A2 Level History: Thematic Module

The Changing Nature of Warfare: 1792-

1918

Student Workbook

Napoleon Bonaparte
 Produced by Mr M Jennings, St Benedict’s School, August 2008

CONTENTS PAGE
Introduction 3

Course Outline 4

Structured Reading List 5

Past Exam Questions 8

The Mark Scheme 12

Assignments 15 – 62

Summary of Key Military Vocabulary 63

Battle of Waterloo 1815 Battle of Chancellorsville 1863

Steam Powered looms Executing Paris Communards 1871

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Going over the Top, WWI comforting a wounded comrade

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 INTRODUCTION
Welcome to your Workbook! That may sound a rather funny way of introducing
what seems to be no more than another set of materials and questions for you to
plough through on your quest to A Level glory next summer. But not quite, for this
‘Workbook’ is intended to help you learn along the way rather than (as others have
tried & failed to in the past) rely exclusively upon note-taking in class. By the time
you start your final revision, when on study leave next summer, your workbook will
be both your guide & your own created, self-help manual. So this workbook will let
you to learn this subject in a different way to your previous year’s study of History.

Now then, from your brief perusal of this workbook, you will have noted that there
are a lot of questions and blank pages in the Assignments section…. more on that
later. To begin with, I want you to become very familiar with what this course is
trying to help you get to grips with, namely, understanding historical change over a
long period of history. The OCR and examiners are aiming to test you on your ability
to observe and identify significant historical change, where it appears, and continuity,
when it does not. They similarly, want you to not only pick up on those ‘turning
points’ in history, but also weigh up how significant they really are within a given
‘theme’ such as within the topic of ‘generalship.’ This is a major historical skill and
that is why it accounts for 40% of your A2 grade.

The content in Modern History that we have chosen for the study of historical change
is the way warfare changed over the period 1792 to 1918. As you will very quickly
discover, in many ways warfare makes some enormous changes and yet, in other
ways there is some degree of continuity too.

So that is what the course is about. Now then, how best for you to learn all this?
Well, that is where this workbook comes in. It provides you with the course outline
(so that you will always know where you are in your studies), structured reading lists
from the 2 main texts (to aid you on finding some material to start your research),
past exam questions from the last 5 years (to enable you to practice as well as see the
kind of questions that are set), mark schemes with band criteria (to enable you to
decipher what the examiner is looking for from your answer) to the Assignment
Sheets covering the whole teaching period and course. Each Assignment Sheet is
followed by a blank page which is to be filled in with a SUMMARY OF YOUR
THOUGHTS ON THAT TOPIC FOLLOWING NOTE-TAKING AT HOME AND
AFTER DISCUSSION IN CLASS.

This process of summarising your understanding as you progress through this course
will help you not only retain much of what you learn, but also maintain your focus
and your confidence in your own abilities. It is a positive step towards ensuring you
succeed. Please do summarise regularly in this workbook! Oh and I will be
periodically checking your work in it and your use of it too. So don’t lose it or put it
away in some deep, dark recess never to be seen again. I will make you catch up for
your own sake! You have been politely warned.

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 COURSE OUTLINE
This theme focuses on the changing nature and methods of warfare during a period of
significant change. The focus is on land warfare; candidates should be aware of
developments in naval and air warfare only in the First World War, and then only
insofar as they affected land warfare. Specific questions will not be set on naval and
air warfare. Detailed knowledge of specific campaigns or foreign policy is also not
required, except insofar as it is relevant to an understanding of the changing nature of
warfare.

Candidates should draw their examples from the main wars of the period: the French
Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, the Crimean War and the Wars of unification
[the Franco-Austrian War 1859, the Austro-Prussian War 1866, the Franco-Prussian
War 1870-71] and the First World War. Candidates may also choose to use the
American Civil War.

Content

1) The impact of factors directly related to the conduct of war:

a) Generalship,
b) Quality of soldiers,
c) Developments in weapons,
d) Tactics and strategy

2) The impact of technological change:

a) Industrialisation,
b) Developments in communication and transport

3) a) Planning and Preparation,

b) The effectiveness of alliances

4) The relationship between relevant domestic factors and warfare:

a) The organisation of the state for war,
b) Public opinion,
c) Conscription,
d) Resources

Note: Candidates are not expected to demonstrate a detailed understanding of the

specific content but are expected to have knowledge of the main developments and
turning points relevant to the theme.

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 PAST EXAM QUESTIONS
The following questions have been taken from past exam and sample papers and are a
listed under the content areas prescribed by the exam board. There is some degree of
overlapping e.g. 1c, 1d and 2a. Nonetheless, this list gives a good basis for
understanding the styles of questions set as well as provide you with a good basis for
revision by practising questions in your own time.

