a person¶s keyboard
typing and speech p a t t er ns . Because of most behavioural characteristics change over
time, many biometrics machines not r ely on behaviour. It is required to update
their enrolled reference template may differ significantly from the original data, and the
machine become more proficient at identifying the person. Behavioural biometrics
work best with regular use.
The di f f er enc e b et w een p hys i ol ogi ca l a nd behavioural
met hods is important. The degree o f i n t r a p e r s o n a l variation i s smaller in
p h y s i c a l characteristics than in a behavioural one. Developers of behaviour -based
systems, therefore have a tougher job adjusting for an individual¶s
variability. However, machines that measure physical characteristics t end to be
larger and more expensive, and friendlier. Either technique affords a much more
reliable level of identification than passwords or cards alone.????????????

mm



c


?
c




 


Characteristics

Manual and semi- automated biometrics Biographics

Face

Signature Voice Keystroke

Automated biometrics

mm



c


?
c


mm



c


?
c





 

 „


The three dimensional shape of a person¶s hand has several advantages as an

identification device. Scanning a hand and producing a result takes 1.2 seconds. It requires
little space for data storage about 9 bytes which can fit easily magnetic strip credit
cards.
Hand g e o m e t r y i s the grand daddy of biometrics by virtue of its 20 year old
history of live application. Over this span six hand-scan products have been developed
but on commercially viablproduct currently available, t h e ID3D hand key is given
below. This d e v i c e w a s developed by Recognition Systems Inc.

The u s e r k e y s , in an i d e n t i f i c a t i o n code, is then positions his or her

and on a plate between a set of gui da nce pi ns . Looking down upon t he hand is a
charge-coupled device (CCD) digital camera, which with the help of mirror captures
the side and top view of the hand simultaneously.

The black and white digital image is analysed by software running on a built in HD
64180 microprocessor.(This a Z-80 base chip) to extract identifying
characteristics f r o m t h e ha n d p i c t u r e . The s o f t w a r e compares t h os e f ea t ur es
to capture w h e n t h e user w a s enrolled in the system, and signals the result-match or no
match. Analysis is based on the measurement and comparison of geometric.
The magnification factor of the c a mer a is known and is calibrated for pixels
per inch of real distance. Then the dimensions of parts of the hand, such as finger length,
width and area are measured, adjusted according to calibration marks on the platen
and used to determine the identifying geometric of the hand.

mm



c


?
c



mm

 



   c
 
?
c


A strong corr elation exists bet ween t he dimensions of the hand. For
example if the little finger is long, the index finger will most likely also be along.
Some 400 hands were measured to determine these
interrelationships, and the results are integrated into the system as a set of matrices
are applied to measured geometric to produce the 9 byte identity feature vector
that is stored in the system during enrolment, with this amount of data
compression, the current 4.5 kg unit with single printed circuit board can store
2000 identities.
Enrolment involves taking three hands reading and averaging the
resulting vectors. Users ca n enr ol t hems el ves wit h mi ni mal help. When used
for identification the 9-byte vector is compared to the stored vector and
scor e bas ed on the scalar difference is st or ed. Low scores indicate a small
difference; high scores mean a poor match. The recognition systems product
fine-tunes the reference vector a small increment at a time, in case the original
template was made under less than perfect conditions.

There are so many ot her s ystems for hand r ecognition. One was
an effort by SRI international, to take pictures of unconstrained hands help in
f r e e s p a c e . This system was introduced in 1985. Biometrics Inc.,
Tokyo¶s Toshiba Corp. Identification corp. etc is some companies which
developed biometrics systems.






Perhaps m o s t of the w o r k in b i o m e t r i c identification has gone into

the fingerprint for general security and computer access control application
fingerprints are gaining popularity.

m m



c


?
c
  

m
m

 

 !!" #c
$" %&&'&
?
c


The fingerprint¶s stability and uniqueness is well established. Based upon

a century of examination, it is estimated that the change of two people, including
twins, having the same print is less than one a billion. In verifying a print, many
devices on the ma r ket a na l yz e the p os i t i o n of details called minutiae such as the
endpoints and junctions of print ridges. These devices assign locations to the minutiae
using x, y, and directional variables. Some devices also count the number of ridges
between minutiae to form the reference template. Several companies claim to be
developing templates of fewer than 100 bytes. Other machine approach the
finger as an image processing problem and applying custom very large scale
integrated chips,neural networks, fuzzy logic and other technologies to the matching
problem.

The fingerprint recognition technology was developed for some 12

years before Being matched in 1983 by Identix Inc.

