Journal of Petroleum Geology, Vol.

28 (1), January 2005, pp 19 - 38 19

SOURCE ROCK PROPERTIES OF LACUSTRINE

MUDSTONES AND COALS
(OLIGOCENE DONG HO FORMATION), ONSHORE
SONG HONG BASIN, NORTHERN VIETNAM

H. I. Petersen1*,Vu Tru2, L. H. Nielsen1, Nguyen A. Duc2 and H. P. Nytoft1

Oligocene lacustrine mudstones and coals of the Dong Ho Formation outcropping around
Dong Ho, at the northern margin of the mainly offshore Cenozoic Song Hong Basin (northern
Vietnam), include highly oil-prone potential source rocks. Mudstone and coal samples were collected
and analysed for their content of total organic carbon and total sulphur, and source rock screening
data were obtained by Rock-Eval pyrolysis.The organic matter composition in a number of samples
was analysed by reflected light microscopy. In addition, two coal samples were subjected to progressive
hydrous pyrolysis in order to study their oil generation characteristics, including the compositional
evolution in the extracts from the pyrolysed samples. The organic material in the mudstones is
mainly composed of fluorescing amorphous organic matter, liptodetrinite and alginite with
Botryococcus-morphology (corresponding to Type I kerogen). The mudstones contain up to 19.6
wt.% TOC and Hydrogen Index values range from 436–572 mg HC/g TOC. From a pyrolysis S2
versus TOC plot it is estimated that about 55% of the mudstones’ TOC can be pyrolised into
hydrocarbons; the plot also suggests that a minimum content of only 0.5 wt.% TOC is required to
saturate the source rock to the expulsion threshold.
Humic coals and coaly mudstones have Hydrogen Index values of 318–409 mg HC/g TOC.
They are dominated by huminite (Type III kerogen) and generally contain a significant proportion
of terrestrial-derived liptodetrinite. Upon artificial maturation by hydrous pyrolysis, the coals generate
significant quantities of saturated hydrocarbons, which are probably expelled at or before a maturity
corresponding to a vitrinite reflectance of 0.97%Ro. This is earlier than previously indicated from
Dong Ho Formation coals with a lower source potential.
The composition of a newly discovered oil (well B10-STB-1x ) at the NE margin of the Song
Hong Basin is consistent with contributions from both source rocks, and is encouraging for the
prospectivity of offshore half-grabens in the Song Hong Basin.
INTRODUCTION by Nielsen et al. (1999) and Andersen et al. (in press).
However, two petroleum systems have been proved
The northern offshore part of the Cenozoic Song Hong to exist in the northern Song Hong Basin sourced
Basin in northern Vietnam has been penetrated by only respectively by Miocene coals and Paleogene
a few exploration wells (Fig. 1). This applies lacustrine facies (mudstones and coals).
particularly to that part of the basin north of the Song A Miocene coal-sourced petroleum system has
Lo Fault Zone, where only two wells have been drilled. been identified in a narrow, structurally inverted zone
The region’s exploration history has been reviewed between the Song Chay and Vinh Ninh/Song Lo fault
zones, where a thick, predominantly deltaic Miocene
1
Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland (GEUS), succession has been tested in faulted anticlines formed
10 Øster Voldgade, DK-1350K Copenhagen, Denmark. by late Miocene inversion (Andersen et al., in press).
Vietnam Petroleum Institute,Yen Hoa, Cau Giay, Hanoi,
2 The 103-TH-1x and 102-CQ-1x wells encountered
Vietnam. sub-commercial volumes of gas, condensate and oil
in these Miocene deltaic sandstones (Fig. 1). The
*
author for correspondence, email: hip@geus.dk hydrocarbons in well 103-TH-1x have a typical
20 Source rock properties, Oligocene Dong Ho Formation, Song Hong Basin (northern Vietnam)
terrestrial geochemical signature, including the
presence of oleanane (Total, 1990), and the waxy, early
mature oil in well 102-CQ-1x has been correlated to
coals in the basal Lower Miocene section in well 102-
HD-1x located about 25 km further to the south
(Geochem Group Limited, 1994).
The most important oil-generating source rocks
in SE Asia are lacustrine mudstones (Katz, 1990;
Sladen, 1997; Todd et al., 1997). Recently, for
example, lacustrine mudstones were reported to be
the source for two groups of oils in the western part
of the Chinese Pearl River Mouth Basin offshore
southern China (Fig. 1), and a third oil group was
related to a coaly source (Huang et al., 2003b). Gas
accumulations in the Chinese Qiongdongnan Basin
have been correlated to coal-bearing strata (Huang et
al., 2003a). A lacustrine/coal sourced petroleum
system has also been demonstrated to exist in the Song
Hong Basin. An oil show in well GK63 at the margin
of the Hanoi Trough, the landward extension of the
Song Hong Basin, has organic geochemical features
typical of a predominantly lacustrine-sourced oil
(Petersen et al., 2004a). The lacustrine/coal sourced
petroleum system has recently also been proved to
exist north of the Song Lo Fault Zone in the NE Song
Hong Basin, as the sub-commercial oil encountered
by well B10-STB-1x in Devonian carbonate rocks was
principally generated from lacustrine facies, but with
some contribution from a coaly source (Petersen et
al., 2004a).
In spite of the B10-STB-1x oil discovery, source
rock facies have not been encountered in the wells
drilled in the NE Song Hong Basin. Seismic sections
show, however, that the Palaeogene Thuy Nguyen and
Kien An Grabens (locations on Fig. 1) contain syn-
rift successions with distinct, continuous high-
amplitude reflectors, a facies pattern commonly
interpreted as lacustrine shale-prone units (Rangin et
al., 1995; Andersen et al., 1998, in press). Mapping
of this seismic facies in the NE Song Hong Basin
indicates the regional occurrence of lacustrine
mudstones in the syn-rift successions of the undrilled
Palaeogene half-grabens, which suggests that the
lacustrine/coal sourced petroleum system may be
widespread in the NE Song Hong Basin.
Previous evaluations of the quality of offshore
source rocks and their hydrocarbon generation
properties has relied on studies of potential source
rock analogues exposed at a few localities in the Dong
Ho area and on Bach Long Vi Island, a Palaeogene
inversion structure in the Gulf of Tonkin (locations
on Fig. 1) (Petersen et al., 2001, 2004a). In the Dong
Ho area, immature Oligocene lacustrine mudstones
and humic coals have for several years been known
to be exposed on a river bed location (loc. 1, Fig. 2).
Geochemical data from artificially matured (by
hydrous pyrolysis) highly oil-prone mudstones from
Dong Ho show considerable similarity to the B10-
STB-1x oil (Petersen et al., 2004a). It has been
suggested that the oil was primarily sourced from
mature Dong Ho-like mudstones in the Thuy Nguyen
Graben and/or Kien An Graben located to the SE of
the B10-STB-1x well (Fig. 1) (Petersen et al., 2004a).
Samples from Bach Long Vi Island may represent a
slightly more saline lacustrine facies than the Dong
Ho mudstones, and similar facies may have provided
a minor contribution to the B10-STB-1x oil.
Coals from Dong Ho loc. 1 with Hydrogen Index
values of 200–242 mg HC/g TOC have been shown
not to expel oil before a maturity corresponding to a
vitrinite reflectance of approximately 1.03–1.15%Ro
has been reached (Petersen, 2002). This means that
these coals will to a large extent be immature in, for
example, the Kien An Graben (see discussion in
Andersen et al., in press). New data presented in the
present paper, however, document the presence of
considerably more oil-prone humic coals in other
outcrops of the Dong Ho Formation (Fig. 3), which
may be capable of expelling liquid hydrocarbons at
lower maturity. Despite this, the highly oil-prone
lacustrine mudstones constitute the most promising
potential source rocks in the NE Song Hong Basin.
To date, information concerning the generation
capability and characteristics of potential lacustrine
and coal source rocks in the offshore Song Hong Basin
has been restricted to the study of a limited number
of samples from the Dong Ho river bed locality (loc.
1) and from Bach Long Vi Island (Fig. 1) (Traynor
and Sladen, 1997; Petersen et al., 2001, 2004a).
However, a recent study of the distribution of the
Oligocene Dong Ho Formation, based on numerous
shallow wells and outcrops (Tru et al., 2002), has
provided a series of new representative samples (Fig.
2). In the present study, we report on a larger number
of potential source rock samples than in previous
studies. The results provide new insights into the
compositional variability and generation potential of
potential mature source rock equivalents in the
offshore Song Hong Basin.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING AND
STRATIGRAPHY
The Song Hong Basin forms part of the left-lateral
transtensional complex developed along the Red River
Fault (Rangin et al., 1995; Nielsen et al., 1999;
Andersen et al., in press), and is one of a number of
basins located along the western margin of the East
Vietnam Sea (South China Sea) (Fig. 1). During the
Cenozoic, reactivation of pre-existing faults and
Palaeogene extension resulted in the formation of a
series of grabens and half-grabens in the Song Hong
 H. I. Petersen et al. 21