Note the use of ‘How far do you agree’ question. Also of note is the setting of the
‘Assess’ style question as well as the ‘To what extent’ question. They are fluffy and a
continual presence in history exams. All these questions require a balanced answer to
a lesser or greater extent with a supported conclusion. (See Answer levels to note the
importance of providing a balanced, synoptic and well supported answer to reach the
highest levels and gain the greatest marks.)

Another feature of this paper is the consideration of all the topics and to consider the
period as a whole (see Unusual Questions below) to identify a turning point and test
just how much of a turning point it really was. Here the examiners are getting you to
consider perceptions and interpretations and weigh them against the reality. As
students we consider the overview, the complete picture. If we place ourselves in that
subject, it is perhaps instructive to consider whether the French or Prussian veteran
soldier/civilian/general from 1870-71 considered that warfare had changed a lot or
even at all from earlier campaigns?

1a – The impact of factors directly related to the conduct of war:

GENERALSHIP

To what extent was the leadership by individual generals the main factor in success in
warfare in the period from 1792 to 1918?
(Q16, June 2007)

To what extent did victory or defeat in war in the period 1792 – 1918 depend on the
quality of generalship?
(Q17, June 2004)

‘Generals win battles, resources win wars.’ How far does your study of the period
from 1792 to 1919 confirm this view?
(Q2, OCR Specimen Materials 2000)

1b – The impact of factors directly related to the conduct of war:

QUALITY OF SOLDIERS

To what extent were the quality and training of ordinary soldiers the main factors in
the successes of armies in the period from 1792 to 1918?
(Q16, Jan 2007)

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 1c – The impact of factors directly related to the conduct of war:
DEVELOPMENTS IN WEAPONS

How far did developments in weapons determine battle-tactics in the period 1792 to
1918? (Q17, Jan 2008)

Assess the view that armies failed to apply developments in weapons technology to
battlefield tactics in the period from 1792 to 1918
(Q17, June 2007)

To what extent did the development of military technology revolutionise warfare

during the period 1792 – 1918?
(Q18, June 2006)

How far did developments in weapons technology change the nature of land warfare
in the period 1792 – 1918?
(Q17, June 2005)

1d – The impact of factors directly related to the conduct of war:

TACTICS & STRATEGY

Assess the impact of the development of military strategy on the conduct of war
during the period 1792 – 1918?
(Q17, June 2006)

2a – The Impact of technological change: INDUSTRIALISATION

How far did industrialisation revolutionise the nature of warfare from 1792 – 1918?
(Q1, OCR Specimen Materials 2000)

‘Superior industrial power always brought victory in war.’ How far do you agree
with this view of the period from 1792 to 1918?
(Q18, June 2008)

2b – The Impact of technological change: DEVELOPMENTS IN

COMMUNICATION & TRANSPORT

Assess the impact of developments in communications and transport on the conduct

of war in the period from 1792 to 1918.
(Q17, Jan 2007)

3a – PLANNING & PREPARATION

To what extent did the mid nineteenth century Wars of Unification mark the most
important turning point in the development of planning and preparation for war in the
period from 1792 to 1918? (Q16, Jan 2008)

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Assess how effectively states responded to the changing demands of warfare in the
period from 1792 to 1918.
(Q18, Jan 2007)

‘Planning & Preparation were the key to a successful military campaign throughout
the period 1792 – 1918.’ How far do you agree?
(Q16, June 2005)

3b – THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ALLIANCES

Assess the effectiveness of alliances during wars in the period 1792-1918.

(Q18, June 2004)

Assess the importance of alliances in the successful conduct of war in the period from
1792 to 1918.
(Q17, June 2008)

4a – The relationship between relevant domestic factors and warfare:

THE ORGANISATION OF THE STATE FOR WAR

None so far….

4b – The relationship between relevant domestic factors and warfare:

PUBLIC OPINION

To what extent did public opinion influence military decisions in war in the period
from 1792 to 1918?
(Q18, June 2007)

How important was the support of public opinion in the winning of wars in the period
1792 – 1918?
(Q18, June 2005)

How far was the conduct of warfare affected by public opinion in this period?
(Q3, OCR Specimen Materials 2000)

4c – The relationship between relevant domestic factors and warfare:

CONSCRIPTION

To what extent was mass conscription the key factor in success on the battlefield
during the period 1792 – 1918?
(Q16, June 2006)

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 4d – The relationship between relevant domestic factors and warfare:
RESOURCES

To what extent was the outcome of wars in the period from 1792 to 1918 mainly
determined by superior resources? (Q18, Jan 2008)

UNUSUAL QUESTIONS

# To what extent did the mid-nineteenth century wars of unification mark a turning
point in the nature of land warfare in the period 1792 – 1918?
(Q16, June 2004)

# To what extent did the use of new weapons in the Wars of Unification mark the
most important turning point in the conduct of war in the period from 1792 to 1918?
(Q16, June 2008)

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 THE MARK SCHEME
• Examiners are reminded that they are looking for the 'best fit', not a
perfect fit, in applying these Generic Mark Bands

• For all answers, examiners should provisionally award the top mark in
the Band and then moderate up/down according to the particular
qualities of the answer

• Candidates who do not address most of the 100 or so-year period

required may not be given a mark in Band I for that essay, however good
the general quality of their analysis and evaluation.

