Acoushi ant bait control and avocado cultivation

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BAITING FOR ACOUSHI ANT CONTROL
Baiting is the recommended method of control for acoushi ants. It

exploits the insect’s feeding behavior. Like the vegetation which
A
is cut and carried back to the nests, bait picked up by the ants is
taken back to the nest to be used as substrate for the fungus which
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is the ants’ only food (Figure 3).
Bait consists of a toxicant or poison and a carrier which is usually

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Fig. 3- Bait being picked
a material that the insects find attractive. The material must be
attractive (Figure 4) since this determines the degree of acceptance of the bait
up by Ants U
by the insects.
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A
Fig. 4 - Acoushi Ant Bait N
The Acoushi ant bait is recommended to control the pineapple ants. This bait must be crushed in the
bag to break the pellets into smaller pieces. Before the crushed bait is placed in the field, the area T
should be weeded so the nests present are exposed.
During the rainy weather, the bait should be placed in a glass jar or aluminum foil packets to prevent
wetting. Nests which are away from the plant should be disturbed and the bait placed close to, but
not in the nests.
Ant nests which are on the plant should be disturbed to agitate the ants and the crushed bait placed at
the base of the plant. The ants will then take the bait back to their nests where control will occur.
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PRECAUTIONS
i. Do not store bait for more than three months after the production date (date is stamped on
A
packet).
ii. Use all the bait once the packet has been opened. C
iii. Store bait in a cool, dry place.
iv. Store bait out of the reach of children. O
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Introduction
The Avocado ( Persea Americana Miller) is an evergreen tree of the family Lauraceae with seedling
plants reaching 67ft (20m) in height with small large, single seeded fruits having yellow to yellowish
green butter-like flesh. Mature fruit vary in colour and may be green, yellow, purple or red.
A
Cultivation V
There is always a great demand for Avocado plants and the NARI Plant Nurseries are finding it difficult
to keep up with this demand. Consequently, the availability of plants at the Plant Nurseries cannot be
guaranteed at any time.
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Although there are seedling trees around, Avocado plants are commonly grafted as this reduces the time C
taken for bearing, combines the best characteristics of varieties and improves resistance/tolerance to
diseases. A
Fruits are collected from healthy, vigorous, mature trees and deseeded; the seeds are washed, dried and
sown individually in black plastic bags, broad side down and covered with not more than 1 inch (2.5cm) D
of soil.
Grafting is done when plants have attained a height of about 1.5ft (0.5m). Wedge grafting is the type
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commonly used. The scions for grafting are collected from healthy, vigorous, mature trees having desirable
traits e.g. fruit size, flavour and shape. The graft is wrapped securely and covered with clear plastic until
it catches. This is seen if graft remains green and buds start to burst into leaf after 2-3 weeks.
During this entire process the plants should be protected from severe sunlight and receive adequate
water until transplanting in field.
Avocado plants are ready for planting out in the field approximately 6-9 months after grafting.
Site Selection
Avocado can be grown on a variety of soils but it does not thrive on the coastland. Nevertheless, wherever
the avocado is planted there is need for good drainage since its shallow root system makes it sensitive to
poor drainage and water logging.
Selection of Varieties
There are numerous varieties of Avocados but they all have either of two flowering patterns: A or B.
The A type flowers are those which show receptive female parts in the morning and receptive male parts
in the afternoon of the following day. The B type flowers show receptive female parts in the afternoon
and receptive male parts in the morning of the following day. With this mechanism the female parts of the
A type flowers are thus receptive to pollen from the B type flowers in the mornings, whilst the female
parts of the B type flowers are receptive to pollen form the A type flowers in the afternoon.
Avocado is not commonly self-pollinated, therefore it is important to encourage crosspollination by

having A and B type trees in the orchard or backyard.
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Sandy Soil - the above is to b e used at the higher rate as well as 9:27:9 +FTE at the rate of 1/41b (112
g) to 1/21b (225 g) per plant once per year.
PEST MANAGEMENT
AA
There are no major pest problems in Avocado.
The most serious are Mites (Figure 1) and Scale Insects and these could be controlled by the use of VV
Danitol (Fenpropathrin) or Rogor (Dimethoate) at 0. 02 pts per gallon (10 mls/4L).
• It should be noted that the occurrence of any unusual pest or disease must be reported to the
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Crop Protection Section at NARI for investigation.
CC
AA
DD
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Mite Mite damage
Fig 1. Mite and damage caused
DISEASE MANAGEMENT
Three main fungal diseases affect avocado:
• Avocado root rot (Phytophthora spp.)

• Anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporiodes)
• Scab (Elsinoe perseae)
1. Avocado Root Rot (Phythophthora spp.)
Fig 2. Symptoms of Avocado root rot.
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3. Scab (Elsinoe perseae)
AA
VV
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CC
Fig 4. Scab on fruit and leaf AA
DD
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Fig 5. Scab on fruit
Symptoms
Raised cream coloured to pale brown / orange warts are seen on the fruit and leaf surface
(Figures 4 and 5).
Control
Pruning to increase air-flow within the canopy of the tree may be done to reduce the incidence of this
disease.
Harvest Maturity Indices
The flowering period in avocados ranges from about 4 to 14 weeks, depending on cultivar and
environmental conditions. Therefore, fruits from the same tree will vary in maturity dates. Determination
of the correct harvest time is important because it affects the fruit quality and market life. It is important
to pick the fruit when mature, as immature fruits will shrivel and not ripen properly. Determining the
appropriate harvest maturity may be difficult and experience is important. Fruit of some avocado
cultivars, particularly of the West Indian race, fall from the tree when physiologically mature and must
be picked prior to fruit drop. In cultivars from the Guatemalan race and its hybrids, the fruits remain
attached to the tree for as long as three or four months after physiological
maturity has been reached. Avocados generally do not ripen while they are attached to the tree. Fruits
are still hard when mature and ripen only after being picked.
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Since all cultivars are susceptible, anthracnose control depends on good orchard sanitation and control
of other diseases (especially Cercospora spot) and avoidance of cuts and bruises to the fruit in handling.
Fruits showing any sign of anthracnose should not be packed in cartons with healthy fruit. Dipping the
fruit in a 500 ppm solution of thiabendazole may also reduce the incidence of anthracnose. Cooling the
fruit to 13°C (55.5°F) and maintaining that temperature during marketing will minimize anthracnose
A
A
development. Harvesting fruits in an immature condition can contribute to anthracnose appearance
since the fungus may infect immature fruit and remain dormant, with subsequent invasion of the flesh
through small cracks made during ripening or postharvest handling.
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Stem End Rot
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Stem end rot is caused by two different fungal organisms,
Botryodiplodia theobromae and Dothiorella gregaria. Symptoms
appears as an initial dark brown to black discolouration beginning
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C
at the stem end and advancing toward the blossom end, finally
covering the entire fruit (Figure 7). Decay develops rapidly as the
A
A
fruit softens. Stem end rot is usually only a problem with immature
harvested fruit and can be prevented by harvesting fruit at the
proper stage of maturity. Control measures used for anthracnose
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D
will also help minimize stem end rot.
Fig 7. Stem end rot of
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Fusarium Rot avocado fruit.
Fusarium rot is caused by several species of Fusarium. Infection
usually takes place via the stem end or through injuries in the
skin (Figure 8). This fungal disease accelerates the rate of softening
and ripening. Recommended control measures are similar to those
used for combating anthracnose.
Rhizopus Rot
Rhizopus rot is caused by the fungus Rhizopus stolonifer. It is
characterized by rapid decay of ripe avocados with the formation
of Fig 8. Fusarium rot
a coarse white mold on the fruit surface. of avocado.
Liquid may leak from the fruit and the odour is unpleasant. Infection is
associated with wounds and can be significantly reduced by careful harvest
and postharvest handling to minimize mechanical injuries.
Chilling Injury
Guyanese avocados are susceptible to chilling injury when kept at temperatures
below 10°C (50°F). External symptoms of chilling injury include browning
or blackening of the skin, pitting, and sunken lesions. Internal symptoms
include browning around the vascular bundles and/or a general grayish-brown
discolouration of the flesh (Figure11).
Chilling injured fruit fail to ripen normally, develop off-flavours, and are highly
susceptible to pathogen attack. The amount of chilling injury damage depends
on the storage temperature, duration of exposure to chilling temperatures,
Fig 9. Internal flesh darkening
cultivar, production area, and maturity-ripeness stage.
of chilling injured avocados.
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INTRODUCTION
Bora (Vigna sesquipedalis) also known as long bean or yard long bean is a popular crop and is grown
throughout Guyana. The dark green pods can be used raw as in salads or cooked in stews, etc. The plant B
can be grown in a variety of soils but does best on fertile, well drained, loose soils with high organic
matter content.
CULTIVATION VARIETIES
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There are a number of bora varieties cultivated in Guyana. These include the Yars Long, Long Green,
Cabbage Bora, ect. The typical characteristics of some of the common varieties cultivated in Guyana
are shown below:
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Bora type A
Yard Long Indeterminate local variety. Pods 120cm long. Plants bushy; pods medium in
diameter.
Long Green Indeterminate local variety. Pods 76cm long. Coarse in diameter.
Cabbage Bora Indeterminate. Pods are about 30cm, pods fine in diameter.
String Bora Plant is not bushy. Pods are very fine and long.
Fat Bora Intermediate pods (50cm long); very fat in diameter.
Thread Bora Medium sized plant. Pods about 40-50cm long; pods fine.
Land Preparation
Clay soils should be ploughed and harrowed to produce a good tilth. To enhance drainage on these soils,
ridges should be made about 60cm apart. Sandy soils should be raked and rows made 60cm apart.
Planting
A seed rate of 10-15 kg/ha should be used. Seeds should be inoculated with the Rhizobium bacteria
before planting, especially if bora is produced on the soil for the first time. Inoculation helps the plant to
utilize atmospheric nitrogen from the air and reduces the amount of nitrogenous fertilizers necessary.
To apply inoculum, first dampen the seeds with water, mix thoroughly with the inoculum using
approximately 14 grams inoculum to 1kg of seeds. On clay soils when ridges are used plant about two
seeds for each hole 30cm apart and 2.5cm, deep. On sandy soils sow two seeds per hole 30cm apart and
60cm, between rows.
Staking
Plants should be staked to enable them to make maximum use of the sunlight. There is no hard and fast
method for staking and the method most suited to the farmer could be adopted.
Fertilizer Recommendations
It is desirable to have the soil tested before applying fertilizers. A soil test will inform you about the
nutrient status of your soil and will help you to use fertilizers wisely. However, where soil test data are
not available the following can be used as a guide.
(a) Clay soil