(a)
CHINA
RE
D
RI
VE
R
FA
U SIN
LT BA
UTH
MO
R
VE
RI
BEIBUWAN AL
20°N GULF OF PE
BASIN
TONKIN

SO
HAINAN

NG
HO
NG
QIONGDONGNAN

BA
BASIN

SI
N
LAOS

THAILAND
15°N
DA NANG SHEAR ZONE

PHU KHANH BASIN

CAMBODIA
SOUTH CHINA
VIETNAM TUY HOA SHEAR ZONE SEA
N
SI
BA
G
10°N
LON
U
PATTANI CU N
SI
BASIN BA
N
SO
(b) C
O
N
MA

AM
N
LA

107°E 108°E
YB
AS

200 km
IN

105°E 110°E 115°E BORNEO

Dong Ho,
Hanoi Oligocene outcrops

21°N
Vi
nh
Ni
Ha

nh Trou

B10-STB-1X
no

Fa
i

Beibuwan Basin
ult h

Kie
Zo

n
g

ne

An

D14-STL-1X
Gr

GK63 Bach Long

ab

Tien Hai gas field en Vi Island

TN
G

102-CQ-1X
103-TG-1X
20°N
102-HD-1X
103-TH-1X
107-PA-1X
So
n g
Lo
Fa
ul
Ma
Son

tZ

Post-rift sediments resting

in

on

directly on pre-Cenozoic
gC

basement
ep
hay

oc

Dry well
en

Hainan
Fau

Oil/Gas shows
tre

Island
lt

Gas discovery 50 km

Fig. 1. (a) Location map of sedimentary basins offshore Vietnam. The Beibuwan, Qiongdongnan and Pearl
River Mouth basins occur within Chinese teritory. The outlined area corresponds to Fig. 1b.

(b) The structural framework of the northern part of the Song Hong Basin and the Hanoi Trough. Note that
only two wells have been drilled in the NE Song Hong Basin north of the Song Lo Fault Zone. The outlined
area corresponds to Fig. 2 (Dong Ho area). TNG: Thuy Nguyen Graben.
22 Source rock properties, Oligocene Dong Ho Formation, Song Hong Basin (northern Vietnam)

C`

A
Dong Ho Trough

Lk.K5 A`

Loc. 2: New irrigation

trench
Loc. 1: Classic river Lk.K12
bed locality Lk.K9
Lk.K10 Lk29

Lk158
Lk162b Lk.K11
gh
Lk162 ou
Tr
c
Lu
a
Cu
Loc. 4: Huu Nghi Lk4
Bridge

gn
Vo
Lk.K8
1 km

n
ie
D
Lk.K7

ng
So
Quaternary &
Lk301 Lk208 Lk610 Mesozoic rocks
Lk304 Vinh Cua Luc B`
B Loc. 3: Hào-2 Lk.K5 Dong Ho Fm. at surface
Khu Dong Dang
Lk6
Lk.K4 Rivers and streams
Lk.K2 Lk.14
Lk.K3 Sea

Oil shale; Dong Ho Fm.

Faults

C Lk.K5 Well

A` Cross section
A

Fig. 2. Detailed map of the Dong Ho area showing areas where the Dong Ho Formation is exposed at the
surface. The “classic” Dong Ho river bed locality (loc. 1) and the three new outcrops (loc. 2–4) are indicated
on the map together with drilled wells, and the profiles of the cross-sections AA’, BB’, and CC’ shown in Fig. 5.
(Modified from Tru et al. , 2002).
Basin and the Hanoi Trough (Fig. 1), within which drilled for water supply and exploration for coal and
siliciclastic sediments accumulated including syn-rift oil shales in the two troughs (locations on Fig. 2)
lacustrine deposits and thin humic coal seams, have shown that the Dong Ho Formation consists of
presumably of Oligocene age. During the Late pebble beds, sandstones, mudstones, coal beds and
Oligocene to Early Miocene post-rift phase, deltaic and oil shales, while the Tieu Giao Formation consists of
paralic coal-bearing strata were deposited in the Hanoi claystones, siltstones and sandstones in the lower part
Trough and in the northern part of the Song Hong and sandstones and pebble beds in the upper part (Fig.
Basin. In general, the syn-rift sediments are separated 4) (Tru et al., 2002). Cross-sections based on
from the post-rift deposits by an unconformity, dated outcrops, well data and geophysical data show that
at 30 Ma, which is probably related to the onset of the Dong Ho Formation has a thickness of about 150
sea-floor spreading in the East Vietnam Sea and the m in the eastern part of the Hoanh Bo Trough, and
formation of oceanic crust (Rangin et al., 1995; Nielsen increases to a thickness of 300–350 m in the central
et al., 1999). part (Figs. 3, 5). The overlying Tieu Giao Formation
Palaeogene extension led to the general NW-SE is 20 m thick at the margins, and increases to a
orientation of grabens and half-grabens in the northern thickness of 250 m in the central parts. The thickness
Song Hong Basin (Fig. 1), whereas tectonic elements distribution of the two formations reflects the relief
in the neighbouring Beibuwan Basin are mainly of the underlying Triassic rocks, which form the basin
oriented NE-SW (Rangin et al., 1995; Packham, 1996). floor.
At the northern margin of the Song Hong Basin, a series After deposition of the two formations, the study
of fault-related narrow and more or less east-west area was subjected to regional compression with
oriented depressions were formed. These troughs are reactivation of pre-existing faults resulting in folding
filled with Oligocene lacustrine sediments, referred to and inversion. In most of the northern Song Hong
as the Dong Ho Formation, which are conformably Basin nearby to the south and east of the study area,
overlain by Neogene fluvial and floodplain deposits the compression culminated in latest Miocene time
of the Tieu Giao Formation (Fig. 3). In the study area, and resulted in deep truncation of the inversion
sediments of the Dong Ho Formation are present in structures (Rangin et al., 1995; Nielsen et al., 1999;
the Hoanh Bo Trough, which covers an area of about Andersen et al., in press); the uplift and folding of
150 km2, and which can be divided into the minor Dong the Hoanh Bo Trough was probably related to this
Ho and Cua Luc troughs (Fig. 2) (Tru et al., 2002). event. Outcrops of the Dong Ho Formation occur
The smaller Dong Ho Trough to the NW consists of a along the southern margin of the Dong Ho Trough
half-graben dipping to the north. The larger Cua Luc and the western and southern margin of the Cua Luc
Trough is bounded by faults to the north, south and Trough. Following the compressional phase,
east, and the fill dips 12–15o. Several shallow wells subsidence resumed and a virtually undisturbed and
 H. I. Petersen et al. 23