• The quality of English is NEVER to be used as the sole criterion to pull an

answer down into a lower Band.

The topics are based on Themes covering an extended period of at least a hundred
years (unless an individual question specifies a slightly shorter period) with the
emphasis on continuity, development and change over time (i.e. on breadth of
understanding rather than on depth of knowledge). The emphasis is on links and
comparisons between different aspects of the topics studied, rather than on detailed
analysis.

To support the emphasis on breadth and over-view (rather then depth), candidates are
given in the exam a factual chronology for their Theme.

BANDS I-VII/60: Essay

I (48–60)
The response is not perfect but the best that a candidate can be expected to achieve at
A2 Level in examination conditions. There may be some unevenness, but the
demands of the question (e.g. causation, evaluation, change and/or continuity
over time) are fully addressed. The answer demonstrates a high level of ability to
synthesise elements to reflect the synoptic nature of the Unit. The approach is
consistently analytical or explanatory rather than descriptive or narrative. The
argument is structured coherently and supported by very appropriate factual
material. Ideas are expressed fluently and clearly. At the lower end of the Band, there
may be some weaker sections but the overall quality nonetheless shows the candidate
is in control of the argument. The answer is fully relevant. The writing is fluent and
uses appropriate historical vocabulary. The answer shows accuracy in grammar,
punctuation and spelling.

II (42–47)
The answer demonstrates clearly the ability to synthesise elements to reflect the
synoptic nature of the Unit. There is a good awareness of change and/or continuity
and/or development over the necessary extended period. The response is focused
clearly on the demands of the question, but there is some unevenness. The

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approach is mostly analytical or explanatory rather than descriptive or narrative.
Most of the argument is structured coherently and supported by very appropriate
factual material. The answer is fully relevant. The impression is that a good solid
answer has been provided. Most of the writing is fluent and uses appropriate
historical vocabulary. The answer mostly shows accuracy in grammar, punctuation
and spelling.

III (36–41)
The answer demonstrates clearly an attempt to synthesise some elements to reflect
the synoptic nature of the Unit. There is a reasonable awareness of change and/or
continuity and/or development over the necessary extended period. The response
reflects clear understanding of the question and a fair attempt to provide an
appropriate argument supported by appropriate factual material. The approach
mostly contains analysis or explanation but may lack balance and there may be
some heavily descriptive/narrative passages and/or the answer may be somewhat
lacking in appropriate supporting factual material. The answer is mostly relevant.
The writing is generally fluent and usually uses appropriate historical vocabulary. The
grammar, punctuation and spelling are usually accurate.

IV (30–35)
The answer demonstrates an uneven attempt to synthesise some elements to reflect
the synoptic nature of the Unit. There is an adequate awareness of change and/or
continuity and/or development over the necessary extended period. The response
indicates an attempt to argue relevantly, but the structure of the argument is
poor. The approach depends more on heavily descriptive or narrative passages
than on analysis or explanation (which may be limited to introductions and
conclusions). Factual material, sometimes very full, is used to impart information or
describe events rather than to address directly the requirements of the question.
The writing may lack fluency and there may be some inappropriate historical
vocabulary. The answer usually shows accuracy in grammar, punctuation and spelling
but contains some careless errors.

V (24–29)
The answer demonstrates a limited attempt to synthesise some elements to reflect
the synoptic nature of the Unit. There is a limited awareness of change and/or
continuity and/or development over the necessary extended period. The response
offers some elements of an appropriate answer but the approach lacks analysis
or explanation and there is little attempt to link factual material to the
requirements of the question. The structure of the answer shows weaknesses in
organisation and the treatment of topics is seriously unbalanced. The writing
contains some inappropriate historical vocabulary. The answer shows some accuracy
in grammar, punctuation and spelling but contains frequent errors.

VI (12–23)
The answer demonstrates an unsatisfactory attempt to synthesise any elements and
fails to reflect the synoptic nature of the Module. There is no understanding of
change and/or continuity and/or development over the necessary extended period.
The answer is not focused on the requirements of the question and may be of very
limited relevance. Any argument offered may be fragmentary and incoherent, and
any assertions made may be unsupported by factual material. There may be serious

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irrelevance and/or serious weaknesses in knowledge. The writing shows significant
weaknesses in the accuracy of grammar, punctuation and spelling.