Limestone – broadcast approximately 3t/ha evenly over the soil surface and work it into the soil
to a depth of 15cm. This should be repeated every 3 years. Alternatively, apply about 100 gram into the
soil at each planting hole and mix thoroughly. All the limestone should be applied at least 4 weeks before
planting.
About 10-14 days after planting apply
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• Proper land preparation serves to control weeds, diseases, and soil insects, and also helps
in the destruction of large soil clods, which act as hiding places for cricket.
• Integrated Pest Management
Chemical Control
B
• Any approved soil insecticide at the recommended rate may be applied, such as Basudin
60% E.C (Diazinon) or Vydate L 40%E.C at the rate of 10 mls to 4500 mls water, to seed
beds and cultivated areas of cropping.
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Cut worm
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Agrotis spp. (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
These are the caterpillars of various species of moth. They have a
greasy appearance, are grey to brown in colour with faint seedlings
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at or slightly above the soil surface. Evidence of cutworm presence
will be greenish-black excreta pellets below seedling. Most of its
lifecycle is spent below the soil which goes through a period of ap-
proximately. 21-28 days.
CONTROL
Cultural Control
• Good field sanitation- rid the field of weeds and plant

residues from previous crops.
• The areas where vegetables are grown should receive full
sunlight; kept clean of weeds and all crop residues should
be removed and burnt.
• Proper land preparation serves to control weeds, diseases, Fig 2. Larva & adult
and soil insects, and also helps in the destruction of large soil clods,of
which acts as hiding
cutworm
places for cutworms.
Chemical Control
• Any approved soil insecticide at the recommended rate may be applied, such as Basudin 60%
E.C (Diazinon) or Vydate L 40%E.C at the rate of 10 mls to 4500 mls water, to seed beds and
cultivated areas of cropping.
Aphids
Aphis cracsivora (Homoptera: Aphididae)
This pest attacks all vegetables. They are commonly known as “plant lice” or “nit” and are small,
yellow, green or black pinhead-size insects (Figure 3). They are soft bodied, slow moving and multi-
ply rapidly within a short time span. These insects attack plants at all stages of growth and are usually
found in dense clusters on the under surface of the young leaves and also on young tender stems and
growing point. They suck plant sap and make the plant weak; some also act as vectors of plant
diseases. Seedlings are weakened and killed when the infestation is high, and growth of older infested
plants is retarded. Infested leaves curl, shrivel and may turn brown and die. Aphids secrete a sweet
substance known as “honey dew” while they feed. This substance attracts ants and serves as a sub-
strate for sooty mould (black fungus) thus impairing photosynthesis. Lifecycle ranges between 21-28
days.
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Chemical Control
• Several new generation insecticides are now available for the effective control of white
flies. Targeting both nymphs and adults with soap based products, should be applied B
very early in the morning or late in the evening. Other chemicals which may be used
include Admire, Pegasus and or Basudin/ Vydate L at 10 mls to 4500 mls water. O
Mites
Tetranychus spp. (Acarina: Tetranychidae) R
Mites are arachnids and are not insects. (Adults have four pairs of legs and two pairs of eyes.) They are
extremely tiny and appear as dust- like particles on the underside of
leaves (Figure 5). Their colour ranges from red, translucent fawn to
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green. Eggs are laid on the underside of leaves and hatch beneath a
web; which is spun by the adults. Both immature and mature stages
suck plant sap resulting in leaves becoming yellow and eventually
turning reddish. Fruits may also be affected especially by the rust
mite.
CONTROL
Cultural Control
• Good field sanitation- rid the field of weeds and
plant residues from previous crops. Fig 5. Egg and adult of mites
Chemical Control
• During severe infestations chemical control may become necessary. Any miticide may
be used for their control such as Abamectin, Newmectin, and Vertimec at 5mls to
4500mls water.
Thrips
Frankiniella sp. (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)
Thrips are yellow, tiny, elongated insects about 1mm in length and can
be found on the upper and lower surfaces of leaves (Figure 6). Infesta-
tions are more severe in the dry season.
Both young and adult suck the sap from leaves and cause them to loose
their colour. If attack occurs early the young leaves becomes distorted.
Older tissues become blotched and appear silvery or leathery in affected
areas thus hindering photosynthesis. Flowers and fruits are also affected
thus yields are reduced. Infected fruits are discolored, distorted and
hardened. Thrips are also vectors or major virus disease. Lifecycle maybe
completed in about 14-21 days.
Fig 6. Thrips and damage

caused
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CONTROL
Cultural Control B
• Field sanitation is an important tool in the
management of this pest. The removal and
destruction of residue from previous crops will
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greatly reduce adult populations thus lowering
the potential infestation of the next crop. Fig 8. Damage due to R
• The removal of alternate hosts through weed management leaf miner
•
also helps in lowering adult population.
Integrated Pest Management
A
Chemical Control
• Several chemicals are now available for the management of this pest; among
them are Trigard, Admire, Pilarking, Vertimec, Abamectin and Newmectin. Use
the lower to middle range of the dosage recommended on the labels.
Bean beetle
Cerotoma arcuata Diabrotica sp. Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae
The bean beetle (Figure 9) may affect the plant throughout its life;
however, its attack immediately after germination is most important
since this can cause the death of plants or retardation of growth.
The insect eats leaves causing shot holes; additionally it is a vector
of the cowpea mosaic virus.
CONTROL
Cultural Control Fig 9. Bean beetle

• Field sanitation is an important tool in the management of this pest. The removal
and destruction of residue from previous crops will greatly reduce adult population
thus lowering the potential infestation of the next crop.
• The removal of alternate hosts through weed management also helps in lowering
adult population.
Chemical Control
• Any contact insecticide with some residual properties can give effective control
of this pest e.g. Malathion, Karate, Fastac or Sevin.
Pod Borer
Maruca testulalis Lepidoptera :Pyralidae
Egg the eggs are laid individually or in small batches on flowers or flower buds, sometimes partly
covered with scales, and also on terminal shoots of young plants. The egg period lasts an average of 3
days (Figure 10).
Several first-instar larvae may be found together among flowers, thereafter they disperse singly, moving
from one flower to another so that each larva damages 4-6 flowers. Young larvae may feed on any part
of the flowers or foliage, but later-instar larvae are more common in the pods. The pupal stage lasts an
average of 6-7 days.
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Chemical Control
• Use appropriate bactericides-Banrot, Mankocide.
B
CERCOSPORA LEAF SPOT (Cercospora spp.)
Symptoms
Lower foliage becomes marked by irregular tan spots (Figure 12). Severe
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infection causes defoliation and plant stunting. Infection is most severe
during periods of extended rainfall and high humidity. R
Cultural Control
• Use an integrated crop ma
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nagement approach.
• No resistance exists among varieties. Fig 12. Symptoms of
Chemical Control cercospora leaf spot
• Fungicide sprays should begin at first sign of disease.
TARGET SPOT (Corynespora cassiicola)

Symptoms
Survives on leaves and pods Conidia produced on infested leaves cause primary infections (Figure 13).
Conidial dispersal can be restricted within the crop during the growing season. This disease is somewhat
slower than other common leaf spots and certainly much slower than the
epidemics of rusts that are commonly encountered; this may have important
implications for disease control.
Cultural Control Fig 13. symptoms of target spot
• Use an integrated crop management approach.

