CHAPTER 4.

AQUEOUS REACTION CHEMISTRY

solution - homogeneous mixture of 2 or more substances; uniform distribution of
particles and same properties throughout.
A solution is composed of a solute dissolved in a solvent:
solute - substance present in lesser amount
solvent - substance present in greatest amount
aqueous solution – water is solvent; write (aq) after formula
PROPERTIES AND CLASSIFICATION OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
1) Strong electrolyte - a solution that is a good conductor of electricity.
• Substance that totally dissociates or ionizes in water. (Many ions)
• Soluble ionic compounds, strong acids, strong bases. E.g. NaCl, HCl, NaOH
2) Nonelectrolyte - solution that does not conduct electricity.
• Neutral molecules are present in solution. (No ions)
• Molecular compounds such as H2O, C6H12O6 (sugar)
3) Weak Electrolyte - solution that conducts electricity poorly.
• Substance that partially ionizes in water. (few ions)
• Weak acids or weak bases such as HC2H3O2, NH3
• Understand how ionic compounds & molecular compounds dissolve in water
ACID, BASE & SALT DEFINITIONS
Acid: substance that produces H+ ions in aqueous solutions.
• Strong acids completely ionize in water:
E.g. HNO3 → H+ + NO3-
only H+ ions and NO3- ions are present in water
KNOW 7 Strong acids: HCl, HBr, HI, HNO3, H2SO4, HClO4, HClO3
• All other acids are weak and only partially ionize in water (reversible rxn):
E.g. HC2H3O2  H+ + C2H3O2-
All 3 species are present - most of the acid molecules have not ionized
Base: substance that accepts H+ ions in aqueous solns.; forms OH- ions
NaOH(aq) → Na+ + OH-
Common Strong bases: Group 1A hydroxides (e.g. LiOH, NaOH, KOH) & heavy
Group 2A hydroxides (Ca(OH)2, Ba(OH)2, Sr(OH)2)
Weak bases: NH3, several others exist but don’t need to recognize yet.
NEUTRALIZATION RXN (Type of DR rxn): ACID + BASE → SALT + H2O
Salt - ionic compound formed from base cation & acid anion during acid-base rxn.
E.g. HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
DOUBLE REPLACEMENT REACTIONS: AX + BY→ AY + BX
• Ions trade partners
DR reactions occur when:
1) Insoluble product (solid ppt) forms. Refer to solubility rules - will be provided.
2) Weak or nonelectrolyte forms. One of products is a weak acid, weak base or
molecular compound.
3) Gas forms.

ÅNote: DR rxn does not occur if 2 soluble salts form.

Precipitation
Precipitation reactions
solubility - maximum amount of solid that will dissolve in a given amount of liquid
at a given temperature. Solubility is a physical constant (like BP, density)
36.0 g NaCl
E.g. NaCl solubility in water at 20 °C:
100 g H 2 O
Solubility Rules – table 4.1, p. 111
• Know compounds containing 1A or NH4+ are always soluble; other ions, refer to
table
• If insoluble in water, symbol is (s); if soluble in water, symbol is (aq)
E.g. Na2CO3(aq) + CaCl2(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + CaCO3(s)

NET IONIC REACTIONS

Molecular Equation- write full formulas of all substances. See example above.
Total Ionic Equation: Split up formulas of soluble salts, strong acids and strong
bases into ions.
• Don't split apart solids, liquids, gases, weak or non-electrolytes.
Net Ionic Equation: An ionic equation in which the spectator ions have been
removed - net result after canceling common ions in total ionic equation.
Spectator ions: Ions present on both sides of the equation.
• Must include (s), (g) or (l) symbols, but can omit (aq) symbol in writing rxns
Total ionic: 2Na+ + CO 32− + Ca2+ + 2Cl- → 2Na+ + 2Cl- + CaCO3(s)

Net ionic: CO 32− + Ca2+ → CaCO3(s)

Exercise. Write molecular, total & net ionic rxns for the following:

1. molecular: Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2HCl(aq) → PbCl2(s) + 2HNO3(aq)

Total: Pb2+ + 2NO 3− + 2H+ + 2Cl- → PbCl2(s) + + 2H+ + 2NO 3−

Net: Pb2+ + 2Cl- → PbCl2(s)

2. Molecular: 2FeBr3(aq) + 3Ca(OH)2(aq) → 2Fe(OH)3(s) + 3CaBr2(aq)
- -
Total: 2Fe3+ + 6Br + 3Ca2+ + 6OH- → 2Fe(OH)3(s) + 3Ca2+ + 6Br
Net: 2Fe3+ + 6OH- → 2Fe(OH)3(s)
Fe3+ + 3OH- → Fe(OH)3(s)
Acid-
Acid-base neutralization reaction – nonelectrolyte
nonelectrolyte (H2O) is formed
Molecular: H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → 2H2O(l) + Na2SO4(aq)
Total: 2H+ + SO 24− + 2Na+ + 2OH- → 2H2O(l) + 2Na+ + SO 24−
Net: 2H+ + 2OH- → 2H2O(l)
H+ + OH- → H2O(l)
• note that formation of water is net result when strong acid & strong base react
Gas formation during acid-
acid-base reactions
This occurs if
(A) a gas such as H2S forms
Na2S(aq) + 2HNO3(aq) → 2NaNO3(aq) + H2S(g)
Total: 2Na+ + S2- + 2H+ + 2NO 3− → 2Na+ + 2NO 3− + H2S(g)