VII (0-11)
The answer demonstrates a completely unsatisfactory attempt to synthesise any
elements and fails completely to reflect the synoptic nature of the Unit. There is no
understanding of change and/or continuity and/or development over the necessary
extended period. There is no attempt to answer the question. There is no argument
and no supporting evidence for any assertions. The answer is irrelevant and/or
incoherent, perhaps in note form. The writing shows very major weakness in the
accuracy of grammar, punctuation and spelling

No candidate should present work lower than a Band 5.

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 Assignment 3: The French Revolutionary Wars

Storming of the Bastille, July 14th, 1789

The French Revolutionary wars were a number of wars fought

against France by a number of different countries between 1792 and
1803.

1st Task
Using the 2 main text books (refer to the relevant pages in your
reading list) and any other sources, take notes on warfare during this
period.

In particular, make sure you have good explanations of the following:

• What was the Revolution?
• The reasons for the rise and rise of French armies
• The Levée en masse
• What happened and why at the following:
 Battle of Valmy
 Siege of Toulon
 2nd Italian Campaign, 1796
 The Egyptian Campaign
• Napoleon’s early life and career, his military
principles/ideas/maxims

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Assignment 3: Summary of Learning

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 Assignment 4: The Napoleonic Wars (1803-15)

The Napoleonic Wars were a

number of wars fought against
France (and eventually against
Napoleon himself) by a number
of countries that in some cases
combined together to form anti-
French alliances, called
Coalitions.

1st Task
Using the 2 main text books (refer to the relevant pages in your
reading list) and any other sources, take notes on warfare during this
period.

In particular, make sure you have good explanations of the following:

• The 2 main 1805 Campaigns (especially Austerlitz) against
Austria and Russia,
• The 1806 campaign against Prussia (especially Jena and
Auerstadt)
• The significance of the Battle of Wagram 1809
• The role of economic blockades and the ‘Continental System’
• The War in Spain (‘Spanish Ulcer’) and its significance
• Wellington in the Peninsular and his tactics
• The Invasion of Russia (1812-1813) and its significance
• The Prussian Reforms (up to 1814)
• 1813-1814, why Napoleon and France were defeated
• 100 days Campaign and the Battle of Waterloo – how and why
did the Allies win? Assess its significance

2nd Task
Briefly summarise the style of Napoleonic Warfare and the
Wellington variant

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Assignment 4: Summary of Learning

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 Assignment 5: The Crimean War (1853-56)
The Crimean War was not just
fought in the small peninsular of
the Crimea on the Black Sea. 3
other main fronts saw extensive
warfare namely in the Balkans,
the Baltic Sea and in the Caucasus
This was a war fought by an
empire-building Russia at the expense of a declining Turkey. The
latter country found allies in Britain, France and Piedmont (Italy).
While the allied forces won the war, its significance here is in the way
the war was fought and its consequences.

1st Task
Using the 2 main text books (refer to the relevant pages in reading
list) and any other sources, take notes on warfare during this period.

In particular, make sure you have good explanations of the following:

• The causes of the war and the significance of Nationalism and
the role of Public Opinion,
• The Anglo-French preparations, planning and initial Strategy
• Experiences at Varna
• The Battle of Alma
• The Battle of Balaclava and the Charge of the Light Brigade
• Winter and Allied preparedness
• Battle of Inkerman
• The siege of Sebastopol
• Lord Raglan as Commander
• Florence Nightingale (Mary Seacole)
• Lord Aberdeen’s government, Russell of the Times and the
role of Public opinion
• Weaponry
• Industrialisation and Communications

2nd Task
Summarise why the Allies won?

3rd Task
What were the consequences to the French but above all the British
Military (see Cardwell Reforms)

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Assignment 5: Summary of Learning

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Assignment 6: The Franco-Austrian War (1859)

The Battle of Solferino was the

most famous, decisive and
significant encounter of this war.
It was much larger and more
destructive than the Battle of
Waterloo, 44 years previously.

Yet despite the advance in time and advances in military technology,

in many ways the battle resembled its Napoleonic predecessors
except in one way, both armies were significantly poorly led. Why?

Task
Using the 2 main text books (refer to the relevant pages in your
reading list) and any other sources, take notes on warfare during this
period.

In particular, make sure you have good explanations of the following:

• French Mobilisation (the Austrian’s) and the significance of the
railway
• Other French superiorities
• Austrian weaknesses
• Generalship
• Solferino, why did the French win?
• Aftermath of Magenta and Solferino, Henry Dunant and public
opinion?

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Assignment 6: Summary of Learning

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Assignment 7: The Austro-Prussian War (1866)

The Austro-Prussian War is also

known as the 7 weeks war. This
refers to the length of time it took
the well prepared, professional
Prussian armies to conclusively
mobilise faster, outmanoeuvre, in
many cases out-fight and follow-
up their victories to ensure a
successful political settlement. This war marks a turning-point in the
study of the period for a number of different reasons.