The I d e n t i x system uses a c ompa ct t er mina l that

i n c o r p o r a t e s light and CCD image sensors to take high-resolution pictureof a
fingerprint. It based on 68000 CPU with additional custom chips, but can also be
configured as a peripheral for an IBM PC. It can operate as a standalone system or
as part of a network.

To enrol a user is assigned a personal identification number and then puts a

single finger on the glass or Plexiglas plate for scanning by a CCD image
sensor. The 250-KB image is di gitali zed and anal yzed, and the result is
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 -KB mathematical characterization o f t h e fingerprint. This
takes about 30 seconds. Identity verifications take less than 1 second. The equi pment
gener ally gives the user three attempts for acceptance or finds rejection. With the first
attempt the false rejection is around 2 -3 p e r c e n t and false acceptance is less
than 0.0001 per cent. Each standalone unit cab stores 48 fingerprint templates which
m

m



c


?
 c


may be expanded to 846 by installing an additional memory package.

Fingerprints have overcome the stigma of their use in law enforcement and
military applications. Finger print recognition is appropriate for many applications and
is familiar ideato most people even if only from crime dramas on television. It is
non-intrusive, user friendly and relatively inexpensive.

 ·
 
Biometrics developers have also not lost sight of fact that humans use the face
as their primary method of telling who¶s who. More than a dozen effort to develop
automated facial verification or recognition systems use approaches ranging from pattern
recognition based on neural networks to infrared scans of µhot spots¶ on the face.

Using the whole face for automatic identification is a complex task because its
appearance is constantly changing. Variations in facial expressions, hair s t yl es and
facial ha i r , head p os i t i o n , camera s ca l e and lighting create image that are usually different
from the image captured on a film or videotape earlier. The application of advanced image
processing techniques and the us e of neural net wor ks f or classifying the images, however,
have made the job possible.

Artificial neural networks are massively connected parallel networks of simple

computing elements. Their design mimics the organization and performance of biological
neural networks in the nervous system and the brain. They can learn and adapt and be taught
to recognize patterns both static and dynamic. Also their interconnected parallel structure
allows for a degree of fault tolerance as individual computing elements become inoperative.
Neural networks a r e b e i n g u s e d f o r pattern recognition funct i on a ppr oxi mat i on,
t i me s er i es analysis and disk control.system and the brain. They can learn and adapt and be
taught to recognize patterns both static and dynamic. Also their interconnected parallel
structure allows for a degree of fault tolerance as individual computing elements
become inoperative. Neural networks are being used for pattern recognition function
approximation, time series analysis and disk control.
m
 m



c


?
c


There is only one system available on the market today. The system is developed
by Neuro Metric Vision s y s t e m Inc. This can recognize faces with a few constraint s
as pos sible, accommodating a range of camera scales and lighting environments, along
with changes in expression and facial hair and in head positions. The work sprang
from the realisation that such techniques as facial image comparisons, measurement of
key facial structure and the analysis of facial geometry could be used in face
recognition syst em. Any of these approaches might employ rule-based logic or a neural
network for the image classification process.

The Nuerometric system operat es on an IBM-compatible 386 or 486

personal computer with a maths co-processor, a digital signal processing card and a frame
grabber car d t o convert rast er s can fra mes from an attached camera in to pixel
representations. The system can capture images from black a n d white video cameras
or vide recorders in real time.

Software running on the D S P car d l o c a t e s t h e face in the video frame,

scales and rotates if necessary, compensating for lighting differences and performs
mathematical t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s t o r e d u c e t h e face to a set of floating point
feature vectors. The feature vector set is input to the neural network trained to respond
by matching it to one of the trained images in as little as 1 second.

The system¶s r eject ion level can be tuned by specifying the different signal
to noise ratios f or t he ma t c h ± a high r a t i o to s p ec i f y a pr ec i s e match, and
alower one to allow more facial variation. In a tightly controlled environment, for
m
 m



c


?
c


example, the system could set up to recognise a person only when looking at the
camera with same expression he or she had when initially enrolled in the system.

To enrol someone in the Neuro Metric system, theface is captured, the

feature vectors extracted, and the neural network is trained on the features. Grayscale
facial images may be pres ented from live video or photographs via videodisk. The
neural network is repeatedly trained until it learns all the faces and consistently
identifies every image. The system uses neural network clusters of 100-200
faces to build its face recognition database. If multiple clusters are required they can
be accessed sequentially or hierarchically. When f a c e s a r e a d d e d t o o r
d e t e c t e d from t h e database, only the affected clusters must be retrained, which takes
3-5 minutes.
 