Chemical Control Fig 13. symptoms of
• Copper based fungicide sprays should begin at first sign of disease. target spot
ROOT ROT (Rhizoctonia solani)

Symptoms
Bora seed may rot in soil or the young seedling may become
stunted (Figure 14). A reddish-brown canker is formed on the
stem. Cankers may completely girdle the stem or may only
partially girdle it, causing severe stunting.
Cultural Control
• Field sanitation;
• Bora should be planted in the dry season;
• Crop rotation bora should follow forage crop; and/ or
• Use an integrated crop management approach Fig 14. Symptoms of root rot
Chemical Control
• Banrot, Manzeb or Dithane M 45 are recommended.
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SEEDLING DAMPING-OFF (Pythium sp.)
This pathogen affects a wide range of plants in the seedling stage.
B
Symptoms:
Pythium sp. occurs in most cultivated soils.
Infected seedlings appear water soaked at the soil level (Figure 18).
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This disease is favoured by high humidity and overcrowding.
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Results of Infection:
Seedlings topple over, often when the leaves are still green.
Fig 18. Symptoms of seedling
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Cultural Control damping-off
• The use of good quality seed and plants.
• Sowing or planting under optimum conditions is essential to reduce infection.
• Avoid overcrowding and over watering.
• Use seeds coated with Captan or Thiram.
• Soil sterilization also reduces infection.
Chemical Control
• Spray with approved fungicides –Dithane M45 or Captan.
ROOT KNOT DISEASE (Meloidogyne javanica)

Symptoms:
The nematodes stimulate the formation of root galls, which interfere with the plant’s water supply,
resulting in stunted and chlorotic growth, poor fruit setting and yellowing (Figure 19). The females lay
several hundred eggs which are released into the soil. They enter the plant tissues, such as the root tips
and stimulate the formation of galls.
Cultural Control
• Resistant cultivars can limit the spread of the infection.
• Crop rotation is sometimes successful.
• Insects can be treated with hot water to kill larvae.
• Bury the residues of infected plants, to reduce the level of infection.
Chemical Control
• Spray with approved nematicide-Nemacur
FUSARIUM WILT (Fusarium oxysporium)

This pathogen infects many crops. Acid soils and high temperature encourages this disease to spread.
This is a soil-borne disease, often invading plants through roots or wound. The vascular system is infected,
toxins are produced and the xylem turns brown (Figure 20). Seedlings may rot, leaves turn yellow and
wilt. Plants may eventually die.
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Cultural Control
• Losses can be reduced by growing resistant varieties and following an approved aphid control
program. B
• Use resistant varieties.
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Chemical Control
• Pesticides can be used to control the vectors of the various viruses. R

Bora is harvested at an immature stage, prior to full development of the seeds and pod. The initial A
harvest maturity can be estimated by counting the number of weeks after planting. Bora requires about
7 weeks from seeding until the start of harvest, depending on cultivar and environmental conditions. The
harvest period typically continues over a period of about 6 to 8 weeks. Pod length and pod diameter are
the two principal indices of harvest maturity. Pod diameter is more closely related to edible quality than
length. Bora is typically harvested when the pods have reached a minimum length of 38 cm (15 inches).
However, some markets prefer longer
pods of up to 76 cm (30 inches). Pod
length is significantly influenced by
vigor of the plant and cultivar. Highly
vigorous plants may produce pods of
90 cm (35 inches) in length. Highest
quality pods are straight, crisp, and
uniform in colour (Figure 22). The
most popular cultivars have a green
colour, although specialty markets
may prefer cultivars which produce
a reddish-coloured pod (Figure 23).
Figure 23. Purple coloured bora pods for
Figure 22. Long, straight dark
specialty markets.
green bora ready for harvest.
Pod diameter enlarges with maturity and bora should be harvested when the pods have reached about 1
cm (0.4 inches) in diameter. At this diameter the immature seeds will be slightly protruding or bulging
outward (Figure 24). Bora should be harvested before the seeds fill out the pods. Pod diameter should
not exceed 1.25 cm (0.5 inches). Overmature pods are tough and unsuitable for eating.
Harvest Methods
Bora should be harvested by pinching the stem with the thumbnail pressed against the index finger. A
short section of the stem should remain attached to the pod. If done carefully, twisting of the pod off the
plant can be done provided the stem remains attached to the pod. Pickers should be careful not to tear or
pull the pods off the plant. The pod should never be severed below the stem, as this creates an open
wound in the pod which would be a likely site for decay establishment. Rough handling of the pods
during harvest should be avoided as this will result in tissue damage and subsequent decay. In addition,
harvested pods should never be packed tightly into the harvest container or allowed to remain in the sun
for extended periods. Do not put damaged, diseased, or culled pods in the same harvest container as the
marketable pods.
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Generally, bora should not be washed because of the likelihood of spreading decay organisms. However,
the Barbados export market requires a postharvest wash treatment for phytosanitary reasons (Figure
27). In this case, bora should be B
submerged in clean water adjusted to a
pH of 6.5 and sanitized with 150 ppm
hypochlorous acid. Household bleach is
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the most convenient source of
hypochlorous acid and is widely available R
in a 5.25% solution. Following the
washing treatment, the bora pods should
be air dried on a clean, flat surface before
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sorting and grading (Figure 28).
Figure 27. Cleaning of bora in properly Figure 28. Fan used to speed up air
sanitized wash water for the Barbados drying of bora prior to grading and
market. packing.
Sorting/Grading
There are no established grade standards for bora, but the pods should be sorted according to length,
maturity, and external appearance. The length and thickness of the harvested bora pods is often quite
variable. Uniform length and diameter of the bora pods in each bundle and carton is critical for market
acceptance. Pod colour should be bright and typical of the
cultivar. Each pod should be free of blemishes. Pods
displaying rusty brown spots or other blemishes indicate
disease, injury, or the possibility of deterioration and should
be discarded.
The pods should be well-formed and straight, uniform in

colour with a fresh appearance, and tender but firm (Figure
29). They should snap easily when bent. Freshness is indicated
by a distinct, audible snap when the pod is broken. Buyers
prefer bora with no bulge or only a slight bulge, which
indicates the pods are tender with immature seeds. Over- Figure 29. High quality pods are long and
mature bora with bulging pods are tough and fibrous. On straight with a uniform green colour.
the other hand, too immature pods are highly susceptible to
wilting.
Packing
Bora is typically wrapped in bunches for marketing (Figure
30). Exporters prefer to purchase bora in larger bunches of
350 individual pods, while domestic markets prefer smaller
bunches.
Figure 30. Bora wrapped in small bunches