1st Task
Using the 2 main text books (refer to the relevant pages in your
reading list) and any other sources, take notes on Prussian pre-war
military reforms. Focus on:
• The Creation of a General Staff and the Staff Academy
• The increase in the size of the Prussian Military
• The development of weaponry
• The inclusion of relevant industrial technology (railways,
telegraph etc)
• The purpose of war – see Clausewitz.
• The purpose of THIS war, see Bismarck and Von Moltke
• Prussian Tactics – Kesselschacht

2nd Task
Take brief notes on the following:
• How successfully the Prussians mobilised
• Command and Control in manoeuvring and in battle (note the
impact of Moltke)
• What happened at the Battle of Königgrätz

3rd Task
Summarise:
• Why the Prussians won/Austrians lost the war
• What the Prussians achieved
• What lessons the Prussians learnt from this conflict

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Assignment 7: Summary of Learning

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 Assignment 8: The Franco-Prussian War (1870-71)

The Franco-Prussian War is the last

of the major mid-century European
wars and these collectively are often
referred to as the ‘Wars of
Unification.’ Why were they called
this?
After the battle, Napoleon III and Bismarck meeting

Consider the following issues when studying this topic. How Prussia
was able to mastermind a war it wanted and provoked but did not
actually start. Also assess how the Prussians had improved from
their previous war and what impact their style of fighting had in this
conflict. Once the main French forces were defeated, however, why
did this not lead to an immediate end of the war?

1st Task
Using the 2 main text books (refer to the relevant pages in your
reading list) and any other sources, take notes on the following:
• Prussian military reforms since the previous war
• The differences between Prussian and French …
o Pre-War Preparations and Planning/Strategy,
o Communications and Transport,
o Weaponry
o Tactics
o Generalship
o Quality of Soldiers
• The Battle of Sedan, the role
of Morale and the collapse of
the French Army
• The Siege of Paris and the
role of the French Public and
media
• The Paris Commune and the
Communards

Parisian Students go to man the barricades

nd
2 Task

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Why did the Prussians win and the French lose? What were the
more important factors?

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Assignment 8: Summary of Learning

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 Assignment 9: The American Civil War (1861-66)

This is the only civil war that we will study in this period and so the
bitterness of that conflict marks an escalation in the intensity of
warfare. But the war is also notable for a number of other changes,
some of which are more important than others. Yet, some factors
affecting both victory and defeat remain as important then as in
previous conflicts too.

1st Task
Using the 2 main text books (refer to the relevant pages in your
reading list) and any other sources, take notes on the following:
• Causes of the Conflict (economic and political differences –
flashpoint of slavery) and the essential role of public opinion
• Strategies (Anaconda Plan)
• New Weaponry and its importance
• Morale of Troops (Quality of Soldiers)
• Generalship (McClennan, Burnside, Hooker, Sherman, Grant,
Lee, Jackson, Stuart, Forrest)
• Tactical innovations (see Jackson’s Valley Campaign, Battle of
Chancellorsville, Siege of Vicksburg, Sherman’s March to the
Sea)
• The Vital difference between North and South –
Industrialisation, Resources and Manpower

2nd Task
Why did the Union win and the Confederacy lose? What were the
more important factors?

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Assignment 9: Summary of Learning

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Assignment 10: The Inter-War Years (1872-
1914)

Super Guns Super Dreadnoughts Submarines

1872 witnesses the start of an extended period of peace in Europe.

But it was an unstable peace. The previous 3 European wars over a
12 year period involved the 3 largest European armies and the
balance of European military power changed forever. France’s
military reputation was eclipsed and its Napoleonic legacy shattered
by the rise of Prussia. Consequently, Prussia became first amongst
the empires. Finally, Austria’s weakness, despite some reforms and
modernisation, became apparent to all. The change in the balance of
power, prompted fear, fed aspirations, jealousy and desires for
revenge whilst testing and, in some cases, braking old allegiances and
forging new ones. The new balance of power did not establish a
lasting peace but merely increased European tensions. Over the next
42 years, huge changes occur in European militaries and to some
extent in the nature of warfare. What are they and why do they
happen?

1st Task
Using the 2 main text books (refer to the relevant pages in your
reading list) and any other sources, take notes on the following:
• The rise of Imperialism, flashpoints in Algiers, Morocco and
the Balkans
• The Arms Race (Militarism and the Industrial Revolution)
especially in the sizes of armies, heavier artillery, new forts,
Dreadnoughts
• Ultra-Nationalism, fear and paranoia (the Dreyfuss Affair)
• The System of Alliances
• War Plans

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Assignment 10: Summary of Learning

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Assignment 11: The First World War (1914-18)
It was meant to be over by Christmas but after 4 further years it
became known as the ‘Great War.’ It was the most destructive
conflict in human history. Some aspects of warfare remained
unchanged but others were transformed. What were they and assess
their significance.