Thickness (m)
Formation

Lithology
Division
Description

Period 5-12
Quaternary
Miocene-Pliocene

20 - 250
Tiêu Giao

Pebble beds,sandstones and siltstones,

brown, grey to dark grey in colour.

Pebble beds, conglomerates, coarse- to

medium-grained sandstones; grey,
Oligocene

Dong Ho

light grey and dark grey siltstones and

50 - 350

sandstones with interbedded thin layers

of coal and carbonaceous mudstones;
oil shale; asphalt-bearing sandstones;
plant fossils.
500 - 1000

Pebble beds, breccia, sandstones,

Upper

siltstones, and mudstones with inter-

bedded thin coal lenses; plant fossils.
500 - 1000

Pebble beds, sandstones, siltstones,

Middle

mudstones and 10–25 commercial coal

Hòn Gai
Triassic

seams; plant fossils.

500 - 1000

Pebble beds, breccia, sandstones, silt-

Lower

stones, mudstones with interbedded

thin coal lenses; plant fossils.
Carboniferous–Permian

Quang Hanh

500 - 1000

Dark grey platy dolomite, light grey and

blocky in upper part; foraminifera.
Carboniferous

500 - 1000
Dà Tràng

Dark grey to light grey dolomite with

interbedding of platy silicate and thin
layers of mudstone; foraminifera.

Fig. 3. Generalised stratigraphic column for the Dong Ho area (modified from Tru et al. , 2002).
24 Source rock properties, Oligocene Dong Ho Formation, Song Hong Basin (northern Vietnam)

LK14 well Fig. 4. Stratigraphic section drilled

by the LK14 well (location in Fig. 2;
Thickness (m)
Depth below
surface (m)

see also cross-section CC’ in Fig. 5).

Lithology
Age/Fm.

Description
About 21 m of the Dong Ho
Q 0.60 0.60
Soil Formation was penetrated.
3.80
Light grey and yellowish grey mudstones
4.40

1.40 Clay- and sandstone

5.80
2.70 Sandstone
8.50
2.10 Grey mudstone
10.60

4.10 Mainly sandstone

14.70
15.90 1.20 Mudstone

4.10 Mainly sandstone

20.00
Neogene Tiêu Giao Fm.

2.10 Clay and sandstone

22.10

17.40 Light mudstone

39.50

Mainly sandstone
42.20 2.70

11.70
Light mudstone

53.90

4.90 Mainly sandstone

Oligocene Dong Ho Fm.

58.80

3.00 Dark grey mudstone, highly organic-rich

61.80 (oilshale)
63.00 1.20 Sandstone with gravels

1m of mudstone; sandstone;
6.20
0.5m at base: gravel and breccia
69.20

71.00
1.80 Sandy mudstone

4.50 Sandstone

75.50

thick uppermost Miocene–Pliocene and Quaternary west of locality 1, where mudstones and humic coals
sediment package was deposited in the Song Hong of the Dong Ho Formation are exposed in the river
Basin, where the Tieu Giao Formation is bed (Traynor and Sladen, 1997) (Fig. 6b).
unconformably overlain by 5–12 m of Quaternary The second new locality (Hào 2; loc. 3) is located
sediments. at Khu Dong Dang, Hoanh Bo (Fig. 2), where an
approximately 3 m deep trench exposes part of the
SAMPLE MATERIAL AND METHODS Dong Ho Formation. From the base, the section
consists of about 1.3 m of grey mudstones and sandy
Fifteen outcrop samples of the Oligocene Dong Ho mudstones, overlain by about 0.30 m of white-grey
Formation were collected from three localities in the mudstones, and then 0.45–0.60 m of brownish–black
Dong Ho and Cua Luc troughs (locs. 2, 3, 4) (Fig. 2; mudstones (oil shales) and humic coals, from which
Table 1). Nine of the samples were collected from a four highly organic-rich mudstone and humic coal
new trench excavated for irrigation (loc. 2), exposing samples were collected (Table 1). The section is
about 1.5–2.0 m of dark grey to brownish and black capped by less than 1 m of Quaternary sediments.
mudstones (Fig. 2). After removing as much surface Two samples, an organic-rich mudstone and a humic
material as possible to minimize the effects of surface coal, were collected at Huu Nghi Bridge, Viet Hung
weathering, a 1.60m thick profile was sampled here (loc. 4), approximately 200 m south of loc. 3 (Fig.
(Fig. 6a). Locality 2 is located approximately 320 m 2). The samples were taken from the bed of a small
 A A´
W Dong Ho Trough Cua Luc Trough E

(m)
Lk K5(DH) Lk K10 Lk K11 Lk K12 (m)

0 0

-100 -100

-200 -200

-300 -300

0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000 20000 (m)

B B`

W Cua Luc Trough E

LK.208 LK610
Lk K7 LK304 Lk301 Lk.K4 Lk.K3
(m) (m)
0 0

-100 -100

-200 -200

-300 -300

0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 (m)

H. I. Petersen et al.

C C`

S Cua Luc Trough N

Sea/river
Lk14 Lk301 Lk K11
(m) (m) Quaternary
0 0
Tiêu Giao Fm.
Dong Ho Fm.
-100 -100
Triassic
-200 -200 Oil shale
Fault
-300 -300
Well
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 (m)

Fig. 5. Cross-sections (see Fig. 2) showing the predicted geometry and thickness of the Dong Ho Formation in the Dong Ho area. Observations at the outcrop
locations show that the Dong Ho Formation is thermally immature in terms of hydrocarbon generation in this area (modified from Tru et al. , 2002).
25
26 Source rock properties, Oligocene Dong Ho Formation, Song Hong Basin (northern Vietnam)

a b

Fig. 6. (a) Dark grey to brownish and black highly oil-prone lacustrine mudstones of the Oligocene Dong Ho
Formation exposed in a new irrigation trench (loc. 2). About 1.60 m was sampled. Lens cap (at arrow) for
scale.
(b) The “classic” Dong Ho Formation locality (loc. 1) where lacustrine mudstones and coals are exposed in a
river bed .