(foreground) for domestic marketing.
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Relative Humidity
Harvested bora is highly susceptible to water loss and wilting. Pod shriveling and loss of crispness will
soon occur if the postharvest relative humidity (RH) is low. About 5% weight loss is needed before B
shriveling and limpiness are observed. After 10% to 12% weight loss, the bora is no longer marketable.
The rate of water loss from immature pods is higher than from more mature pods. In order to minimize
wilting and quality loss, bora should be held at 95% RH. This may be obtained by the use of a supplemental
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humidifier or water vaporizer in the cooling and storage area. Packaging materials that allow for the
establishment of a high RH microenvironment should also be used. R
Principal Postharvest Diseases
Bora is a highly perishable vegetable crop subject to various fungal and bacterial decays. The principal
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postharvest fungal diseases of bora include cottony leak, rhizopus rot, gray mould, watery soft rot, and
anthracnose. The principal postharvest bacterial disease is soft rot.
Cottony Leak
Cottony leak, caused by the soil-borne fungus Pythium, is a common postharvest decay of bora. Infection
begins in the field and the decay progresses after harvest. The incidence of cottony leak is higher during
the rainy season. The first symptoms of cottony leak are dark lesions of irregular shape, which enlarge
rapidly at ambient temperatures. Under humid
conditions, a white cottony mould may cover the pod
and liquid may leak from the rotting tissue (Figure 33).
Mould from infected pods will spread to adjacent
healthy pods, forming nests of decay in packed cartons.
In order to minimize cottonly leak, bora should always
be harvested when dry and handled with care to avoid
wounding of the pod surface. In addition, the pods
should be cooled to 5°C (41°F) immediately after
harvest.
Figure 33. White mould associated with
cottony leak.
Rhizopus Rot
Rhizopus rot, caused by the fungus Rhizopus, is another common postharvest disease of bora. Injury
predisposes the pods to infection, which occurs under warm, moist conditions. Initially, small water-
soaked spots form on the pod surface. The decayed tissue becomes soft and watery, with considerable
leakage of fluid. Grayish-white masses of mould develop over the infected area (Figure 34). In contrast
to cottony leak, Rhizopus rot is characterized by the formation of coarse strands of white mould and
round black spore heads. A distinctive sour odour may accompany the decay. Nests of mould and decaying
pods form within a carton of packed bora. The main ways to control Rhizopus rot are to harvest when
the pods are completely dry, avoid injury to the pods during harvest and handling, and cool the pods to
5°C (41°F) immediately after harvest. Moisture condensation on the pod surface should also be avoided
during transport to market.
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Bacterial Soft Rot
Bacterial soft rot, caused by Erwinia carotovora, is the main postharvest bacterial disease of bora.
The bacteria is a secondary decay organism and attacks tissue B
weakened by injury, sunscald, chilling injury, or fungal attack. Soft
rot rapidly develops in warm, moist storage environments. Pods
become soft, slimy, and foul smelling (Figure 38). Control of this
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disease is obtained by careful harvesting and handling practices to
prevent wounding of the tissue, avoiding postharvest fungal R
growth, and maintenance of the pods at 5°C during
transport and distribution to market. A
Figure 38. Slimy rot symptoms of
bacterial soft rot.
Halo Blight
Halo blight, caused by Pseudomonas syringae, is another bacterial disease that may infect bora. The
disease is most commonly observed on pods harvested during
the rainy season. Symptoms first appear as tiny, water-soaked
pinpricks on the surface. These gradually enlarge and appear
as small greasy spots scattered on the pod (Figure 39). The
spots eventually darken, appear sunken, and sometimes a
whitish ooze is emitted from the center. Development of halo
blight is rapid under ambient temperatures. Control of this
disease is obtained by planting disease-free seed, avoiding
harvest when the pods are wet, and holding the bora at
5°C(41°F). Figure 39. Severe infection of halo
blight.
Postharvest Disorders
Chilling Injury
Storage of bora at temperatures less than 4°C (42°F) will result in chilling injury (CI) to the pod.
Symptoms appear as surface pitting, brown streaks, a general dullness of the pod colour, and increased
susceptibility to decay. Injury may be induced within several days, although cultivars differ in sensitivity.
Furthermore, symptoms may not become apparent until the pods have been returned to ambient
temperature for a few days. The presence of free moisture on the surface of the pod aggravates the
effects of CI.
33
33
INTRODUCTION
Boulanger (Solanum melongena) belongs to family Solanacea. It is one of the leading vegetable crops
grown in Guyana and is used mainly as a cooked vegetable. B
VARIETIES
The most popular cultivars in Guyana are long – fruited, purple skinned, and are eggshaped to elongate, O
(i.e. Black Beauty, Suriname Long). Pink, white, and green skinned types are also produced with miniature
size fruit. All the varieties are open pollinated. A brief description of the common varieties grow in
Guyana is shown below:
U
Pink & White
May be 2-3 types: fruit are long or short and fat. Pink & white in colour. Colouation varies from more L
pink than white to more white than pink.
Long Purple
May be 2 types: fruit is long and smooth, and segmented. Deep purple in colour.
A
Black Beauty
Three types: short with large diameter located at ¼ (type 1), ½ (type 2) or 1/3 (types 3) the fruit N
length. Segmented at the base.
Black Boulanger
Similar to Black Beauty; no segmented base; short shelf-life
G
Corentyne Purple
Fruit long, segmented, skin rough; light purple in colour. Short shelf-life. E
CULTIVATION
The seed is initially sown in seed trays or seedbeds, and then transplanted four weeks after germination.
R
It is grown on a wide range of soil types, but preferably suited to clay soil rich in organic matter. It grows
well within a pH range of 5.5 – 6.5. If the pH is lower then appropriate quantities of limestone should be
applied four – six weeks before transplanting (based on soil test recommendations).
Transplanting is best carried out in the afternoon or anytime during a cool day so as to resist transplanting
shock. The recommended spacing should be 90cm between rows and 60cm along rows (a plant population
of 18,500 plants/hectare).
After transplanting, irrigation should be done once daily. Appropriate irrigation systems should be then
practiced.
FERTILIZER USE
A soil test should be done to determine the fertilizer requirements. In the absence of a soil test, the
following recommendation is provided as a guide:
Urea - 272 kg/ha - 30% at transplanting (4.4g/plant)
- 40% at flowering (5.9g/plant)
- 30% at Fruit set (4.4g/plant)
TSP - 108 kg/ha - All at transplanting (5.8g/plant)
MoP - 136kg/ha - 50% at transplanting (3.7g/plant)

- 50% at flowering (3.7g/plant)
If organic manure is to applied as well, then the synthetic fertilizer rate should be lowered appropriately.
35
35
Cultural control:
• The areas where vegetables are grown should receive full sunlight, kept clean of weeds and
all crop residues should be removed and burnt. B
• Proper land preparation serves to control weeds, diseases, and soil insects, and also helps in
the destruction of large soil clods, which act as hiding places for crickets. O
Chemical control:
• Any approved soil insecticide at the recommended rate may be applied, such as Basudin 60% U
E.C (Diazinon) or Vydate L 40%E.C at the rate of 10 mls to 4500 mls water to seed beds and
L
2. Cut worm
Agrotis spp. (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) A
These are the caterpillars of various species of moth (Figure 2 & 3). They
have a greasy appearance, are grey to brown in colour with faint lighter-
colored strips, and when fully grown are usually the colour of the soil in
N
which they live.
They can be found on the soil surface, beneath leaves and under large soil G
clods.
Cutworms are surface feeders, and cut seedlings at or slightly above the soil
surface. Evidence of cutworm presence will be greenish-black excreta pellets
E
below the seedling. Most of its lifecycle is spent below the soil which lasts
for a period of approximately 21-28 days.
Fig 2. Cutworm in the
early stages
R
CONTROL
• Good field sanitation- rid the field of weeds and plant residues
from previous crops.
Cultural control:
• The areas where vegetables are grown should receive full sunlight;
kept clean of weeds and all crop residues should be removed and
burnt.
• Proper land preparation serves to control weeds, diseases, and
soil insects, and also helps in the destruction of large soil clods,
which act Fig 3. Adult cutworm
as hiding places for cutworms.
Chemical control:
E.C (Diazinon) or Vydate L 40%E.C at the rate of 10 mls to 4500 mls water to seed beds and
37
37
Eggs are laid in the soil near the roots of the plant. These hatch in 5-7 days and the slender white larvae
feed on the roots for 14-21 days. Because of the small sizes, feeding does not interfere with plant growth
and development. Adult beetles emerge approximately 28 days from the soil. During a severe adult B
OB
infestation, leaves appear scorched. Such an infestation can result in substantial yield loss and plants may
be killed in one to three days.
UO
Control:
• Good field sanitation- rid the field of weeds and plant residues from previous crops.
LU
Chemical control:
• When the infestation level is high chemical control is recommended. Insecticides such as
Decis, Fastac or Karate (6 mls to 4500 mls water), Sevin (85% W.P at 10gms to 4500 mls
water), Sumithion (50% E.C. at 5mls to 4500 mls water) are recommended.
AL
5. Lace wing bugs NA
GN
Croythaica cyathicollis: (Hemiptera: Tingidae)
Lace wing bugs are usually found in clusters on the under surface of
leaves. Adults are about 1.5 -3 mm in length and have characteristic
lacy patterned wings (Figure 6). Their sucking action results in leaf
mottling. The mottled areas eventually become necrotic and this leads EG
RE
to premature abscission of leaves. The life cycle lasts for approximately
28-35 days.
Control:
R
Fig 6. Lace wing bugs
Chemical control:
• Decis, Karate or Fastac at 6 mls to 4500 mls water Sevin or Padan at 5gms to 4500 water
are recommended.
6. Pin worm
Keiferia lycopersicella: (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae)
Pin worm is a common pest of Boulanger. It is the caterpillar
of a moth, which feeds on leaf surfaces, making blotch mines in
the leaves. Leaves are often rolled or folded, such that the
larvae are protected from natural enemies.
In severe infestations, leaf surfaces are destroyed causing leaves

