Work Measurement is a term which covers several different ways of finding out how

long a job or part of a job should take to complete. It can be defined as the systematic
determination, through the use of various techniques, of the amount of effective physical
and mental work in terms of work units in a specified task. The work units usually are
given in standard minutes or standard hours.
Why should we need to know how long a job should take? The answer to this
question lies in the importance of time in our everyday life. We need to know how long it
should take to walk to the train station in the morning, one needs to schedule the day's
work and even when to take out the dinner from the oven.

In the business world these standard times are needed for:

i. planning the work of a workforce,

ii. manning jobs, to decide how many workers it would need to complete certain
jobs,
iii. scheduling the tasks allocated to people
iv. costing the work for estimating contract prices and costing the labour content in
general
v. calculating the efficiency or productivity of workers - and from this:
vi. providing fair returns on possible incentive bonus payment schemes.

On what are these standard times set? They are set, not on how long a certain individual
would take to complete a task but on how long a trained, experienced worker would take
to do the task at a defined level of pace or performance.

Who sets these standard times? Specially trained and qualified observers set these times,
using the most appropriate methods or techniques for the purpose i.e. "horses for
courses".

How it is done depends on circumstances that obtain. The toolkit available to the
comprehensively trained observer is described below.

The reader is invited to search the individual methods on this current Website.

Selecting the most appropriate methods of work measurement

The method chosen for each individual situation to be measured depends on several
factors which include:

a. the length on the job to be measured in time units

b. the precision which is appropriate for the type of work in terms of time units (i.e.
should it be in minutes, hundredths or thousandths of a minute)
c. the general cycle-time of the work, i.e. does it take seconds, minutes or days to
complete
The length of time necessary for the completion of the range of jobs can vary from a few
seconds in highly repetitive factory work to several weeks or months for large projects
such as major shutdown maintenance work on an oil refinery. It is quite clear that using a
stop-watch, for example, on the latter work would take several man-years to time to
measure! Thus, more "overall" large-scale methods of timing must be employed.

The precision is an important factor, too. This can vary from setting times of the order of
"to the nearest thousandth of a minute" (e.g. short cycle factory work) to the other end of
the scale of "to the nearest week" (e.g. for large project work).

These are the dominant factors that affect the choice of method of measurement.

The methods

PMTS.

At the "precision" end of the scale is a group of methods known as predetermined motion
time systems that use measurement units in ten thousandths (0.0001) of a minute or
hundred-thousandths of an hour (0.00001 hour). The methods in this group are described
in the PMTS topic in this Website.

The resulting standard times can be used directly, for very short-cycle work of around
one minute total duration such as small assembly work. However, they often are used to
generate regularly used basic tasks such using assembling or disassembling nuts and
bolts, using a screwdriver and similar. Tasks of this type are filed as standard or
synthetic data-banks.

Estimating.

At the other end of the scale (long-cycle and project work) we need something which is
quick to use. Such a method is estimating. This can exist in three main forms.

a. Analytical estimating relies on the experience and judgement of the estimator. It is

just of case of weighing up the work content and, using this experience, stating a
probable time for completion, such as "this job will take about eight days to
complete".
b. Category estimating. This is a form of range estimating and requires a knowledge
of the work. Estimators may not feel comfortable with overall, analytical
estimates upon which may depend the outlay of a great deal of money. They often
prefer giving a range estimate such as "this job should take between 12 weeks and
14 weeks to complete", which provides a safety net should things go wrong. Such
ranges are not just picked upon at random but are statistically calculated and
based on probability theory.
c. Comparative estimating. This is another example of range estimating. Again,
estimators rely on experience of the work in order to produce estimates. This
experience can be augmented by the provision of each time-range with a few
 typical, descriptive, jobs that would guide estimators to the most appropriate
range. The estimator would compare the work to be estimated with those in the
various ranges until the most appropriate fit is found.

Timing.

The intermediate method between the two groups above, is timing the work in some way,
usually with a stop-watch or computerised electronic study board. This method is
retrospective in that the job must be seen in action in order to be timed whereas the other
methods are prospective and can be used for timing jobs before they start.