river where a coal seam and black carbonaceous
mudstones are exposed; the mudstone sample was
collected about 50 m downstream from the coal seam.
In addition to new data from these localities,
previously reported data from loc. 1 (Petersen et al.,
2001, 2004a) are included in the graphs presented in
this paper and in the discussion which follows.
The samples were analysed for total organic carbon
(TOC) and for total sulphur (TS) by combustion in a
LECO CS-200 induction furnace, and additionally
pyrolysed on a Vinci Rock-Eval 5 or Rock-Eval 6
instrument (Table 1). Carbonate-bonded carbon was
removed by HCl treatment before combustion.
Based on the screening data, 12 samples were
selected for microscopic analyses (Table 2). The
samples were crushed to the grain size range 63 mm
– 1 mm and embedded in epoxy. Particulate blocks
were polished, and studied microscopically in
reflected light and oil immersion. The organic matter
was characterised in white and fluorescence-inducing
blue light using a Zeiss incident light microscope and
a Swift point counter. A total of 500 macerals and
minerals were counted in each sample. Huminite
reflectance measurements (%Ro, random) were performed
on the maceral eu-ulminite by means of a Leitz MPV-
SP system (Table 2). None of the samples showed
signs of weathering, such as reduced fluorescence
intensity.
Two coal samples (8246, loc. 3; 7573, loc. 4) with
high HI values (Table 1) were solvent-extracted by
means of CH2Cl2/CH3OH (93 vol/7 vol), and the
asphaltenes were precipitated by addition of 40-fold
n-pentane. The remaining fraction was separated into
saturated and aromatic hydrocarbons and NSO
compounds (Table 3). The saturated hydrocarbons
were analysed by gas chromatography (GC) on a
Hewlett Packard 5890 gas chromatograph equipped
with a 25 m HP-1 WCOT column and a flame
ionisation detector (FID). The two coal samples (8246
and 7573) were artificially matured by stepwise
hydrous pyrolysis at five temperatures for 72hr at each
temperature (240°C/72hr, 270°C/72hr, 300°C/72hr,
330°C/72hr, 345°C/72hr). Hydrous pyrolysis was
carried out in stainless steel HPLC columns filled with
about 0.3 g of ground sample mixed with water
(thoroughly stirred). The cooled samples were washed
with water, and the samples were recovered on 0.45
mm polycarbonate filters and dried at room
temperature. The hydrous-pyrolysed samples were
analysed for TOC content and by Rock-Eval pyrolysis
 H. I. Petersen et al. 27

Sample TOC TS Tmax S1 S2 HI

Sample Locality Lithology position (wt.%) (wt.%) (°C) (mg HC/g rock) (mg HC/g TOC)
no. (m)
7575 2: Dong Ho, LM 0.05–0.10 4.09 0.13 433 0.88 22.36 546
7576 outcrop in LM 0.20–0.25 5.20 0.13 434 1.31 22.92 441
7577 trench. LM 0.35–0.40 12.92 0.04 428 2.72 72.10 558
7578 Sampled LM 0.55–0.60 10.39 0.37 430 2.44 50.62 487
7579 profile 1.60 m LM 0.75–0.80 8.29 0.45 427 2.23 44.72 539
7580 thick. LM 1.00 6.83 0.21 430 1.53 33.80 495
7581 LM 1.20 11.43 0.56 429 2.27 57.46 503
7582 LM 1.40 12.71 0.53 435 2.56 65.14 513
7583 LM 1.60 10.25 0.58 430 2.43 58.56 572

8243 3: Hao 2, HC - 54.07 0.40 421 6.19 193.16 357

8244 Khu Dong CM - 25.94 0.33 426 3.87 106.02 409
8245 Dang, Hoanh CM - 35.75 0.38 419 3.87 127.11 356
8246 Bo HC - 50.85 0.49 420 3.98 161.67 318

7573 4: Huu Nghi HC - 53.85 0.68 426 4.38 180.30 335

7574 Bridge, Viet LM - 19.61 0.22 428 4.05 85.58 436
Hung
LM: lacustrine mudstone; CM: coaly mudstone; HC: humic coal; HI: hydrogen index;
TOC: total organic carbon; TS: total sulphur
Table 1. Screening data, Dong Ho Formation.

(Table 3). Equivalent reflectance values (%Reqv) of
the measured T max values were derived by the
correlation Tmax=51.96%R+398.39 of Petersen (2002).
The samples hydrous-pyrolysed at 240°C/72hr,
330°C/72hr and 345°C/72hr were solvent-extracted
and the saturated fractions were analysed by GC as
described above (Table 3).
RESULTS
Organic geochemistry
The source rock screening data of the samples are
listed in Table 1. The nine carbonaceous mudstone
samples from loc. 2 have considerable TOC contents,
whereas the TS contents are low. Rock-Eval pyrolysis
S1 and S2 yields and Hydrogen Index (HI) values are
high. The two humic coals (8243 and 8246) and two
coaly mudstones (8244 and 8245) from loc. 3, and
the coal (7573) and carbonaceous mudstone (7574)
from loc. 4 have high TOC contents. TS contents are
low for all six samples. Both S2 yields and HI values
are high for these coaly source rocks.
Organic petrography
The detailed petrographic and kerogen compositions
of the samples are shown in Table 2.
(i) location 2 samples
The organic matter of the six carbonaceous mudstones
analysed from loc. 2 are dominated by liptinitic
material of which fluorescing amorphous organic
matter (AOM), intimately associated with mineral
matter, constitutes the major component (Fig. 7a).
Alginite with a morphology similar to the extant
Botryococcus alga is present in all samples. The
common association of alginite with the fluorescing
AOM and liptodetrinite, and the morphology and
yellowish fluorescence property of the latter two
components, suggest that both were derived to a large
extent from the degradation of algal material. The
huminite content is low, whereas inertinite is absent.
Framboidal pyrite was observed in minor proportions
in all samples. The maceral composition implies a high
proportion of Type I kerogen (alginite
+liptodetrinite+AOM) followed by much smaller
amounts of terrestrial Type II kerogen (remaining
liptinite) and Type III kerogen (huminite).
(ii) location 3 samples
The samples from loc. 3 are much richer in huminite.
Samples 8243 and 8246 are humic coals, whereas
samples 8244 and 8245 are coaly mudstones (Fig. 7b–
d). Coal sample 8246 yields a huminite reflectance of
0.45%R o . Early generated heavy bitumen or
hydrocarbons (exsudatinite) have been observed (Fig.
7b). The total liptinite content in the four samples may
be considerable. It is dominated by liptodetrinite,
which in the two coal samples and mudstone sample
 28

Composition Dong Ho, loc. 2 Khu Dong Dang, loc. 3 Huu Nghi Bridge,
loc. 4
7575 7577 7578 7579 7581 7583 8243 8244 8245 8246 7573 7574