to wither and die. The larvae can also mine in stems and feed on
Fig 7. Pinworm
flowers, thus reducing yields. The larvae can also invade fruits and destroy them.
The adult is a grey moth about 5mm long (Figure 7). The larvae, which at first are light-orange in colour
become purplish-black at maturity and are about 5mm long. Eggs are laid primarily on the underside of
leaves and hatch within 5-7 days. Pupation may occur in the soil, or in folded leaves. The lifecycle may
be completed in 21-35 days.
39
39
Control:
Chemical control:
B
• During severe infestations chemical control may become necessary. Any miticide may
be used for their control such as Abamectin, Newmectinor, Vertimec at 5mls to 4500mls
O
water.
9. Thrips U
Thrips are yellow, tiny, elongated insects (Figure 10) about 1mm in length and can be found on the L
upper and lower surfaces of leaves. Infestations are more severe in the dry season.
Both young and adult suck the sap from leaves and cause them to loose their colour. If attack occurs
early the young leaves becomes distorted (Figure 11). Older tissues become
A
blotched and appear silvery or leathery in affected areas thus hindering
photosynthesis. Flowers and fruits are also affected, thus yields are reduced. N
Infected fruits are discoloured, distorted and hardened. Thrips are also vectors
for major viral disease. The lifecycle may be completed in about 14-21 days. G
Control:
Fig 10. Adult thrips
E
• Good field sanitation- rid the field of weeds and residue of all
previous crops. R
Cultural control:
• Crop rotation- cultivation of crops (vegetables) which is not
a host to the pest. e.g. Cabbage can followed by Boulanger.
• Overhead irrigation will help in reducing populations of thrips
during the dry season.
• An integrated approach is recommended for the management
of thrips.
Fig 11. Damage caused
by thrips
Chemical control:
Among the insecticides which may be used are Regent (Fipronil), Admire, Abamectin and Vydate L at 5
mls to 4500 mls water, to both surfaces of leaves for effective control
N.B. Spray should be directed to both surfaces of leaves for effective control.
41
41
Major Diseases of Boulanger (Solanum melongena L.)
and Management Strategies
B
1. FRUIT ROT
Fruit rot is a fungal diseases caused by Phomopsis vexans
O
Symptoms:
This fungus forms pycnidia on stems and diseased fruit. The fungus also
U
causes blight in mature plants and damping off of seedlings. The fruits
may show small, dull sunken spots, which enlarge in size and cover a L
major portion of the fruit, and rotting ensues (Figure 15). In severe
cases, the entire fruit may be damaged. A
Control:
N
The use of resistant varieties or chemical treatment with
Benomyl is recommended for control of fruit rot.
Fig 15. Fruit rot in boulanger
G
2. BACTERIAL WILT
The causal agent is (Ralstonia solanacearum)
E
This is a serious bacterial disease which affects solanaceous crops. Warm wet weather encourages the
spreadof the disease.
R
Symptoms:
Pathogen exists in the soil and infects plants through the roots,
invading the vascular system.
The xylem is discoloured and becomes only partially effective.
Affected plants are usually stunted and susceptible to water stress.
They finally wilt and die (Figure 16).
Control:
Rotate with non-susceptible crops, or use resistant cultivars. Grafting
onto resistant rootstocks is practiced with tomato and boulanger.
Fig 16. Symptoms of

bacterial wilt
43
43
Control:
Resistant cultivars can limit the spread of the infection. Crop rotation is sometimes successful.
Insects can be treated with hot water to kill the larvae. The residues of some plants, when buried B
in the soil, reduce the level of infection.
O
6. FUSARIUM WILT
The causal agent is (Fusarium oxysporium) U
This pathogen infects many crops. Acid soils and high temperatures
encourage the spread the disease. L
Symptoms:
This is a soil-borne disease, often invading plants through roots or
wounds. The vascular system is infected, toxins are produced and
A
the xylem turns brown (Figure 20).
N
Seedlings may rot and the leaves turn yellow and wilt.
Plants may eventually die.
Fig 20. Typical symptoms
of fusarium wilt
G
Control:
The control measure recommended are crop rotation, planting in disease free soil and the use of
E
clean planting material. Burning of crop debris and the planting of resistant cultivars are also
recommended R
7. PHYTOPHTHORA FRUIT ROT
The causal agent is (Phytophthora parasitica)
This is a wide spread disease of Solanaceous plants.
Symptoms:
Dark circular lesions, with a watery appearance, develop on the fruits and stems. In wet weather,
white mycelial growth develops on the crop debris.
Mature fruits turn brown and often rot within a few days.
Control:
Provide adequate spacing to reduce humidity within the crop. Remove and burn infected fruits
and crop debris and spray with copper fungicides.
45
45
Weeds of Boulanger (Solanum melongena L.)
and their Management Strategies
B
Competition with weeds causes significant reductions in Boulanger crop yields and quality. Weed - crop
competition is effected by both, the critical period of weed interference, that is the period where it is
essential to maintain a weed-free environment to prevent yield losses and secondly the weed thresholds,
O
that is the weed density that causes unacceptable yield loss.
U
Weed management in Boulanger in Guyana currently relies on only a few herbicides along with cultural
practices, such as hand weeding and hoeing. Since it is uneconomical to hire labour for hand weeding
and hoeing, herbicides are widely used.
L
Boulanger is harvested at a range of maturity stages, depending on market demand. Days from
A
flowering can be used as a harvest maturity index, and range from about 10 days for small fruit to
about 4 weeks for large fruit. Large fruit should weigh in the range of 0.34 kg to 0.5 kg (0.75 lb to 1
N
lb). Elongated type fruit should weigh 136 g to 226 g (0.3 lb to 0.5 lb).
Optimum maturity is best judged by size, and the fruits should be relatively heavy in relation to their
G
size. The ideal harvest size for Black Beauty is when the fruit reaches a diameter of 10 cm to 15 cm (4
in to 6 in) and a minimum length of 10 cm, while Surinam Long should be harvested when fruit length
E
is at least 5 cm (2 in) in diameter and 23 cm (9 in) in length.
Boulanger fruit is typically harvested at an immature stage, before the seeds begin to enlarge and
R
harden. As the fruit matures, the flesh softens and becomes spongy. Boulanger becomes pithy and
bitter when they are over-mature. Boulanger is over-mature if an indentation remains after pressing
the tissue with the thumb. Over-mature fruit have a dull external appearance and the seeds turn
brown. Fruit should be harvested when it is firm, fully formed, glistening, and the seeds and pulp are
white.
Purple-skinned fruit should be harvested when it reaches a dark, glossy, uniform, purpleblack colour.
The fruit should be firm and non-wrinkled. Frequent pickings will result in higher yields.
Harvest Method
Fruits of marketable size should be harvested by cutting the tough stem of the fruit with a sharp
clippers (Figure 22) rather than tearing it off the plant. The calyx or cap should be fresh and green in
appearance and left attached to the fruit. The length of the stem should be cut short ( 2.5 cm or 1 in)
to avoid puncturing of adjacent fruit. Cotton gloves should be worn during harvest to protect the
picker’s hands against injury from spines on the calyx and to minimize fruit damage. Deformed,
sunburned, insect damaged, and diseased fruit should be removed from the plant and discarded.
Harvest frequency is typically once per week.
47
47
Waxing
A thin coating of wax can be applied to boulanger to enhance the appearance and shine of the skin
surface and to reduce postharvest shriveling (Figure 24). Waxing also reduces chafing and abrasion B
injury from the rubbing of adjacent fruit during transport. Application of a liquid carnauba-based food
grade wax is recommended. It can be applied by manually rubbing it over the surface of the skin or by
using a soft bristled brush.
O
Packing
Boulanger should be handled and packed carefully to avoid damage to the skin. Strong, well-ventilated U
fiberboard cartons should be used for export, with a minimum carton bursting strength of 275 lb/in².
Package weight is typically 9 to 11 kg (20 to 23 lb), containing 18 to 24 fruit per carton. The fruit should
be laid flat and oriented horizontally along the same plane inside the carton (Figure 25). This will prevent
L
the stem from puncturing adjacent fruit.
A
N
G
E
Fig 24. Waxing the surface
adds shine to the ruit.
Fig 25. Packing the fruit parallel in the
same container will avoid fruit puncture.
R
Boulanger can also be individually wrapped in paper, and carefully packed into containers to prevent
stems from puncturing adjacent fruits.
Boulanger is packed in different sized containers, depending on the export market destination. North
American markets generally require boulanger to be packed in 1 1/9-bushel (16 kg or 35 lb) or 5/9-
bushel cartons (8 kg or 18 lb). A 1 1/9-bushel carton will typically contain 18, 24, or 30-count sized
boulanger.
Temperature Management
Boulanger does not have a long storage life and should be marketed immediately after harvest. For
maximum
postharvest life, boulanger should be held at 10°C (50°F). At
this temperature, boulanger will typically have a 10 day market
life. Boulanger stored for too long or at too high a temperature
will have a dull and shriveled skin along with a dry and brown
calyx (Figure 26). Once the colour of the skin begins to dull,
the seeds darken and the flesh becomes spongy and bitter.
Fig 26. Brown calyx and shriveled