Net: S2- + 2H+ → H2S(g)

(B) an unstable product forms & breaks down. E.g. H2CO3(aq) → CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Na2CO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Total: 2Na+ + CO 32− + 2H+ + 2Cl- → 2Na+ + 2Cl- + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Net: CO 32− + 2H+ → H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Oxidation numbers-
numbers- bookkeeping system for keeping track of e-
e-
• these are values we assign; don’t necessarily correspond to true number of e-
gained or lost by atom
• write +/- sign before number instead of after
Rules
1) Uncombined elements: ox number = 0. E.g. Na or O2
2) monatomic ion: ox number = charge for ion; S2-: ox # = -2; Mg2+: ox # = +2
3) H: ox # = +1 (except for MH compounds, H = -1)
4) O: ox # = -2 (except O 22− , O = -1,
5) F: ox # = -1; other halogens usually –1 except when combined with O
6) polyatomic: sum of ox #’s = charge on ion
neutral compound: sum of ox #’s = 0
E.g. assign ox #’s to atoms in the following:
1. SF2 F: -1; S: +2
2. CO 32− O: -2 C + 3(-2) = -2 ⇒ C + -6 = -2 ⇒ C= +4
3. ClO 3− O: -2 Cl + 3(-2) = -1 ⇒ Cl + -6 = -1 ⇒ Cl = +5
4. HNO3 H: +1; O: -2; +1 + N + 3(-2) = 0 ⇒ N –5 = 0 ⇒ N = +5

SINGLE REPLACEMENT (OXIDATION-REDUCTION) REACTIONS: A + BC → B + AC

oxidation: loss of electrons, substance becomes more + (LEO)
Mg → Mg2+ + 2e-
reduction: gain of electrons, substance becomes more - (GER)
Ag+ + e- → Ag
oxidizing agent: causes other substance to be oxidized; ox. agent is reduced
reducing agent: causes reduction & becomes oxidized
Ca(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Net: Ca(s) + 2H+(aq) → Ca2+ aq) + H2(g)
Which is oxidizing agent? reduced – gains e-: H+
Which is reducing agent? oxidized – loses e-: Ca

Many reactions involve oxidation & reduction not just SR:

E.g. For the following reaction 2PbS + 3O2 → 2PbO + 2SO2
+2 –2 0 +2 –2 +4 –2
a. Identify the species oxidized S-2_
b. Identify the species reduced O__
c. Oxidized element goes from oxidation number _-2_ to _+4__.
d. Reduced element goes from oxidation number __0_ to __-2__.
e. Oxidizing agent _O2___
f. Reducing agent __PbS__
Predict products for SR rxns
Not all single replacement reactions occur - depends on activity of metal
• Use activity series to decide if reaction occurs (Table on p. 124)
• Elements at top are more reactive (more likely to become oxidized and form
ions). An element in the series can replace elements below it but cannot
replace elements above it.
Complete the following reactions. Write NR if reaction does not occur.
1. 3Zn(s) + 2H3PO4 → Zn3(PO4)2 + 3H2(g)
2. Ag(s) + HCl(aq) → NR
3. Mg(s) + 2AgNO3(aq) → Mg(NO3)2(aq) + 2Ag(s)
4. 2Al(s) + 3H2SO4(aq) → Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 3H2(g)
5. H2(g) + CuBr2(aq) → Cu(s) + 2HBr(aq)
SOLUTION CONCENTRATION
• Because chemical reactions between solids are usually slow, we carry out these
reactions by dissolving the solids in water. (Dissolved ions are more mobile &
come into contact more frequently)
• The most common unit for expressing the concentration of the solution is called
Molarity.
moles solute moles
Molarity = M = Units: M =
Liter of solution Liter
1) 30.6 g NaOH are dissolved in enough water to make 350 mL of solution.
Calculate the molarity.
1 mol NaOH 1L
30.6 g NaOH = 0.765 mol NaOH; 350 mL = 0.35 L
40.0 g NaOH 1000 mL
mol 0.765 mol NaOH
M= = = 2.2 M
L 0.35 L
2) How many mL of 0.256 M KCl will contain 10.0 mol of KCl?
 1 L KCl   1000 mL 
10.0 mol KCl     = 39100 mL
 0.256 mol KCl   1 L 
Molarity of ions
Soluble ionic compounds completely dissociate in solution
E.g. What is the molarity of K+ ions in a 0.20 M K2CO3 solution? What is the molar
concentration of the carbonate ions?
0.20 mol K 2 CO3  2 mol K +  0.40 mol K +
  = = 0.40 M K+
1L  1 mol K 2 CO3  1L
0.20 mol K 2 CO3  1 mol CO32−  0.20 mol CO32−
  = = 0.20 M CO 32−
1L  1 mol K 2 CO3  1 L
SOLUTION STOICHIOMETRY
Grams or Grams or
L or M of soln → moles given → moles wanted → L or M of soln
g
To go from g ↔ moles use MM =
mol
mole
To go from L (or M) of soln ↔ moles use M =
L
1. How many L of 0.300 M CaCl2 is needed to react with 4.90 g H3PO4?
3CaCl2(aq) + 2H3PO4(aq) → Ca3(PO4)2(s) + 6HCl(aq)
g H3PO4 → mol H3PO4 → mol CaCl2 → L CaCl2
 mol H 3 PO4  3 mol CaCl 2  1L 
4.90 g H3PO4     = 0.250 L CaCl2
 98.0 g H 3 PO4  2 mol H 3 PO4  0.300 mol CaCl 2 
2. How many grams of H2S can be produced from 125 mL of 0.552 M HCl solution?
2HCl(aq) + K2S(aq) → H2S(g) + 2KCl(aq)
mL HCl → L HCl → moles HCl → moles H2S → g H2S
  1 L  0.552 mol HCl  1 mol H 2 S  34.1 g H 2 S 
125 mL      = 1.18 g H2S
 1000 mL  1L  2 mol HCl  mol H 2 S 