The other m e t h o d o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n involves the eye. Two
types of eye identification are possible, scanning the blood vessel pattern on the
retina and examining the pattern of the structure of the iris. Now we can look through
a detailed description of each type below.
 
„

Retina scans, in which a weak infrared light is directed through the
pupil to the back of the eye, have been commercially available since? 1985. The
r e t i n a l pattern is r e f l e c t e d back t o a c h a r g e -coupled device (CCD)
Camera, which captur es t he unique pattern and represents it in less than 35 bytes of
information. Retina scans are one of the best biometrics performers on the market,
with low false reject rates and nearly 0 present false accept rate. The technology also
offers small data templates provides quick identity confirmations, and handles well
the job of recognizing individuals in a database of under 500 people. The toughest
hurdle for retinal scan technology is user resistance. People don¶t want to put their eye
as close to the d evi c e a s nec es s a r y . Only o n e c o mp a ny, E yedent yf y Inc.,
produces retinal scan products.

m
 m



c


?
c


 




Once it was the whites of their eyes that counted.Retinalpatternrecognition

has been tried but found uncomfortable because the individual must touch or remain
very close to a retinal s c a n n e r . Now the iris is the focus of a relatively new
biometrics means of identification. Standard monochrome video or photographic
technology in combination with robust software and standard video imaging
techniques can accept or reject an iris at distance of 30-45 cm.

A device that examines the human iris is being developed by Iriscan Inc.
The technique¶s big advantage over retinal scans is that it does not require the user to
move close to the device and focus on a target because the iris pattern is on the
eye¶s surface. In fact the video image of an eye can be taken at distance of a metre or
so, and the user need not interact with device at all.
The technology being implemented by Iris can Inc.,is based on principles
developed and planted by ophthalmologists Leonard Flom and Aran Safir and on
mathematicalalgorithms developed by John Daugman. In their practice, Flom and Safir
obs er ved t ha t every ir i s ha d highly detailed and unique texture that remains stable
over decades of life. This p a r t of the eye is one of the most striking features of
t h e face. It is easily visible from yards away a s a coloured disk, behind the
clear protective window of the cornea, surrounded by the white tissue of the eye.

Observable features include contraction furrows striations, pits, collagenons

fibres, filaments, crypts, serpentine, vasculature, rings and freckles. The structure of
iris is unique, as in fingerprint, but it boasts more than six times as many
distinctly different characteristics as the finger print. This part of the eye
moreover cannot surgically modify without damage to vision.It is produced from
damage or internal changes by the cornea and it responds to light, a natural test against
artifice.
m
 m



c


?
c


 
 
Another biometrics approach that is attractive because of its
acceptability to users is voice verification. All the systems used in analyzing t he
voice are rooted in more broadly bas ed s p eec h pr oc es s i ng technology. Currently,
voice verification is being used in access control for m e d i u m security areas or for
situations involving many people a s i n offices and lab. There are two approaches to
voice verification. One is using dedicated hardware and software at the point of access
.The second approach is using personal computer host configurations that drive a
network over regular phone lines.?
One of the latest implementation of the technology is the recently
demonstrated AT&T Smart Card used in an automatic teller system. The AT&T
prototype stores an i n d i v i d u a l ¶ s v o i c e p a t t e r n o n a memory card, the size of
a credit card. In brief, someone opening an account at a bank has to speak a selected
two or three-syllable word eight items. The word can be chosen by the user and belong
to any language or dialect.
Another approach being as an alternative to the algorithms
discussed is based on Hidden Markov Models, which consider the probability
of state changes and allow the system to predict what the speaker is trying to
say. This capability would be crucial for speaker independent recognition. Storing
voice templates on a card and receiving and processing voice information at a local
device, such as ATM, eliminated variations due to telephone connection and types of
telephones used.
  „

 :-The speaker- specific characteristics of speech are
due to differences in physiological and behavioural a s p e c t s o f t h e s p e e c h
p r o d u c t i o n s y s t e m in humans. The main physiological aspect of the human speech
production system is the vocal tract shape. The vocal tract is generally considered as the
speech production organ above the vocal folds, which consists of the following: (a)
laryngeal pharynx ( beneath the epiglottis), (b) oral pharynx ( behind the tongue,
between the epiglottis and velum ), ( c) oral cavity ( forward of the velum and bounded
by the lips, tongue, and palate ), (d) nasal pharynx ( above the velum, rear end of nasal
cavity ), and (e) nasal cavity (above the palate and extending from the pharynx to the
nostrils ). The shaded area in figure 4 depicts the vocal tract.
m
 m



c


?
c
 (() *+)

å


m m
,-
. 
/
-012-2-345--056 7c
486 ,-9:0:;:.
?
c


The vocal tract modifies the spectral content of an acoustic wave as it

passes through it, thereby producing speech. Hence, it is common in speaker
verification systems to make use of features derived only from the vocal tract. In
or der to characterize the features of the vocal tract, the human speech production
mechanism is represented as a discrete-time system of the form depicted in figure 5.