The observer times each element of the work and obtains times that the observed operator
takes to do the elements. Each timing is adjusted (rated) by the pace at which the operator
was working as assessed by the observer. This produces basic times for the elements and
hence the whole job, which are independent of the operator and can be used as the time
for a trained, experienced worker to carry out the same elements. The reader is referred to
the Topic on time study in this Website.

Another method of assessing the work is using activity sampling and rated activity
sampling. This is a method based on the observer making snap observations at random or
systematic sample times, observing what the operator is (or operators are) doing at the
times of those observations (see the appropriate Topic).

Models:

A most useful method for standard or synthetic data-banks of job or element times is
using computer models of the jobs. These are generated as mathematical formulae in
which the observed data are inserted to compile a time for completion of the task or
project. It is a useful method for recycling time standards for elements of basic work over
and over again, only changing the values of the variables to suit each project.

Purpose

The aim of method study is to analyse a situation, examine the objectives of the situation
and then to synthesize an improved, more efficient and effective method or system.

The Method Study procedure

The basic procedure was first developed and articulated by Russell Currie at Imperial
Chemical Industries (ICI) and consists of six steps (SREDIM):

1. SELECT the work or area to be studied.

2. RECORD all appropriate and relevant data about the current situation.
3. EXAMINE critically, the recorded data.
4. DEVELOP alternative approaches to making improvements and choose the most
appropriate.
 5. INSTALL the new method, to make the required changes to the situation.
6. MAINTAIN that new situation.

The problem with expressing the procedure in such a simple manner is that undertaking a
method study appears to be a simple, linear and mechanistic process. This description in
six steps does however serve to show the underlying simplicity of the concept of method
study. In practice, the procedure consists of a cyclical or iterative process in which each
step may be revisited according to the findings of subsequent steps. For example,
collecting data about a current situation often enables us to discover the reality behind our
first perceptions and thus to refine our selection of what we are addressing. Similarly,
when we start to examine data, we sometimes become aware that data are missing or
incomplete and we need to go back and collect (record) additional data. This cyclic
process often begins with a rough first pass, in which preliminary data are collected and
examined, and progresses to a more detailed and thorough pass which results in the
collection of more detailed and more complete data which is the subject of a more
rigorous scrutiny. The method study procedure is thus a convenient representation of
what may be a complex process.

Building Leadership and Management

Work Study: Method Study and Work Measurement

Organization’s Most Important Jobs

• Finding the customers and retaining them. For this, continually provide maximum
value for money (VFM) to the customers to sustain highest level of customer
satisfaction.
• Improving overall productivity and thereby, minimizing the overall costs as much
below the price as possible and thus maximizing profits.

Value for Money to Customers (VFM)

Value to customer (VFM) = (Total quality "Q" X Total service inclusive of pre, during
and post customer service "S" X Relationship with customers "R") divided by (Price "P"
X Lead times "L")

Therefore, value for money to customers should be continually enhanced by continual

improvements in:

• Quality.
• Price: price being normally an outcome of the market forces of supply and
demand, in order to make profits the overall costs should be kept well below those
price levels. Only the price competitiveness can be achieved.
 • Delivery.
• Service and relations.

Productivity

Productivity is the measure of output per unit of input.

Therefore, the equation for productivity = Output quantity/ Input quantity

It is important that the output should be an acceptable output to the users or customers.
So enters the quality. Therefore, in order to reckon and emphasize qualitative changes in
output and input, the equation of productivity will read as given below:

Productivity = Output quality and quantity/ Input quality and quantity

Productivity, thus, can be improved by three ways:

• Increase output and keep input constant.

• Keep output constant and decrease input.
• Increase both, output as well as input making sure that the proportion of increase
in output is more than that of input.

Normally, outputs are: goods (products) and/or services.

Normally, inputs are various resources: man (labor), machine (equipment), material,
money (capital) and also, time and information.