WORKSHEET FOR MOLARITY & SOLUTION STOICHIOMETRY

1. What is the molarity of Na+ and PO 34− ions in a 0.25 M solution of Na3PO4?
 0.25 mol Na 3 PO4  3 mol Na + 
   = 0.75 M Na +
 1L  1 mol Na 3 PO4 
 0.25 mol Na 3 PO4  1 mol PO43− 
   = 0.25 M PO43−
 1L  1 mol Na 3 PO4 

2. Find the mass of NaCl present in 150 ml of 1.50 M NaCl.

 1 L  1.50 mol  58.5 g NaCl 

150 mL     = 13.2 g NaCl
 1000 mL  1 L  1 mol NaCl 
3. How many mL of 0.35 M AgCl solution will contain 44.5 g of AgCl?

 1 mol AgCl   1 L AgCl  1000 mL 

44.5 g AgCl      = 8.90 x102 mL AgCl
 143.4 g AgCl   0.35 mol AgCl  1 L 
4. What is the molarity of H2SO4 solution if 50.00 ml of H2SO4 is required to
neutralize 42.00 mL of 0.150 M NaOH?
H2SO4 + 2NaOH → 2H2O + Na2SO4
mL NaOH → L NaOH → moles NaOH → moles H2SO4 → M H2SO4

 1 L  0.150 mol NaOH  1 mol H 2 SO4 

42.00 mL     = 0.00315 moles H2SO4
 1000 mL  1L  2 mol NaOH 
mole  0.00315 mol H 2 SO4  1000 mL 
M= =    = 0.0630 M
L  50.00 mL  1 L 
5. How many L of 0.164 M Ca(OH)2 is needed to neutralize 25.00 mL of 0.458 M
HCl solution?
Ca(OH)2 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + 2H2O
 1 L  0.458 moles HCl  1 mol Ca (OH ) 2  1L 
25.00 mL      = 0.0349 L
 1000 mL  L  2 mol HCl  0.164 mol Ca (OH ) 2 
Titration- procedure used to determine the concentration of a solution by
measuring the volume of one reagent required to react with a known mass or
volume of another reagent.
Standard solution – solution with a known concentration
Indicator – substance that changes color at end point of titration
Equivalence point – pt at which the two reagents are present in stochiometrically
equivalent amounts
DILUTION
Dilution - process of adding more solvent to solution to prepare a more dilute
solution.
concentrated solution - a solution containing a relatively large amount of solute
dilute solution - a solution containing a relatively small amount of solute.
In dilution problems moles before dilution equal moles after dilution:
moles1 = moles2
Dilution formula: M1 x V1 = M2 x V2
1) a) How many mL of 16 M HNO3 will you use to prepare 750. ml of 0.69 M HNO3?
b) How many mL of water were added to make this solution?
M1 = 0.69 M HNO3; V1 = 750 mL; M2 = 16 M HNO3; V2 = ?

a) V2 =
M 1V1
=
(0.69 M )(750 mL ) = 32 mL
M2 16 M

b) 750 mL - 32 mL = 728 mL
2) What is the molarity of a solution prepared by diluting 125 ml of 0.400 M KCl to
1000 mL of KCl solution?
M1 = 0.400 M KCl; V1 = 125 mL; M2 = ?; V2 = 125 mL + 875 mL = 1000 mL

M2 =
M 1V1
=
(0.400 M )(125 mL ) = 0.0500 M
V2 1000 mL

DON'T USE DILUTION FORMULA FOR SOLUTION STOICHIOMETRY PROBLEMS!!!