1st Task
Using the 2 main text books (refer to the relevant pages in your
reading list) and any other sources, take notes on the following:
• From Balkan dispute to World War, how? (focus on triggers)
• The Schlieffen plan in Belgium, Mons and Le Cateau
• The French experience at the Battle of the Frontiers
• Miracle of the Marne & the failure of Schlieffen’s Plan, why?
• Significance of the Race to the Sea & 1st Battle of Ypres
• Trench Warfare, Weaponry and Tactics
• 1915-1917: Alliances and Strategies (Big Breakthrough, Bite &
Hold, simultaneous offensives, Easternists & Westernists)
• Case Study: Battle of the Somme, 1916, what happened,
account for failure and successes. Lessons learnt?
• Generalship (French, Haig, Foch, Hindenburg, Lawrence)
• New (and improved) Weaponry (Case Study: The Tank at
Battle of Cambrai), Machine Guns, Heavy Artillery, Aircraft
• New Tactics (Storm troopers in German 1918 Spring
Offensive, All Arms Doctrine in Allied 1918 Summer
Offensive)
• War At Sea (Jutland, U-Boat warfare, Commerce Raiding,
blockades & convoys) NB its relationship to resources and
managing public opinion
• War in the Air (Reconnaissance, Fighters, Bombers) and the
importance of Aerial Supremacy
• War at Home (Propaganda, Censorship, DORA, Conscription,)
and the ‘Home Front’ [see experiences in Britain and elsewhere
especially France & Russia 1917, Austria & Germany 1918]
• The ‘Minor Theatres’ (Gallipoli, Middle East & the Arab
Revolt, Africa, Balkans, Pacific) Value/significance of alliances
• Resources and the impact of the entry of the USA

2nd Task
Summarise the various factors accounting for the Allied victory

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Assignment 11: Summary of Learning

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Assignment 12: The Impact of factors directly
related to the conduct of war - GENERALSHIP

Union Generals Von Moltke

Now that you have studied the whole period in some detail you are in
a good position to identify change and assess its significance in the
first of themes, namely Generalship.

1st Task
What is Generalship? Try and define its essential characteristics

2nd Task
In general terms, evaluate the role and
impact of generals in the Age of Limited
Warfare. How far & where do King
Frederick the Great & the Duke of
Marlborough differ from the rest?
King Frederick the Great
rd
3 Task
Using the characteristics you have just identified in Task 1, choose
examples of generalship for each conflict to identify and illustrate
change and continuity.

Specifically, identify where there is change (turning-points) and what

precisely it is, where and why it happens (where possible) and how
significant is this change? Is it long-lasting? Does it cause or merely
contribute to victory/defeat?
(NB You will always need to justify your argument with examples. These examples
will need, names, dates/wars/circumstances)

4th Task
Assess how significant is the role of generalship to the conduct and
outcomes of different wars (and not just individual battles)

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Assignment 12: Summary of Learning

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Assignment 13: The Impact of factors directly related to the
conduct of war – THE QUALITY OF SOLDIERS

British steady infantry at Waterloo Confederates charging at Chancellorsville German soldier: No Mans Land

Having studied the role and impact of generals, now turn your
attention to those in the ranks, the ordinary soldiers.

1st Task
What defines a ‘good quality’ soldier?

2nd Task During the Age of Limited Warfare:

• Where did ordinary soldiers come from (consider social class and
economic background)?
• How well trained were military forces? How ‘Professional’ were they?
• What is Discipline and how was it maintained?
• What is morale and how important was it?

3rd Task
Using the characteristics you have worked with in Task 2, take notes
and give examples for each conflict to identify and illustrate change
and continuity.

Specifically, identify where there is change (turning-points) and what precisely it

is, where and why it happens (where possible) and how significant is this change?
Is it long-lasting? Does it cause or merely contribute to victory/defeat?
NB You will always need to justify your argument with examples. These examples
will need, names, dates/wars/circumstances

4th Task
Assess how significant is the role of the quality of ordinary soldiers to
the conduct and outcome of warfare

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Assignment 13: Summary of Learning

35
Assignment 14: The Impact of factors directly related to
the conduct of war – WEAPONS TECHNOLOGY

Having studied the role and impact of people on the conduct of

warfare, it is now time to turn your attention to the weaponry used.
It is clear that the more destructive the weapon, the greater potential
for death and destruction. But there are 2 main areas to focus on
here:
• To what extent did weaponry change during this period
• How large a part did weaponry play in achieving the result in
warfare?

1st Task

To answer the first question, you

will need to look at what
weaponry was used in the 18th
Century. Then evaluate whether British Brown Bess Musket
weaponry played any role in achieving a decisive outcome.