skin of eggplant stored for 2 weeks.
49
49
51
51
Insect Pests of Cabbage in Guyana
1. Cricket C
Gryllotalpa spp. (Orthoptera: Gryllotalpidae)
Acheta spp. (Orthoptera: Gryllidae)
Cricket attacks seedlings of all vegetables. Fully grown crickets are brown in colour and are about
A
2.5 – 3.5 cm long (Figure 1). The various species of these insects usually live either in the soil, bushes
and under decaying crop residues and vegetation. B
Mole crickets, which have heavily sclerotised front legs that are adapted for digging, are usually common
in sandy soils.
B
All crickets are nocturnal, feeding at night and A
secluded by day, under the soil. They feed at or
slightly below the soil surface, and can cause
considerable damage before being discovered.
G
Seedlings may be denuded of leaves or cut below
the soil surface without any trace of insects on them. E
Fig 1. Adult cricket
Crickets spend their entire life cycle below the soil,
which may go through a period of approximately 28 -35 days. They are termed soil insects.
Control
Cultural control:
• The areas where vegetables are grown should receive full sunlight, kept clean of weeds and
all crop residues should be removed and burnt.
the destruction of large soil clods, which act as hiding places for cricket.
Chemical control:
E.C (Diazinon) or Vydate L 40%E.C at the rate of 10 mls to 4500 mls water, to seed beds
and cultivated areas of cropping.
53
53
Control
C
Biological control:
• The natural predator lady bird beetles frequently feed on aphids. When aphid population is
low and lady bird beetles are present, there is no need for chemical control.
A
Chemical control: B
• This may be applied when the population is high. A contact or stomach insecticide may be
used such as: Fastac, Decis or Karate at 6mls to 4500mls water, Sevin 85% W.P. (Carbaryl)
at 6g to 4500 mls water or Malathion 57% E.C. at 15 mls to 4500 mls water.
B
.
N.B. Sprays should be directed to underside/surfaces of leaves when Sevin or Malathion is used. Do not A
harvest crops until 7 -10 days after application of chemical. In the case of Fastac, Decis or Karate, crops
can be harvested within 3-5 days after chemical application. G
4. White flies
Bemisia tabaci (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae)
These insects are in fact bugs. The adults are white, moth-like insects
E
that fly upwards from the plant when disturbed. They are about 2 mm in
length and their wings are covered with a white waxy powder (Figure 3).
The pinhead size nymphs are oval and flattened, and are attached to the leaf
surface until maturity. All stages of this pest can be found on the underside
of leaves. Nymphs and adults feed by sucking plant sap, resulting in leaves
becoming mottled, yellow and brown before dying. Feeding whiteflies
excrete honey dew on the leaf surface which encourages the growth of
sooty mould thus hampering photosynthesis. Ants are also attracted to the
honey dew. This pest is also a vector of viral diseases. Fig 3. Nymph and adult
• The life cycle may be completed in about 28-35 days. whitefly
Control
Cultural practices:
• Do not plant a new crop next to one which is mature: The common practice of having
mature crops adjacent to newly planted ones makes management of the pest very difficult
since the cycle of the pest is never broken.
• An integrated control strategy is necessary for the effective management of this pest.
Chemical control:
flies. Targeting both nymphs and adults with soap based products which should be applied
very early in the morning or late in the evening is effective. Other chemicals which may be
used include Admire, Pegasus and or Basudin/ Vydate L at 10 mls to 4500 mls water.
55
55
6. Budworm
Hellula phidilealis (Lepidoptera:Pyralidae)
Budworms are caterpillars (Figure 5), which feed on the young innermost leaves and then bore into the C
midribs or axils of leaves or into the growing point . The bur-
rowing of the caterpillars into the growing point may result in
retarded growth and frequently in the death of the plants. Cab-
A
bages often fail to produce heads when the growing point is
damaged. Instead lateral buds may develop. The several “heads” B
formed from the lateral buds of a plant are very small and un-
marketable.
Fig 5. Budworm
B
Control
Crop rotation A
• Crop rotation usually helps in breaking the cycle of a pest’s development through the
absence of host plants. The repeated planting of any one crop type ensures the availability of host
material for development of the pest.
G
Chemical control E
• Decis 2.5% EC-1.5 g/litre water, Ambush 5% EC-1 ml/litre water, Karate 2.5% EC-1.5 ml/litre
water, Neem water extract, Dipel-3.5 g/litre water,Agree-3.5 g/litre water, Regent (Fipronil)-
10ml/18 litre water are recommended for the control of the cabbage budworm.
7. Cabbage Butterfly
Pieres phileta (Lepidoptera: Pieridae)
Larva Adult
Fig 6. Larva and adult cabbage butterfly
8. Armyworm
Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
Larva Adult
Fig 7. Larva and adult armyworm
57
57
2. Fusarium Yellow (Fusarium oxysporum)
The first indication of the disease is the yellowish-green color of the
foliage. Plants appear wilted and stunted (Figure 10). The fungus can C
live in the soil for a number of years without a host plant. It infects
plants through wounds caused by transplanting or insects. The disease
is checked by very cold or very hot soil temperature.
A
Control
• Use resistant varieties B
• Crop rotation will avoid crop loss. Fig 10. Cabbage infected
Chemical control
with fusarium wilt. B
• Use any of the following as directed on the label: Carbendazine, Cuprasan, Captan, Kocide, and
Mankocide. A
3. Alternaria Leaf Spot (Alternaria brassicae)
The first symptom is a minute dark spot on seedling stems and on the
G
leaves. These spots enlarge and are marked with concentric rings, giv-
ing a bull’s eye appearance (Figure 11). Spores are disseminated by wind E
or water.
Control
• Use resistant varieties
• Hot water treatment, as recommended for black rot, will rid the Fig 11. Symptoms of
seed of this organism. alternaria leaf spot
• Fungicide application will prevent the fungus from developing in the field.
Chemical control
• Use any of the following as directed on the label: Carbendazine, Cuprasan, Captan, Kocide, and
Mankocide.
4. Soft Rot (Erwinia carotovora)

Soft rot occurs most commonly when fields become water saturated. Stems
become decayed and have a foul odor (Figure 12). During storage and
transit, a slimy decay with a foul odor develops. The disease begins in areas
that have been bruised, particularly during periods of high temperature and
humidity prevail.
Control
• Crop rotation
• Plant on raised beds in well drained soil to prevent field infections. Fig 12. Symptoms of
Chemical control soft rot
• Use any of the following as directed on the label: Mankocide, Rizolex and Banrot.
59
59
Size is the principal indicator of harvest maturity and this is
largely based on market demand. Pak choi should have well-
formed upright petioles tightly adhering together (Figure 16).
Pak choi should always be picked when leaves are fresh and
C
crisp and before the outer leaves turn yellow.
A
Harvest Methods
Cabbage is harvested by hand by bending the head (or stalk in
B
the case of pak choi) to one side and cutting it with a sharp
knife or small machete. The cutting instruments should be Fig 16. Ideal harvest stage
sharpened frequently to reduce harvesting effort and lessen picker fatigue. for pak choi.
B
The head should not be removed by snapping or twisting it, as this practice damages the head and results
in jagged appearing stems which extend too far out from the base of the head. Broken stems are also
A
more susceptible to decay. The stalk should be cut flat and as close to the head as possible, yet long
enough to retain two to four wrapper leaves. Extra leaves act as cushions during handling and may be
desired in certain markets. Yellowed, damaged, or diseased wrapper leaves should be removed. Heads
G
with insect damage and other defects should be discarded. In the case of pak choi types, any damaged or
dead leaves should be removed and the base should be trimmed flush with the first petiole.
E
Cabbage should be put in baskets or well-ventilated picking containers and taken out of the field
immediately after harvest. Cabbage put in non-ventilated field sacks will heat up due to tissue respiration
and start to wilt. It is recommended that harvesting be conducted during the coolest time of the day,
preferably in the morning when the head is most turgid. It is essential that heads not harvested be left
undamaged because fields may be harvested as many as three times for maximum yield.
Preparation for Market
Harvested cabbage is particularly susceptible to wilting and should be removed from the field and direct
sunlight as soon as possible. The cabbage should be taken to a wellventilated shaded area for packing
and transport to market (Figure 17). When there is a delay of
more than an hour or two between harvest and packing, a
spray of clean water to the leaves can help prevent dehydration.
A simple field packing station can be constructed from wooden

poles and a sheet of polyethylene. Thatch over the roof will
provide shade and keep the station cool. The structure should
be oriented so that the roof overhang keeps out the majority
of the sun’s rays.
Fig 17. Harvested cabbage