Sporinite 1.4 3.6 2.6 2.0 3.4 3.2 1.4 1.4 1.4 0.6 2.0 1.2
Cutinite 0 0.2 0.6 0.4 0.6 1.0 3.4 1.0 0.6 0 2.0 3.0
Resinite 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.4 0.6 0 0 0.4 0
Alginite 4.6 0.8 0.6 1.4 1.6 4.0 0.4 0.4 1.0 0.6 0.4 0.8
Liptodetrinite 8.4a 22.6a 17.0a 11.8a 9.8a 10.0a 13.4b 11.4a 9.8b 10.2b 7.6b 13.8a
Fluorescing AOMc 13.4 42.4 38.2 46.8 57.6 58.6 1.0 8.8 5.2 2.6 1.4 25.2
Huminite 4.2 5.2 6.0 4.2 5.8 5.0 61.4 40.8 56.6 75.8 66.0 25.8
Inertinite 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 7.4 1.2 1.8 3.2 9.4 3.4
Pyrite 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.8 0 0 0 0.6 0.4 0.4
Other minerals 67.6 24.8 34.6 33.0 21.0 17.4 11.2 34.4 23.6 6.4 10.4 26.4

Type I kerogen 26.4 65.8 55.8 60.0 69.0 72.6 1.4 20.6 6.2 3.2 1.8 39.8
Type II kerogen 1.4 3.8 3.2 2.4 4.0 4.2 18.6 3.0 11.8 10.8 12.0 4.2
Type III kerogen 4.2 5.2 6 4.2 5.8 5.0 61.4 40.8 56.6 75.8 66.0 25.8
Type IV kerogen 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 7.4 1.2 1.8 3.2 9.4 3.4

Vitrinite reflectance, %Rod - - - - - - - - - 0.45 0.45 -

aLiptodetrinite, probably mainly derived from alginite (included in type I kerogen)

bLiptodetrinite, probably mainly derived from terrestrial liptinite (included in type II kerogen)
cFluorescing amorphous organic matter intimately associated with mineral matter; organic matter anticipated mainly to be derived from

algal material (included in type I kerogen)

dReflectance measurements carried out on eu-ulminite, the low-rank equivalent to the vitrinite maceral collotelinite

Table 2. Organic petrographic and kerogen type compositions (vol. %) and mean vitrinite reflectance (random) values.
Source rock properties, Oligocene Dong Ho Formation, Song Hong Basin (northern Vietnam)
 H. I. Petersen et al. 29

a 30 m b 30 m

c 30 m d 30 m

Fig. 7. (a) Lacustrine mudstone, loc. 2 (sample 7583). The organic matter is characterised by alginite, sporinite,
and liptodetrinite in a groundmass of fluorescing AOM (reflected blue light, oil immersion). (b) Humic coal,
loc. 3 (sample 8243). Orange–yellowish fluorescing early generated exsudatinite (heavy bitumen/oil) intruded
into cleats in the huminite (reflected blue light, oil immersion). (c) Humic coal, loc. 3 (sample 8243). Abundant
sporinite, cutinite, and liptodetrinite in huminitic groundmass (reflected blue light, oil immersion). (d) Same
area as shown in (c), but in reflected white light (oil immersion).

8245 is considered to have been derived principally
from terrestrial liptinite (Fig. 7c,d). In the other coaly
mudstone sample (8244), the liptodetrinite is
considered mainly to have been derived from algal
material. In all four samples, some alginite with
Botryococcus morphology is present. The inertinite
content is generally low in all four samples, and pyrite
has only been detected in one of them. In terms of kerogen
types, the four samples are dominantly Type III.
(iii) location 4 samples
Sample 7573 from loc. 4 is a huminite-dominated coal
with a reflectance of 0.45%R o. Sample 7574 is
dominated by liptinite of which fluorescing AOM is
the primary component. Alginite with Botryococcus-
morphology has been detected. The huminite content
is also high. In terms of kerogen types, the coal sample
is dominated by Type III, whereas Type I kerogen
constitutes the primary kerogen in the mudstone
followed by a considerable proportion of Type III
kerogen.
Hydrous pyrolysis (artificial maturation)
During hydrous pyrolysis, the HI of coal sample 7573
from loc. 4 reaches a maximum of 410 mg HC/g TOC
at 0.63%Reqv after which it decreases, in particular
above 0.80%Reqv (Fig. 8; Table 3). Tmax does not
change (0.97%R eqv ) from a hydrous pyrolysis
temperature of 330°C/72hr to 345°C/72hr, whereas
the HI further decreases. The S1 yields (normalised to
TOC) increase gradually up to 0.80%Reqv from which
point S1 increases more rapidly to a maximum at the
final hydrous pyrolysis temperature (Table 3). Despite
the pronounced drop in HI from 330°C/72hr to 345°C/
72hr, the accompanying increase in S1 yields is limited
(Fig. 8; Table 3).
The HI of coal sample 8246 from loc. 3 increases
from the immature sample to a well-defined maximum
of 365 mg HC/g TOC at 0.69%Reqv, which is followed
by a pronounced decrease at 1.07%Reqv (Fig. 8; Table
3). The S 1 yields show a gradual build-up to a
maximum at 1.07%Reqv.
The n-alkane distribution of the two immature
coals are heavy-end skewed with a clear dominance
of odd-numbered alkanes (Fig. 9). The n-alkanes
maximise at nC27 and nC28. At a hydrous-pyrolysis
temperature of 330°C/72hr (Tmax = 450°C; 0.99%Reqv),
coal 8246 from loc. 3 still shows a heavy-end skewed
n-alkane distribution, while coal 7573 (Tmax = 449°C;
0.97%Reqv) from loc. 4 shows a unimodal distribution
30 Source rock properties, Oligocene Dong Ho Formation, Song Hong Basin (northern Vietnam)

which, apart from two pronounced peaks at nC27 and

(mg HC/g TOC)
335
402
410
375
275
184

318
332
365
325
223
174
nC29, has a maximum at nC21 (Fig. 9). At the highest
HI

hydrous-pyrolysis temperature of 345°C/72hr, the n-

alkane distribution of coal 8246 (T max = 454°C;
S1/TOC

144.29 1.07%Reqv) has attained a more or less unimodal shape

170.02

101.83
142.05
23.31
38.31
73.63

14.16
31.96
66.21
8.13

7.83
with a maximum at nC21, whereas coal 7573 (Tmax =
449°C; 0.97%Reqv) displays a light-end skewed n-
alkane distribution that maximises at nC20 and extends
to at least nC38 (Fig. 9).
180.30
209.69
220.38
207.59
150.84

161.67
192.45

195.04
137.63
211.05
99.88

99.96
(mg HC/g rock)
S2

The asphaltene-free extracts from the two

immature samples are completely dominated by polar
compounds, and the composition does not change
upon hydrous pyrolysis at 240°C/72 hr (Fig. 10; Table
12.16
20.61
40.73
79.10
92.17

18.48
39.77
62.82
81.71
4.38

3.98
8.21
S1

3). Hydrous pyrolysis at 330°C/72 hr significantly

increases the generation of saturated hydrocarbons,
%Reqv*

which corresponds to a maturity of 0.97–0.99%Reqv.

0.53
0.47
0.63
0.80
0.97
0.97

0.42
0.49
0.69
0.78
0.99
1.07

Upon further artificial maturation, the proportion of

saturated hydrocarbons in the extract from coal 8246
does not change, whereas the proportion of saturated
Tmax
(°C)

hydrocarbons in the extract from coal 7573 increases

426
423
431
440
449
449

420
424
434
439
450
454

to 57% (Fig. 10; Table 3). For comparison with the

new results, the extract composition of the hydrous-
*%Reqv calculated from Tmax according to the relation established by Petersen (2002)

pyrolysed Dong Ho 3 coal (HI = 200 mg HC/g TOC)

(wt.%)
53.85
52.17
53.80
55.32
54.82
54.21

50.85
57.98
57.81
60.07
61.69
57.52
TOC

from loc. 1 is also shown (Petersen et al., 2001;

Petersen, 2002).