2nd Task
Take notes and give examples for each conflict on the weaponry used
(especially new weapons) to identify and illustrate change and
continuity. Are there new weapons being used and, if so, what
impact do they have on warfare?

A Gatling Gun

WWI Fighters in a
‘Dogfight’

Specifically, identify where there is change (turning-points) and what precisely it

is, where and why it happens (where possible) and how significant is this change?
Is it long-lasting? Does it cause or merely contribute to victory/defeat?
NB You will always need to justify your argument with examples. These examples
will need, names, dates/wars/circumstances

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Assignment 14: Summary of Learning

37
Assignment 15: The Impact of factors directly related to
the conduct of war – STRATEGY & TACTICS

At this point in the course, it is useful to remember why wars are

fought. What do countries want which resort to war? By stepping
back in this way, you will be able to make a distinction between
Strategy and Tactics.

1st Task
• How did Clausewitz define
warfare and its purposes?

• What is meant by
‘Strategy?’

• What is meant by
‘Tactics?’

This course is about evaluating change. So …

2nd Task
What were the prevailing Strategies of European powers during the
Age of Limited Warfare?
What were the main Tactics used?
(Give Examples)

3rd Task - STRATEGY

Take notes and give examples for each conflict on the various
Strategies employed to identify and illustrate any change and
continuity. Then assess their impact on the nature and conduct of
warfare

4th Task
Do the same as Task 3 for TACTICS

5th Task
Assess the overall pattern (change vs. continuity) and impact of
strategy and tactics on the conduct of warfare

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Assignment 15: Summary of Learning

39
Assignment 16: The Impact of Technological
Change - INDUSTRIALISATION

In Europe during the 18th and 19th centuries there was not only
fundamental military and political change but also a major economic
transformation too. In this theme, you will examine the fundamental
causes of this, namely the Industrial Revolution.

1st Task
What does the term Industrial Revolution mean? What does it refer
too?

2nd Task
In terms of power, diversity and scale of production, evaluate areas of
change (and continuity) over the period 1792-1918 and its impact on:
• Reasons for going to war,
• Size of armies,
• Firepower,
• Battles (size of the battle area, duration of battles, level of
casualties)
Did anything not change (i.e. remain the same)?

NB: It is absolutely vital that you accumulate and learn statistics on this topic. In
particular focus on population change, increase in economic (especially industrial)
production and output, increasing size of weaponry, workforces, towns, cities, armies
etc.

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Assignment 16: Summary of Learning

41
 Assignment 17: The Impact of Technological Change b)
Developments in Communication and Transport

The lightning steam press,

The electric telegraph,

The locomotive,

and the steamboat

The Industrial Revolution led to more diverse and efficient forms of

power and increasing industrial output. But let’s not forget its
causes, which were inextricably linked to an earlier Agricultural
Revolution’ (the causes and effects we will briefly discuss in class.)
Nevertheless, a further cause and by-product of this industrial
change was another revolution in transport. Technological advances
quickened in frequency and number towards the middle and end of
the 19th century. In the area of communications, these changes had
significant military implications too. This theme requires you to
study what these changes were and evaluate their impact on warfare.

Task 1: Communication
1. What does Communication mean?
2. What were the main methods of communication in the Age of
Limited Warfare?
3. Over the period of 1792-1918, what changes occurred (and
what remained the same), when and assess their impact? (Give
lots of examples)

Task 2: Transport
1. What were the main methods of transport during the 18th
Century?
2. How did armies transport themselves and their equipment and
supplies? (Consider movement, pace and area covered)
3. Over the period of 1792-1918, what changes occurred (and
what remained the same), when and, VERY
IMPORTANTLY, assess their impact? (Give lots of examples)

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Assignment 17: Summary of Learning

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Assignment 18: Planning & Preparation

‘We should provide in peace

what we need in war,’ Publius
Syrus

The Schlieffen Plan

In assignment 15 you studied why countries resorted to war (in other

words, what were countries wanting by waging war) and what were
their overall methodologies to achieve them.

Now, in this assignment, you need to consider the process by which

armies and the countries worked towards these goals

Task 1:
1. What is Military Planning? Who specifically carries it out?
2. What are Military Preparations and how do they differ from
planning?

Task 2:
1. What military planning was there in the Age of Limited
Warfare? (give examples)
2. What (amount of) military preparations were there too? (give
examples)
3. What conclusions can be reached about how they affected the
nature of warfare?

Task 3:
Over the period of 1792-1918, what changes, if any, occurred in
planning and preparations, when and assess their impact? (Give lots
of examples)

Task 4: Evaluation
Over the whole period, consider its relationship to successful
outcomes in both battles and wars.