Work Study: The Pioneering Technique of Improving Value for Money and
Productivity

Work study, under the major discipline of industrial engineering, emerged as the earliest
effectiveness and efficiency technique that even to date remains the basic to all other
techniques that developed later. Work study was the sequel to Taylor’s famous scientific
management.

Work Study is defined as the systematic examination of the methods of carrying on

activities so as to improve the effective use of resources and to set up standards of
performance for the activities being carried out.

Work study has two major branches:

1. Method study
2. Work measurement

Method Study
Method study is the systematic recording and critical examination of existing and
proposed ways of doing work, as a means of developing and applying easier and more
effective methods and reducing costs.

It uses different sets of techniques to do so.

Objectives of Method Study

• Improvement in use of all the inputs i.e. men, machines, material, money and
also, time and information.
• Economy in human effort and reduction of unnecessary fatigue.
• Layout improvements.
• Improvement in design of plant and equipment.
• Improvement in safety standards and procedures.
• Development of better working environment.

Seven Steps of Carrying Out Method Study: The Process

1. Define existing method.

2. Record existing method.
3. Examine existing method.
4. Develop new method.
5. Define new method.
6. Install new method.
7. Maintain new method.

Different Recording Techniques

• Outline process charts

• Flow process chart: man type, material type, equipment type
• Two handed process chart
• Multiple activity chart: using time scale
• Simo chart: using time scale
• Flow diagrams
• String diagrams
• Cyclegraph
• Chronocyclegraph
• Travel Chart

Some Details on Step 3 of the Process of Method Study i.e. Examine

Examine step uses questioning technique. Each activity of the method under examination
subjected to systematic and progressive series of questions. There are two types of
questions asked:

1. Primary questions
 2. Secondary questions

Primary questions:

Questions are asked and answers found out on:

• Purpose: for which activity is being done.

• Place: at which activity is being carried out.
• Sequence: in which activity is being performed.
• Person: by whom activity is being rendered.
• Means: by which activity is being accomplished.

This primary examination is carried out with a view to

• Eliminate,
• Combine,
• Rearrange and/or
• Simplify the activities

Secondary Questions

During the secondary questions, answers to the primary questions are subjected to further
query to determine whether possible alternatives of place, sequence, persons and means
are practicable and preferred as a means of improvement upon the existing method.

1. Purpose:

• What is done?
• Why is it done?
• What else might be done?
• What should be done?

2. Place:

• Where is it done?
• Why is it done there?
• Where else might it is done?
• Where should it be done?

3. Sequence:

• When is it done?
• Why is it done?
• When might it be done?
• When should it be done?
4. Person:

• Who does it?

• Why does that person do it?
• Who else might do it?
• Who should do it?

5. Means:

• How is it done?
• Why is it done that way?
• How else might it be done?
• How should it be done ?

Some Details on Step 5 of the Process of Method Study i.e. Define New (Improved)
Method

A report on new improved method should be prepared. It should include:

• Description of the method.

• Relative costs in material, labor and overheads of the new method and the existing
method and expected savings.
• Cost of installing the new method, including cost of new equipment and of re-
laying out shops or working areas.
• Diagram of the work place layout.
• Tools and equipment to be used and diagrams of jigs/fixtures etc.
• Executive actions required to implement the new method.

Some Details on Step 6 of the Process of Method Study i.e. Install New (Improved)
Method

• Gaining acceptance of the change by the Management.

• Gaining acceptance of the change by the workers.
• Keeping a close eye on the progress of implementation of the new method till it
starts running satisfactorily.

Classic Example of Early Application of Method Study as Done by Taylor in his

Shoveling Experiment

• Tons handled on piece work during the year ended 30th April 1901: 924,040
• Cost of handling these materials: $30,798
• Former cost per year: $67,215
• Net saving: $36,417
• Average cost per ton: now $0.033, formerly $0.072
• Average earnings per man per day: now $1.88, formerly, $1.15
• Average tons handled per man per day: now $57, formerly $16
 • Number of men: now 140, formerly 400 to 600

Motion Economy Principles

As an important part of method study, Frank Gilbreth and his wife Lillian Gilbreth,
through their various experiments, institutionalized motion and time study through their
famous motion economy principles. (You may find it very interesting to refer their
biographical 1950 film and book Cheaper by the Dozen).