DISCUSSION
89.72
89.01

56.52
36.52

91.58
88.30

48.95
54.37
NSO
(%)

-
-

-
-

Depositional environment
Table 3. Extraction and screening data of the hydrous pyrolysed coals.

The Dong Ho Formation mudstones from loc. 1 have

3.27
1.65

8.07
6.96

1.58
4.26

41.26 9.79
41.75 3.88
Aro
(%).

-
-

-
-

been interpreted to have been deposited in a

principally freshwater lake environment under low-
35.40
56.52

energy and oxygen-deficient conditions (Traynor and

7.01
9.34

6.84
7.45
Sat.
(%)

-
-

-
-

Sladen, 1997; Petersen et al., 2001, 2004a). A similar

lacustrine origin is also indicated for the mudstones
from loc. 2 and the carbonaceous mudstone (sample
Asphal.

47.17
62.81

32.74
24.96

65.95
68.70

26.51
28.00
(%)

7574) from loc. 4. TS contents <0.58 wt.% are within

-
-

-
-

the range observed in recent freshwater mires (e.g.

Cameron et al., 1989; Phillips and Bustin, 1996) (Fig.
(°C/72 h) (mg SOM/g TOC)

11), and the presence of alginite with a morphology

Extract yield

similar to the recent alga Botryococcus in several of

the samples further implies a freshwater origin.
151

345
315

197
234
114
83

82
-
-

-
-

However, small amounts of pyrite, commonly in

framboidal form, suggest a saline influence on the
lakes, as pyrite formation is related to the reduction
of sulphate in saline water by anaerobic bacteria (e.g.
Postma, 1982; Cohen et al., 1984; Brown and Cohen,
Sample Temp.

240
270
300
330
345

240
270
300
330
345
raw

raw

1995). The fine grain size of the inorganic matter (clay

and silt) implies a low-energy depositional
environment. The fine-grained mineral matrix and
7573

8246

low-oxygen conditions favoured the preservation of

organic matter, as indicated by elevated TOC contents
and the high proportion of fluorescing AOM. The high
TOC content, the dominance of Type I kerogen and
only minor amounts of Types II and III kerogen, along
with HI values generally above 500 mg HC/g TOC,
 H. I. Petersen et al.
0 100
0.42 420
OR
240
OR
0.61 430
270
300
0.80 440
0.99 450
1.19 460
%Reqv Tmax(C)
Sample 8246, loc. 3:
HI
S1/TOC
Fig. 8. The evolution in the Hydrogen Index and S1/TOC with increasing maturity (hydrous pyrolysis
temperature) for two coal samples (loc. 3, 8246;and loc. 4, 7573). The relationship between Tmax and vitrinite
reflectance is based on the correlation in Petersen (2002). OR: original sample; 240, 270, 300, 330, 345: hydrous
pyrolysis temperature/72 hours.
correspond to the so-called lacustrine “algal organic
facies” of Carroll and Bohacs (2001). This organic
facies typifies the “fluctuating-profundal facies
association”, characteristic of progradational and
aggradational basin fill successions. This facies
association is a significant component of balanced-
fill lake basins, where the creation of available
accommodation space roughly balances the sediment
and water input (Bohacs et al., 2000). The balanced-
fill lake type provides optimal conditions for organic
matter accumulation, and the “fluctuating-profundal
facies association” includes some of the worlds richest
source rocks (Carroll and Bohacs, 2001). For example,
Lake Victoria, East Africa, is presently classified as a
shallow balanced-fill lake, and analysis of an early
Holocene and a Recent sample from a core drilled at
32 m water depth a few kilometres offshore (Talbot,
1988) yielded TOC contents of 18.31–19.05 wt.%, an
organic matter composition including amorphous
material together with Botryococcus algae, spores/
pollen and plant cuticles, and HI values of 510–570
mg HC/g TOC.
The remaining samples comprise a coaly mudstone
(sample 8244, loc. 3) and humic coals, which were
formed in wet, oxygen-deficient peat mires. The zero
to very low content of pyrite observed in the coals
31
mg HC/g TOC
200 300 400
OR
240
OR
270
300
330 330
345
Sample 7573, loc. 4:
HI
S1/TOC
and the low TS contents (0.33–0.68 wt.%) are
consistent with a freshwater mire origin (Fig. 11;
Tables 1 and 2). The composition of the coaly
mudstone and humic coals corresponds to the so-
called “algal-terrestrial organic facies”, which
contains a mixture of Type I, terrestrial Type II, and
Type III kerogen (Bohacs et al., 2000; Carroll and
Bohacs, 2001). This organic facies is characteristic
of the “fluvial-lacustrine facies association”, which
is typical of overfilled lake basins in which the
sediment supply exceeds the available
accommodation space. In the coals, the content of
Type III kerogen (huminite) is clearly dominant. As a
consequence, the HI values may vary considerably,
and the source potential is mixed oil and gas. The oil
generative potential of the investigated coals is,
however, significant (see below).
Hydrocarbon generative potential: lacustrine
mudstones
The majority of the analysed samples are lacustrine
mudstones with a considerable content of organic
matter which, apart from the Type III kerogen-
dominated coaly mudstone (sample 8244) from loc.
3, can generally be classified as Type I kerogen
(Tables 1 and 2). The remaining samples are humic
32 Source rock properties, Oligocene Dong Ho Formation, Song Hong Basin (northern Vietnam)

0.47 %Reqv

1.03 %Reqv

1.15 %Reqv
0.41 %Ro
Dong Ho river bed (Dong Ho 3), loc. 1

33

33

33

33
29

29

29

29
25

25

25

25
21

21
21

21
17

17
17
17

0.47 %Reqv

0.97 %Reqv

0.97 %Reqv
0.45 %Ro
Huu Nghi Bridge (7573), loc. 4

33

33

33
33
29

29

29

29
25

25

25

25
21

21

21

21
17

17

17
17
0.49 %Reqv

0.99 %Reqv

1.07 %Reqv
0.45 %Ro
Hào-2, Hoanh Bo (8246), loc. 3

33

33

33

33
29

29

29

29
25

25

25

25
21

21

21

21
17

17

17
17

Original samples 240C/72 hr 330C/72 hr 345C/72 hr

Fig. 9. Gas chromatograms (saturate fraction) of three immature coals and when subjected to hydrous
pyrolysis at 240°C/72 h, 330°C/72 h and 345°C/72 h. The n-alkanes show an evolution from a heavy-end skewed
distribution to a more or less unimodal or light-end skewed distribution with maximum at nC20–21 and
extending to at least nC38.
 H. I. Petersen et al. 33

0 100

20 80

40 60

Ar
om
rs
la

ati
Po

cs
60 40

80 20

1.03 0.97
0.5 0.99
1.15 0.97
1.07
100 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Saturates

Khu Dong Dang (8246), loc. 3

Huu Nghi Bridge (7573), loc. 4
Dong Ho (Petersen et al., 2001; Petersen, 2002), loc. 1
Evolution in extract composition from 330C/72 hr to 345C/72h
0.97 Vitrinite reflectance values calculated from Tmax (see Petersen, 2002)

Fig. 10. The evolution in extract composition of the artificially matured coal samples. Data from a coal from
loc. 1 with an initial HI of about 200 mg HC/g TOC is also included (see Petersen et al., 2001). The two new
coals with significantly higher HI generate considerably larger amounts of saturated hydrocarbons.