should be taken to a shaded,
wellventilated packing area.
61
61
Sorting
Cabbage should be sorted according to size, shape, and compactness of the head. There are 3 established
size categories (small, medium, large) for domestic marketing of cabbage, based on the weight of the
C
head. Small sized heads weigh 0.8 kg (1.7 lb) or less, medium sized heads weigh between 0.9 kg and 1.4
kg (1.7 lb and 3 lb), and large sized cabbage heads weigh 1.5 kg (3
lb) or more. Only the cabbage with crisp and turgid leaves should
A
be packed for market. The heads should be a colour typical of the
cultivar (i.e. green, red, or pale yellow-green), firm, heavy for the
B
size and free of insect, decay, seed stalk development and other
defects. B
Packing
Heading-type cabbages are generally packed in fiberboard cartons,
A
wooden or wire-bound crates, or mesh bags holding about 23 kg
(50 lb). Uniformity of head size and the proper count per carton are G
important. Normally 18 to 22 heads are packed in a 23 kg (50 lb)
container. Cartons and crates are easier to stack and load and provide
considerably more protection to the cabbage than mesh bags (Figure
E
21).
Pak choi cabbage should be packed in fiberboard cartons usually Fig 21. Uniform sized cabbage
holding between 10 kg to 18 kg (22 lb to 40 lb), depending upon packed in strong well-ventilated
market preference. Pak choi may be bunched into groups of 3 to wooden crates.
5 plants using a string or rubber band. Care must be taken as plants bruise easily.
Temperature Control
The optimal storage temperature for all cabbage types is 0°C (32°F). This maintains a very low respiratory
activity in the cabbage and greatly inhibits decay. Chinese cabbage is much more perishable than heading
types and should be cooled within several hours after harvest and held as close to the ideal postharvest
temperature of 0°C (32°F) as possible. The maximum market life of pak choi under ideal conditions is 2
weeks. At ambient temperatures the pak choi leaves will rapidly wilt and become unmarketable after
only 1 to 2 days. The need for immediate cooling after harvest is not as necessary for heading types of
cabbage. However, for maximum storage life, heading types should be cooled within a day after harvest.
Market life at 0°C will be 4 to 6 weeks.
Deterioration of cabbage is accelerated under non-refrigerated temperatures and is associated with

discolouration of the stem end, leaf wilting, loss of fresh green colour, and postharvest decay. Storing
cabbage at ambient temperature will require extensive trimming of the leaves to maintain a marketable
head.
Relative Humidity Control
Cabbage is a leafy vegetable susceptible to significant moisture loss and wilting after harvest. The high
surface area and numerous openings in the leaf surface (stomates) make an easy route for tissue water
loss. In order to minimize the loss of crispness and wilting of the leaves it is very important to maintain
a high relative humidity (RH) in the storage atmosphere. The optimal RH for cabbage is 95%. Pak choi
can be stored at 0° C (32°F) for several weeks, as long as the relative humidity is greater than 85%.
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INTRODUCTION
Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) reportedly has two geographical centres of specialization. One area is in
western and southern Mexico and parts of Guatemala and the other is in north eastern Brazil. Presently,
cassava is grown through out the tropics. Guyana is one of these tropical countries in which cassava is
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cultivated.
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This crop is produced in all ten Regions of Guyana. The Regions of highest production are Regions 1, 8
and 9. In Guyana, cassava is used mainly for food. Nutritionally, cassava is primarily an energy source
since it is an excellent supplier of calories. The roots also contain quantities of vitamin C, thiamine,
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riboflavin and niavcin. It should be noted, however, that boiling reduces vitamin C content by 50 to 70
percent. Processing into such products as farine reduces it by 75 percent or more. In terms or food S
preparation in Guyana, the simplest is boiling of the tubers. Cassava is also processed into farine, cassava
bread and casareep.
A
An industrial use of cassava, in Guyana, is as the raw material in starch production. There are several other
uses of cassava. One of these is as animal feed. Its starch has uses in the food industry, for paper making, as
a lubricant in oil wells and in the textile industry.
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VARIETIES A
There are several cassava varieties under cultivation in Guyana. Some of these are Four Month, Brancha
Butterstick, Uncle Mack, M Mex 59, Mex 52 and Bad Woman.
ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS
Cassava is well adapted to rainfall ranging between 1000 and 3000 millimeters per year but it requires good
drainage. One day of flooding on heavy soils can destroy the crop. Cassava is, however, highly tolerant of
drought. The plant becomes dormant in the dry weather. When rains resume, it draws on its carbohydrate
reserve to produce new leaves and the plant again becomes productive. This crop is grown on a range of soils
but it needs light, deep soils that will enhance tuber development. In Guyana, cassava is grown mainly on
soils rich in organic matter, on loamy soils and on sandy soils.
CULTIVATION
LAND PREPARATION
Land preparation should be deep enough to accommodate the tubers of cassava. Since the crop cannot
withstand water logged conditions, there should be adequate drainage. Soils should be ploughed and harrowed
and adequate drains should be made. For lighter soils flat planting can be done. In heavier soils, however,
ridging may be necessary to facilitate drainage.
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Insect Pests of Cassava in Guyana
Cassava crops are grown mainly from stem cuttings in Guyana. Planted cuttings start to root from the
soil-covered nodes, at the base of the axillary’s buds and the stipule scars, some five days after planting.
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Two to four months after planting, storage roots start to develop by secondary thickening of a number of
the adventitious roots. A
Economical damage by diseases, pests and weeds of cassava is relatively moderate, although white flies
can be a menace in some regions, if the problem is not identified early, and remedial action not implemented
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in a timely manner. Correct identification of the pest and an understanding of its behaviour, including its
most vulnerable stages would provide insights into its management. S
Care must be then taken if pesticide application is contemplated, since there is the likelihood of high
residual levels remaining in the product after harvest if an inappropriate formulation is used.
A
The following provide a detailed description of the pests and the nature of the damage caused by the
pests. Appropriate management strategies that may be employed are also provided.
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1. Cassava Mealybug
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(Phenococcus manihoti)
(Homoptera:Pseudococcidae)
In cassava and on Manihot spp, the pest causes leaf loss and weakens the stem planting material (Figure
1).
Symptoms:
Whole plant: dieback; dwarfing; seedling blight.
Leaves: abnormal colours; abnormal forms; abnormal leaf fall; wilting; yellowed or dead; honeydew or
sooty mould; leaves rolled or folded.
Stems: witches broom; stunting or rosetting; dieback; distortion.
Roots: reduced root system.
Growing points: dieback; distortion.
Cultural Control:
• Field sanitation
• Crop rotation
Fig 1. Symptom of
Biological Control: cassava mealybug
Use natural enemies such as predators, parasitoids and parasites e.g. ladybirds
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Cultural Control:
from previous crops. C
Biological Control:
A
• The natural predator, lady bird beetle frequently feeds on aphids.
When aphid population is low and lady bird beetles are present, S
there is no need for chemical control. Fig 3. Nymph and adult aphid
Chemical Control:
S
• This may be applied when the population is high. A contact or stomach insecticide may be
used such as: Fastac, Decis or Karate at 6mls to 4500mls water, Sevin 85% W.P. (Carbaryl) A
at 6grms to 4500 mls water or Malathion 57% E.C. at 15 mls to 4500 mls water.
N.B. Sprays should be directed to underside/surfaces of leaves. When Sevin or Malathion is

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used, crops should not be harvested until 7 -10 days after application of the chemicals. In the
case of Fastac, Decis or Karate, crops can be harvested within 3-5 days after chemical
4. Thripsapplication.
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(Frankliniella williamsi)
(Thysanoptera: Thripidae)
Symptoms
Thrips are yellow, tiny, elongated insects about 1mm in length and can be found on the upper and lower
surfaces of leaves (Fig 4). Infestations are more severe in the dry season.
Both young and adult suck the sap from leaves and cause them to loose their colour (Figure 5). If attack
occurs early, the young leaves become distorted.
Older tissues become blotched and appear silvery
or leathery in affected areas, thus hindering photo-
synthesis. Flowers and fruits are also affected. In-
fected fruits are discoloured, distorted and hardened.
Thrips are also vectors of major viral diseas. The
lifecycle maybe completed in about 14-21 days.
Cultural Control:
• Good field sanitation- rid the field Fig 4. Adult thrips Fig 5. Damage caused
of weeds and residues of all previous crops. by thrips
• Crop rotation- cultivation of crops (vegetables) which are not host to the pest.
• Overhead irrigation will help in reducing population of infestation during the dry season.
• An integrated approach is recommended for the management of thrips
Chemical Control:
• Among the insecticides which may be used are Regent (Fipronil), Admire, Abamectin
and Vydate L at 5 mls to 4500 mls water, to both surfaces of leaves for effective control.
N.B. Spray should be directed to both surfaces of leaves for effective control.
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7. Gall Midge
(Latrophobia brasiliensis)
Diptera:Cecidopmyiidae
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Symptoms
The gall midges are tiny flying insects (Figure 8). The name is derived from their inciting gall formation A
by plants, attacked by larvae of some species. Most are plant feeders but some are carnivores. They feed
on flowers/flower buds, fruit, developing seed and decaying material. Galls are mostly found on leaves,
buds and stems. A large number also feed on fungi (and is sometimes beneficial to agriculture).
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S
A
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Fig 8. Larva & adult gall midge
Cultural Control:
• Where possible, plant in dry areas.
• Establish fields in open locations and space plants to allow adequate ventilation.
• Control weeds beneath and around plants.
• Remove all fallen leaves from fields, bury or burn.
• Colour traps present a potential tactic for monitoring or mating disruption. Along with
bio-control and other tactics, they form the basis of an IPM programme.
Chemical Control:
• Insecticides: Sevin, Trigard, Diazinon, Admire, Malathion
• Fungicides: Manzeb, Maneb, Ridomil
• Herbicides: Fusillade, Roundup, Gramoxone, Nabu-S
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9. Acoushi Ant (Atta sp.)
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Acoushi ants are social insects, living in colonies (Figure
10), whose size may range, depending on the species,
A
between a dozen individuals and several millions of
individuals. There are at least three morphologically different
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forms: queens (fertile females), males and workers.
Acoushi ants display various major feeding strategies. Leaves