If one can study the motions and micro motions performed in carrying out an activity and
economize on them- try to reduce them, the time taken for the activity can be
significantly reduced.

For this, the movements are classified in 5 classes as given below:

• Class 1: Body members moved in this class are fingers and the pivot is knuckle.
• Class 2: Body members moved in this class are hands and fingers and the pivot is
wrist.
• Class 3: Body members moved in this class are forearms, hands and fingers and
the pivot is elbow.
• Class 4: Body members moved in this class are upper arms, forearms, hands and
fingers and the pivot is shoulder.
• Class 5: Body members moved in this class are torso, upper arms, forearms, hands
and fingers and the pivot is trunk.

Further, Gilbreth came out with the idea of conducting micro motion study. To facilitate
it, a set of fundamental motions required for a worker to perform a manual operation was
defined. The set consists of 18 elements, each describing a standardized activity. The set
is called "therblig" (read Gilbreth in reverse order and you get this term "therblig" with
‘th’ treated as one letter). These are listed below:

• Search
• Find
• Select
• Grasp
• Hold
• Position
• Assemble
• Use
• Disassemble
• Inspect
• Transport loaded
• Transport unloaded
• Pre-position for next operation
• Release load
• Unavoidable delay
 • Avoidable delay
• Plan
• Rest to overcome fatigue

Classic Example of Early Application of Motion and Time Study as Done by

Gilbreth in his Bricklaying Improvement

Frank Gilbreth designed a special scaffold and a new brick laying procedure that reduced
the movements needed from 18 to 5 and in one case to 2. The worker’s productivity
increased from laying 120 bricks per hour to laying 350 bricks per hour. The new
procedure also decreased fatigue.

Work Measurement

Work measurement is the application of techniques designed to establish the time for a
qualified worker to carry out a task at a defined rate of working or at a defined level of
performance.

It measures the time taken in performance of an operation or a series of operations and in

can separate out ineffective time from effective time. Thus ineffective time can be studied
and by way of method study described in earlier paragraphs, the ineffective operations
can be reduced or eliminated.

Fair Day’s Work

Amount of work that can be produced by a qualified worker/employee when working at

normal pace and effectively utilizing his time and where work is not restricted by process
limitations.

Objectives of Work Measurement

• Finding ineffective time in an activity or a process (series of activities).

• Setting standard (norms) for output level.
• Evaluating workers’ performance.
• Assessing and planning manpower needs.
• Determining available capacity.
• Comparing various work methods.
• Facilitating operations scheduling.
• Establishing wage incentive schemes.

Some Techniques of Work Measurement

• Stop-watch time study.

• Work sampling.
• Predetermined time standards (PTS).
• Standard Data.
Conceptual Framework for Carrying Out Work Measurement

It is essential to understand the following concepts in order to undertake work

measurement exercise in any organization:

• Qualified worker: Qualified worker is one who is accepted as having the

necessary physical attributes, who possess the required intelligence and education
and who has acquired the necessary skills and knowledge to carry out the work in
hand to satisfactory standards of safety, quantity and quality.
• Standard rating: Rating is the assessment of the worker’s rate of working
relative to the observer’s concept of the rate corresponding to standard pace (or
standard rate).
• Standard performance (pace or rate): It is the rate of output which a qualified
worker will naturally achieve without over-exertion as an average over the
working day or shift, provided that he knows and adheres to the specified method
and provided that he is motivated to apply himself to his work. The time taken to
achieve the standard performance by the qualified worker is called "standard
time".

Steps in Carrying Out Work Measurement (Determining the Standard Time): The
Process

1. Obtain and record all available information about the job, the worker and the
surrounding conditions likely to affect the execution of the work.
2. Record the complete description of the method, break it down into elements.
3. Measure with a stopwatch and record the time taken by the worker to perform
each element of the operation.
4. Assess the rating of the worker.
5. Extend the observed time to "basic time" by factorizing the actual time (observed
time) by the assessed rating.
6. Determine the allowances (e.g. personal allowances, relaxation allowances,
allowances for the working conditions etc) to be made over and above the "basic
time" for the operation.
7. Apply those allowances on the "basic time".
8. Thus, determine the "standard time" for the operation.