1.5 • Dong Ho, loc. 2

Khu Dong Dang, loc. 3
Huu Nghi Bridge, loc. 4
1.0
TS (wt.%)

r
ate
hw e
es in
Fr Mar

0.5
• •• • •
0 • • • •
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 20 22 24 26 36

TOC (wt. %)

Fig. 11. TS plotted against TOC (Berner and Raiswell, 1983) suggesting that the depositional environments
were dominantly freshwater.

coals dominated by higher land-plant derived organic total content of Type I kerogen (AOM+
matter, corresponding to Type III kerogen. alginite+liptodetrinite; liptodetrinite is mainly
The high content of algal-derived Type I kerogen considered to represent algal remnants) as shown by
in the lacustrine mudstones has a profound influence the correlation value of r2=0.88 (Fig. 13). The HI value
on the source potential as shown by the high HI values is not zero at a zero content of Type I kerogen, showing
(Table 1). HI values up to 690 mg HC/g TOC have that other kinds of organic material also influence the
been obtained from mudstones sampled from loc. 1 generative potential, although a strong correlation
(Fig. 2) (Petersen et al., 2001). The highly oil-prone exists between the HI and the content of Type I
composition of the mudstones is emphasised by the kerogen for the lacustrine mudstones. The other types
TOC versus S2 plot, on which the mudstones are of organic matter contributing to the generative
classified as excellent petroleum source rocks with a potential may be recognisable terrestrial Type II
generative capacity generally between 20 and 100 kg kerogen (i.e. sporinite and cutinite) and/or
hydrocarbons/ton rock (Fig. 12). The generation submicroscopic material, including bacterial residues.
potential is to a large extent linearly correlated to the The latter may be illustrated by the two Type II
34 Source rock properties, Oligocene Dong Ho Formation, Song Hong Basin (northern Vietnam)

Excellent
100

•••••••
8
6
4
• •
•
S2 (kg hydrocarbons/ton rock)
2 ••

Good
10
8
6
4
Fair

1
•• Dong Ho, loc. 1
Dong Ho, loc. 2
8 Khu Dong Dang, loc. 3
6 Huu Nghi Bridge, loc. 4
Poor

2
Poor Good Excellent
0.1
2 3 4 5 6 7 89 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 2 3 4 5
0.1 1 10
TOC (wt. %)

Fig. 12. S2 yields plotted against the TOC content for the lacustrine and coaly mudstones demonstrating their
highly oil-prone nature. Data for loc. 1 are from Petersen et al. (2001, 2004). S2 and TOC cut-off values based
on Bordenave et al. (1993).

kerogen-lean samples (0.2–0.4 vol.% Type II kerogen; TOC, emphasising the oil-prone nature of the
Petersen et al., 2004a) from Bach Long Vi Island, mudstones. The interception of the regression line with
which despite a relatively low content of Type I the x-axis is interpreted to represent the matrix
kerogen still display significant source potential (HI adsorption of generated hydrocarbons, i.e. the amount
= 195–278 mg HC/g TOC) (Fig. 13). Similarly, the of organic matter necessary before hydrocarbons can
relatively high HI values of the two samples from Bach be expelled from the source rock (Langford and Blanc-
Long Vi Island and loc. 2 indicated as “outliers” on Valleron, 1990). In this way a minimum of 0.5 wt.%
Fig. 13 may be caused by a high proportion of TOC is suggested to be required before liquid
submicroscopic lipid material. Also, a significantly hydrocarbons can be expelled from the Dong Ho
increased proportion of Type III kerogen (i.e. samples. Hence, with measured TOC contents
huminite) will influence the source potential, and the between 4.09 and 12.92 wt.%, matrix adsorption of
elevated HI for the two samples from loc. 3 (8244, generated hydrocarbons is considered to be of
8245) may partly be attributed to the high proportion subordinate importance (Fig. 14; Table 1). In addition,
of such organic matter (Fig. 13; Table 2). In source the slope of the regression line indicates that 55% of
rocks dominated by Type III kerogen, such as humic the TOC is pyrolisable to hydrocarbons (S2/TOC x
coals, a much more complex relationship between the 10; Langford and Blanc-Valleron, 1990). This value
source potential and the organic composition exists is comparable to the 50–55% of the TOC in mudstones
(Petersen and Rosenberg, 2000). from loc. 1 which were determined to be involved in
Langford and Blanc-Valleron (1990) used a TOC petroleum formation by Petersen et al. (2001).
versus S2 plot to determine the true average HI value The highly oil-prone nature of the lacustrine source
and the adsorption of generated hydrocarbons in rocks is consistent with the very pronounced liquid
source rocks. TOC is plotted versus S2 for the samples hydrocarbon generation over a relatively narrow
from loc. 2 in Fig. 14. By restricting samples to loc. temperature range from these rocks during artificial
2, only source rocks from the same stratigraphic level maturation (hydrous pyrolysis) (Petersen et al., 2001,
are included. The samples plot in the upper part of 2004a). Such generation characteristics are typical of
the Type II kerogen area and the slope of the regression Type I source rocks, due to their rather narrow
line (r2=0.96) yields an average HI of 550 mg HC/g activation energy distribution and pronounced
 H. I. Petersen et al. 35

Fig. 13. Correlation

between the Hydrogen Dong Ho, loc. 1
Index and the content of
calculated Type I kerogen
• Dong Ho, loc. 2
Khu Dong Dang, loc. 3
for the lacustrine and coaly Huu Nghi Bridge, loc. 4
mudstones. The correlation Bach Long Vi Island
is strong for the lacustrine
mudstones (r2 = 0.88; n = Stippled line: n = 14
14). The two coaly Slope: 5.22
mudstones from loc. 3 may Corr. coef.: 0.94 (r2=0.88)
be influenced by the 700
content of Type III kerogen
(see discussion in text). 600
• •••
Outliers
Data for loc. 1 and Bach
Long Vi Island are from
HI (mg HC/g TOC)
•
Petersen et al. (2001,
500 Type III
kerogen-rich
•
2004a).
400

300

200

100

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Type I kerogen (vol%)

Fig. 14. S2 yields plotted 80

against TOC content for
the lacustrine mudstones
from loc. 2. The average 70 •
Hydrogen Index is 550 mg
HC/g TOC. The regression
line (r2 = 96) cuts the x-
•
60
axis at 0.5 wt.% TOC, • •
S2 (mg HC/g rock)

Type I
suggesting that only 0.5
wt.% TOC is required for
oil expulsion to occur (see
50 •
Langford and Blanc-
Valleron, 1990). 40
• Type II