The acoustic wave is produced when the airflow from the lungs is
carried by the trachea t h r o u g h the vocal f o l d s . The s o u r c e of
e x c i t a t i o n can be charact er ized as phonation, whispering, friction, compression,

m
m



c


?
c


vibration, or a combination of these. Phonated excitation occurs when t he airflow is

modulated by the vocal folds. Whispered excitation is produced b y a i r f l o w r u s h i n g
t h r o u g h a small triangular o p e n i n g between the arytenoids cartilage at the rear of
the nearly closed vocal folds. Friction excitation i s pr oduced by cons t r i ct i ons i n t he
vocal t r act . Compression excitation results from releasing a completely closed and
pressurized vocal tract. Vibration excitation is caused by air being forced through a closure
other than the vocal folds, especially at the tongue. Speech produced by phonated
excitation is called voiced, that produced by phonated excitation plus friction is
called mixed voiced, and that produced by other types of excitation is called unvoiced.

It is possible to represent the vocal-tract in a parametric form as the transfer

function H (z). In order to estimate t h e parameters o f H (z) from the observed speech
waveform, it is necessary to assume some form for H (z). Ideally, the transfer function
should cont a i n poles as well as zeros. However, if only the voiced regions of speech are
used then an all-pole model for H (z) is sufficient. Furthermore, linear prediction analysis
can be used t o efficiently estimate the parameters of an all-pole model. Finally, it can
also be noted that the all-pole model is the minimum-phase part of the true model and
has an identical magnitude spectra, which contains the bulk of the
speaker-dependent information.

 

 

  „ 
 !
"
 # !
$%
!%&
" $  %

An automatic personal identification system based on fingerprints or

faces is often not able to meet the system performance requirements. Face
recognition is fast but n o t r e l i a b l e while fingerprint verification is reliable but
m
m



c


?
c

inefficient in database retrieval. A prototype biometric s y s t e m i s d e v e l o p e d
w h i c h i n t e g r a t e s f a c e s a n d fingerprints. The system overcomes the limitations
of face recognition systems as well as fingerprint verification systems. The integrated
prototype system operates in the identification mode with an admissible response
time. The identity established b y t he s ys t em i s mor e r el i a bl e t ha n t he identity
established by a face recognition system. In addition, t h e pr op os e d decision
f us i o n schema enables perfor mance improvement by integrating multiple cues with
different confidence measures. Experimental results demonstrate that our system
performs very well. It meets the response time as well as the accuracy requirements.
 

'& %"&
%
(!
! 
 # )
 
"
# *
A Biometric system which relies only on a single biometric identifier in
making a personal identification often not able to meet the desired performance
requirements. Identification based on multiple biometrics represents on emerging
trend. A multimodal biometric system is introduced (figure given below ), which
integrates face recognition, fingerprint verification, and speaker verification in
making a personal identification.
This s ys t em t a kes a dva nt a ge of the capabilities of each individual biometric.
It can be u s e d t o o v e r c o m e s o m e o f t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f a single
biometrics. Preliminary experimental results demonstrate that the identity established by
such an integrated system is more r eliable than the identity established by a face
recognition system, a fingerprint verification system and a speaker verification system.???

m m



c


?
c
 <<= >?=
?

å


m m
@A
B 
C
ADEFAFAGHIAADIJ Kc
HLJ @AMNDNONB
?
c


m  m



c


?
c



 

A range of biometric systems are in developments or on the market because no

one system meets all needs. The trade off in developing these systems involve component
cost, r e l i a b i l i t y , d i s c o m f o r t i n using a device, the amount of data needed
and other factors. But the application of advanced digital techniques has
made the job p os s i b l e . Further experiments are going all over the world. In India
also there is a great progress in this field. So we can expect that in the near future
itself, the biometric systems will become the main part in identification purposes.

m  m



c


?
c


m  m



c


?
c



 

1. HTTP:/BIOMETRICS.CSE.MSU.

2. BIOMEDICAL INSTRUMENTATIONW.H. CROWELL

3. PENSTROKES AUGUST 2002

m  m



c


?
c


m  m



c