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Assignment 18: Summary of Learning

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 Assignment 19: The Effectiveness of Alliances
Wars are sometimes fought by
just one country against another.
But just as frequently, there are
alliances forged before and
during wars which change the
nature of the conflict and
arguably make an impact on the
outcome. This assignment will
require examination of the types
of alliances that occurred and
consideration of their impact and
their overall effectiveness.

The Triple Alliance

Task 1:
What is an Alliance?
What patterns or types of alliances can be identified?

Task 2:
During the Age of Limited Warfare, what major alliances were there
(see War of Spanish Succession, 7 Years War and American
Revolution?)
What impact did these alliances have? How effective were they?

Task 3:
Over the period of 1792-1918, what changes, if any, occurred in the
nature and impact of alliances, when and assess their impact? (Give
lots of examples)

Task 4: Evaluation
Over the whole period, consider its relationship to successful
outcomes in warfare.

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Assignment 19: Summary of Learning

47
 Assignment 20: The Relationship between relevant
domestic factors and warfare:
a) THE ORGANISATION OF THE STATE
FOR WAR

Part of DORA, 1914 issued at Railway Stations

This theme concentrates on the steps taken by governments and the

State in readiness for and during wartime. This topic focuses on the
actions by those in each country with ultimate power to harness the
power of the State with whatever is necessary for military operations.

The key question, as always, is whether there has been a change

across the period and if so, what (and to some extent, why), and what
impact has that had on the nature of warfare?

Task 1
Explain in clear terms what is meant by Organisation of the State for
War
How States were generally organised for war in the 18th Century?
Was there any exception to this?

Task 2:
Over the period 1792-1918, identify examples of change (countries
and times) when the traditional organisation of the State for war
increased?
What factors explain why that happened?
What impact did this have on the nature of warfare?

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Assignment 20: Summary of Learning

49
 Assignment 21: The Relationship between relevant
domestic factors and warfare:
b) PUBLIC OPINION
Nowadays, warring factions in
conflicts from Georgia to Iraq
conduct propaganda campaigns
to gain public opinion for their
cause, sympathy for their
suffering and support for their
actions. Was this always the
case? If not when did it change
and how? In which conflicts, if
any, did public opinion play an
Goya’s Disasters of War important role either in the
fighting (and possibly even lead to victory) or in encouraging the
increase in recruitment or industrial output?

Detailed understanding of this theme will assist you in understanding

the nature of many of today’s conflicts too. From the latter part of
the 20th century, the Lounge and Office have become the battle-zones
for many of today’s conflicts

Task 1:
What is meant by the term Public opinion?
During the Age of Limited Warfare, how much notice did countries
take of the public’s opinions before and during wartime? (Give
examples)

Task 2:
Over the period 1792-1918, identify examples of change (countries
and times) when either:
1. the public participated far more in a war (either because it
chose to or was forced to),
2. the ruling elites increased (changed) the efforts made towards
harnessing public opinion in favour of their actions?
3. the public’s opinions played a significant role in some outcome
before, during or after a war? (e.g. governmental change, army
reform etc)
What factors explain why these changes happened?
What impact did these have on the nature of warfare?

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Assignment 21: Summary of Learning

51
Assignment 22: The Relationship between relevant
domestic factors and warfare:
c) CONSCRIPTION

Size can be important! A countries

power was and still is defined by the
size and strength of its military
forces. So, an over-riding concern
for any ruling regime has been to
provide the necessary size of
military force to supply the military
might its rulers’ require. But how to
build an army? This theme looks at
why and how the recruitment of
armies changed and what impact
these had on the nature of warfare.

Task 1:
What does Conscription mean?
How were armies recruited during the Age of limited Warfare?
What variations were there?

Task 2:
Over the period 1792-1918, identify examples of change (countries
and times) when the traditional recruitment of armies was changed
to or supplemented by conscription?
What factors explain why that happened?
What impact did this have on the results in each war and on the
nature of warfare?

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Assignment 22: Summary of Learning

53
 Assignment 23: The Relationship between relevant
domestic factors and warfare:
d) RESOURCES

If Industrialisation increased the potential size, scale, pace and

destructiveness of warfare, one essential feature of that change is the
growth in resources deployed by states in war. But what resources
are we talking about? Did these change and, if so, when and why?

Task 1:
What are Resources?
What resources were fundamental to effective operations during the
Age of limited Warfare? What impact did resources have on the
nature and outcome of wars?

Task 2:
Over the period 1792-1918, identify examples of change (countries
and times) when either new resources or greater amounts of
resources were used.
What factors explain why these changes happened?
What impact did these resource changes have on the results in each
war and on the nature of warfare?

Task 3:
Consider the key question - To what extent was victory in warfare
over the period due to greater resources?

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Assignment 23: Summary of Learning

55
Summary - Key Military Vocabulary

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