For More Guidance, Assistance, Training and Consultation

Contact: prodcons@prodcons.com

Training on various "Productivity Techniques" and "Efficient Work Practices/Methods"

is provided by Prodcons Group’s Mr Shyam Bhatawdekar, eminent business executive,
management consultant and trainer- par excellence with distinction of having trained over
150,000 professional from around 250 organizations.
Steps involved in Stop Watch Time study
Stopwatch Time Study makes direct observations by means of a simple stopwatch
measuring, generally, to the precision of 0.01 minute. The observation equipment
consists of the stopwatch, the recording board, the observation sheet and a pencil. The
steps involved in such a study are:

1. Subdivide the job into observable and distinct elements.

2. Choose acceptable operator/s for study
3. Make direct observations of the work elements while the operator is actually
performing the job and record the time of each element. Make a statistically adequate
number of repeated measurements and record the time of each element. Make a
statistically adequate number of repeated measurements and record each time.
4. Performance rate each element and record
5. Calculate the normal time.
6. Establish allowances
7. Compute the standard time.

The key step in stopwatch time study is that of subdividing the job into component
elements. One should take care that the elements are distinct or well defined and
therefore amenable to repeated measurements. Also, the elements should be as short as
possible without losing accuracy of measurement; the practical minimum is generally
0.02 or 0.03 minute the time required to read and record being 0.027 minutes or 45 TMU
(Time measurement Unit) The following are uses of this breakdown into elements:

1. It helps in separate performance rating of each of the job elements, instead of

performance rating the whole job (which may lead to much error in the Time Standard).
2. If a job method changes in terms of only one or two elements, the revised time
standard can be easily established in the future, unnecessary time studies are, therefore,
eliminated. Standards for similar or related jobs can also be easily established.
3. It highlights the work element which consumes excessive time, and this can then be
subjected to a critical examination to eliminate/ substitute the element.
4. Element/s with large variation in time can be examined for necessary changes in the
job design or method.
5. It highlights the inconsistency in working conditions.
6. Such division into elements provides a detailed method description which can be used
for training new workers.

A few points may be mentioned regarding elementalization:

1. One must separate the machine time from the worker time. At certain times the worker
may appear to be working slow, but in actuality he may be waiting for a machine element
to complete. Obviously, the worker cannot be performance rated low for this element.
2. While studying a job, elements of work other than the usual cycle may be encountered
frequently. For instance, once in every 10 cycles the operator may clean the tool; or once
in every 40 cycles the operator may have to place the tray filled with finished work pieces
with an empty tray; or he may get the raw material once a few cycles. These elements
have got to be included in the time analysis since that are integral part of the work. But
since these elements are outside the routine cycle, they are called foreign elements. There
may be some genuine foreign elements such as when the worker is talking to a fellow
employee or some other interruption which is not a part of the work. The Work Study
analysts must note all the foreign elements as and when they occur.
3. It may also help if the analyst separates the constant elements from the variable
elements.
4. Also, there is no unique method of subdividing a job into elements. Much depends
upon the particular job being studied, the type of jobs encountered in the plant, and
finally the judgment of the analysts. Only the precautions of distinctiveness and
appropriate shortness of elements and of differentiating between constant variable
elements and man-or-machine elements needs to be observed.

For the Time Study one has to choose an acceptable operator. He is one amongst many
operators who are trained sufficiently in the job to be performed and are healthy and
skilled or capable of performing the job at an acceptable pace day in and day out. He is
not an abnormally fast or slow worker but one amongst the many who fall in between
who might qualify for dong the job. The theme is to:

1. eliminate the extraordinary (in either sense) and

2. to time study only those jobs that have received sufficient learning or training
(reaching saturation in terms of learning) and in general all the working conditions are
well established/settled.