•
50

30
=5
HI

20 • •
Type III
10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
TOC (wt. %)
36 Source rock properties, Oligocene Dong Ho Formation, Song Hong Basin (northern Vietnam)
activation energy peak (Tissot et al., 1987; Jarvie,
1991; Tegelaar and Noble, 1994; Ruble et al., 2001;
Petersen et al., 2001, 2002, 2004a).
Hydrocarbon generative potential: humic coals
The humic coal samples from loc. 3 and loc. 4 display
considerable source potential (HI = 318–357 mg HC/
g TOC), and thus constitute a significant potential
source rock in addition to the oil-prone lacustrine
mudstones in the NE Song Hong Basin. The initial
increase in HI shown by the two hydrous-pyrolysed
coals (Fig. 8) is a well-known feature from naturally
matured coals (e.g. Teichmüller and Durand, 1983;
Sykes, 2001; Petersen, 2002), and may be related to
the formation of an additional source potential during
structural re-organisation of the organic matter and
incorporation of water-derived hydrogen (e.g. Lewan,
1997; Schenk and Horsfield, 1998). Petersen (2002)
determined that the start of the oil window for humic
coals from loc. 1, with an HI of about 200 mg HC/g
TOC, occurs at a vitrinite reflectance of 1.03–
1.15%R o . Previous maturity modelling of the
anticipated source rock interval in the offshore Kien
An and Thuy Nguyen Grabens in the NE Song Hong
Basin showed that it is likely that the coals are, at
best, only marginally mature in both grabens
(Petersen, 2002; Petersen et al., 2004b; Andersen et
al., in press). The considerably higher generative
potential of the coals analysed in the current study
indicates a different organic matter composition and
therefore better generation characteristics. Potentially
submicroscopic oil-prone entities may have
contributed to the high HI values (318–335 mg HC/g
TOC) recorded.
A decrease in S1 yields (normalised to TOC) from
a series of naturally matured coals, and from a series
of samples artificially matured by progressive hydrous
pyrolysis, has been used to determine the start of the
oil window (effective oil window or expulsion
window) (Price, 1989, 1993; Petersen, 2002). The two
coal samples subjected to hydrous pyrolysis in the
present study do not show the expected decrease in
S1 at high maturities (Fig.8). This may be explained
by the extensive hydrocarbon generation from both
coals, in particular demonstrated by the lack of change
in maturity of coal sample 7573 from a hydrous
pyrolysis temperature of 330°C/72 hr to 345°C/72 hr
(Fig. 8). This generation characteristic is observed in
lacustrine source rocks (e.g. Petersen et al., 2004a),
and suggests that most of the energy put into the
system is used to convert the labile part of the organic
matter to hydrocarbons. A consequence may be that
the limited volume of the column used for artificial
maturation of the samples is totally saturated with
hydrocarbons during pyrolysis, thereby hindering the
detection of decreasing S1 yields. Such a situation was
likewise observed during hydrous pyrolysis of
lacustrine mudstones from loc. 1 (Petersen et al.,
2004a). However, several observations relating to coal
sample 7573 may indicate when expulsion starts from
this coal. Although the coal shows a considerable drop
in HI from 330°C/72 hr to 345°C/72 hr, the S1 yields
only display a limited increase (Fig. 8). At the same
time, the proportion of saturated hydrocarbons
increases from 35% to 57%, and the n-alkanes change
from a unimodal to a light-end skewed distribution
(Figs. 9, 10). These geochemical data suggest that an
early mature oil has at least been generated and
presumably expelled at 330°C/72, corresponding to a
Tmax of 449°C or 0.97%Ro. Initial generation of heavy
bitumen/hydrocarbons (exsudatinite; Fig. 7b) may
facilitate saturation of the coals to the expulsion
threshold, as these low-maturity products are
“converted” to true hydrocarbons at higher maturity
by partial decomposition (Lewan, 1994). The
beginning of the oil window at a VR of 0.97%Ro (or
even at lower maturity) is earlier than the estimated
1.03–1.15%Ro for the coals from loc. 1 previously
investigated (HI = 200 mg HC/g TOC) by Petersen
(2002). Similar oil-prone coals may therefore have
reached the oil window in deeply buried kitchens in
half-grabens in the offshore Song Hong Basin
(Andersen et al., in press). This is an important
observation, because an earlier hydrocarbon expulsion
from such coals may explain the terrestrial
geochemical signature in the principally lacustrine-
sourced oil encountered in the B10-STB-1x well at
the margin of the NE Song Hong Basin (Fig. 1)
(Petersen et al., 2004a). Based on the n-alkane
distributions and evolution in S1 yields, coal sample
8246 seems to expel hydrocarbons at a higher maturity
despite a high HI, although the data are difficult to
interpret, as discussed above. During artificial
maturation, the coal behaves in a fashion intermediate
between coal sample 7573 and the Dong Ho 3 coal
from loc. 1 (Figs. 9, 10).
CONCLUSIONS
One of the main exploration risks in the Song Hong
Basin is the occurrence of high quality source rocks
and the timing of hydrocarbon generation relative to
the formation of traps. This paper further documents
potential source rocks in the basin and adds to the
previous assessment of their generative potential. Our
evaluation of the distribution and organic facies of
new outcrops of lacustrine mudstones, coaly
mudstones and humic coals in the Oligocene Dong
Ho Formation in the Dong Ho area at the margin of
the offshore Cenozoic Song Hong Basin permits the
following major conclusions to be drawn:
1. The highly oil-prone lacustrine mudstones
 H. I. Petersen et al.
contain from 4.09–19.61 wt% TOC, with 60% of the
samples containing over 10 wt% TOC. The organic
material is composed principally of fluorescing AOM,
liptodetrinite, and alginite with Botryococcus-
morphology (corresponding to Type I kerogen). HI
values range from 436–572 mg HC/g TOC, but 60%
of the samples have an HI value exceeding 500 mg
HC/g TOC. About 55% of the TOC is estimated to be
pyrolisable into hydrocarbons, and only 0.5 wt% TOC
may be required for oil expulsion to occur.
2. Humic coals and coaly mudstones have HI
values of 318–409 mg HC/g TOC. Huminite (Type
III kerogen) is the dominant organic material, while
terrestrially-derived liptodetrinite is subordinary. Upon
artificial maturation by hydrous pyrolysis, the coals
generate significant quantities of saturated
hydrocarbons. Expulsion of liquid hydrocarbons
occurs probably not later than at a maturity
corresponding to a vitrinite reflectance of 0.97%Ro.
This is earlier than previous estimates for Dong Ho
Formation coals, which had an HI around 200 mg HC/
g TOC.
3. The present study shows that these two oil-prone
potential source rocks are thermally mature in buried
syn-rift successions in the under-explored NE Song
Hong Basin, offshore northern Vietnam. This is
supported by oil recovered from well B10-STB-1x at
the margin of the NE Song Hong Basin, as the oil
was principally generated from a lacustrine source
with an additional component from a coaly source.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This paper is a contribution to the establishment of a
regional source rock database in Vietnam as described
in the DANIDA-sponsored ENRECA project
“Integrated analysis and modelling of geological
basins in Vietnam and an assessment of their
hydrocarbon potential”. E. Melskens and J. Halskov
(GEUS) drafted the figures. J. Ineson (GEUS) is
thanked for improving the English. The authors also
acknowledge the valuable reviews by J.A. Curiale
(Unocal) and B.M. Thomas (Origin Energy Resources
Ltd). The paper is published with the permission of
PetroVietnam, Vietnam Petroleum Institute and the
Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland.
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