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are cut and transferred to the nest (Fig 11). Fungus growers
consume fungi that are cultured in special nest chambers on Fig 10. Active acoushi ant nest
A
leaf parts collected by workers.
Cultural Control: V
• Integrated pest Management
Chemical Control:
A
• Baiting is the recommended method for Acoushi ant
control (Bait is formulated and packaged by NARI).
Fig 11. Leaf cutting in progress
Managment of Common Cassava Diseases in Guyana
1. Cassava Mosaic Disease (African Mosaic Virus)

Cassava mosaic disease is caused by a virus which occurs inside cassava leaves and stems.
Damage symptoms:
The leaves of cassava plants with the disease are discolored with patches of normal green color mixed
with light green, yellow, and white areas (Figure 12). This discoloration is known as chlorosis. When
cassava mosaic attack is severe, the leaves are very small and distorted and the plants are stunted. The
disease symptoms are more pronounced on younger plants.
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Method of spread:
The main sources of the bacteria which causes cassava bacterial blight are cassava plants with the disease.
The bacterium enters cassava plants through wounds and scratches on the stems and leaves. Insects can C
also transfer the pathogen to healthy plants. It multiplies and occurs in large numbers in the leaves and
stems. Cassava bacterial blight is therefore spread by planting stem cuttings from plants with the disease
symptoms. Dead cassava stems and leaves with the bacterium also
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serve as sources of the disease if they are not destroyed after root
harvest.
Cultural Control:
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• Integrated Crop Management
•
•
Field sanitation
Crop rotation
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• Use of disease free planting material
A
Chemical Control:
• Farm tools that are used to cut infected cassava plants should
be cleaned with a bleach solution after use to prevent the
Fig 13. Symptom of cassava V
Bacterial Blight
bacterium on them from spreading to other plants.
• Use for vector control Fastac, Decis or Karate
A
3. Cassava Bud Necrosis
Cassava bud necrosis is caused by a fungus which occurs on the surface of stems and leaves.
Damage symptoms:
The disease appears as patches of a brown or grey fungal covering of the stem. The fungal matter covers
buds which reduces their sprouting ability (Figure 14).
Cultural Control:
• Crop rotation
• Use of disease free planting material
Chemical Control:
• Spray a fungal solution for fungus control
• Farm tools that are used to cut infected cassava plants Fig 14. Cassava bud necrosis
should be cleaned with a bleach solution after use to prevent the fungus from spreading to other
plants.
4. Leaf Spot Diseases
Cassava leaf spot diseases are caused by fungi. There are three different types, namely white leaf spot,
brown leaf spot, and leaf blight.
Damage symptoms:
Cassava white leaf spot (Cercospora caribaea) disease appears as circular white or brownish-yellow
spots on the upper leaf surfaces (Figure 15).
Cassava brown leaf spot (Cercospora henningsii) disease appears as small brown spots with dark
borders on the upper leaf surfaces. Under severe attack the infected leaves become yellow, dry, and die
prematurely (Figure 15).
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Method of spread:
The important sources of cassava root rot fungi are soils, cassava root and stem debris contaminated
with the fungi. The fungi enter cassava plant through wounds caused by pests or farming tools. C
Cultural Control:
• Cassava plant debris in farms with the disease should be A
destroyed by burning.
S
• Crop rotation
• Use of disease free planting material S
Chemical Control:
• Farm tillage tools used in cassava farms with the disease should be cleaned after use with a bleach
A
solution.
• Spray a fungal solution. V
Time after planting is a commonly used index for determining when to harvest cassava. Roots are typically
A
sufficiently well-developed beginning 6 to 7 months after planting. Harvest maturity is based on the root
size desired by the market. Harvest may be delayed until market, processing, or weather conditions are
favourable. However, as the roots age beyond a year, they become woody and fibrous. Several randomly
selected plants,
representative of the entire field, should be harvested beginning 6 months after planting to determine the
average root size.
Foliage senescence and lower leaf yellowing can also be used as an indication of harvest maturity. When
the lower foliage is distinctly yellow and some leaves have dried up, it is likely the plants are mature
enough for the roots to be harvested.
Harvest Methods
Harvesting cassava roots is usually done by hand and is easier when the soil is
moist. Harvesting is also easier if planting is on ridges or in beds and in loose
or sandy soils, rather than on flat ground and in clay or heavy soils. To facilitate
lifting of the roots out of the ground, the main stem of the plant is usually cut
back to a height of 30 cm to 50 cm (12 in to 20 in). The stem is used as a
handle to lift the roots out of the ground (Figure 17). In light soils, the roots
are slowly drawn from the soil by pulling the stems or with the help of a kind
of crowbar. In heavier soils or during the dry season, harvesting usually requires
digging around the roots to free them prior to lifting the plant. While lifting,
care should be taken not to break the roots or split the skin. Wounded tissue
is an entry point for decay causing micro-organisms.
Fig 17. A short section of

the stem is used to lift cassava
roots out of the ground.
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Storage
The simplest means of preserving cassava is to delay harvesting and allow the roots to remain in the
ground. However, cassava roots will become fibrous and woody with prolonged in-ground storage time C
and flavour may be impaired. Also, the longer the roots remain in the ground the more risk there is of
insect, disease, or rodent attack.
Harvested roots can also be stored in the ground buried in trenches or holes filled with a sand/soil mix
A
at 15% moisture. It is necessary to keep these in-ground storage areas protected from heavy rain. Roots
will typically lose about 20% of their original starch content after 2 months stored underground. S
Above-ground clamp silos are low-cost
structures that generally work well for cassava
storage. Roots are piled up on a layer of straw
S
in conical heaps weighing between 300 kg to
500 kg (600 lb to .5 tons). The pile is covered
with straw and soil and openings should be
A
left for ventilation. It is possible to store
cassava for up to 4 weeks without significant
V
weight loss or decay (Figure 20).
Another method of storing cassava is to place
them in wooden crates containing damp
A
sawdust. However, if the sawdust is too moist
it promotes fungal growth and if it is too dry
the roots deteriorate quickly. Lining the crates
with perforated plastic prevents dehydration
of the sawdust, resulting in a storage life of about 1 month.Fig 20. Cleaning and weed removal
around cassava storage structure.
Cassava roots treated with the fungicide thiabendazole can be stored for 3 weeks inside perforated
plastic bags at ambient temperatures. Keeping the roots inside plastic bags also reduces the incidence of
vascular streaking.
Various types of above-ground storage structures can be built for extending cassava postharvest life.
The structures should be located in shaded areas free from standing water during heavy rains. A simple
storage facility can be constructed from unfinished wooden planks painted white to reduce heat
accumulation and covered with a thatched roof for protection against the sun and rain.
The structure has a large door on one side for loading and unloading. It is designed for holding between
1 to 2 tons (1000 kg to 2000 kg) of cassava. A brick or concrete floor is recommended for permanent
storage buildings and the structure should have a large door for loading and unloading. A tin or shingled
roof is ideal, and the structure should have good ventilation. The doors should be secured against rodent
entry and theft.
Postharvest Temperature
Refrigerated storage may not be an economical, viable method for extending the postharvest life of
domestically marketed cassava, but is typically necessary for roots intended for high-value export markets.
Fresh cassava roots are highly perishable at normal air temperatures, often becoming unmarketable after
several days to a week.
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C
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Y
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Soils
It is possible to grow West Indian cherries in a wide range of soil types. However, highest
yields are obtained from trees growing on well drained soils with more or less neutral C
reaction i.e. neither acid (sour) or alkaline (sweet). Given that most of the soils in Guyana
are acid in reaction, a significant response can be expected from liming, which is the main
way of reducing soil acidity. In sandy soils, the plant may be affected by nematodes which
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live in the soil. The recommended practice to overcome this is treatment of the soil with a
nematicide. However, liming and the use of mulches will also be helpful. E
Field layout, land shaping, drainage systems, planting hole preparation, plant spacing and
time of planting depend on the area where the planting will be done. The characteristics of R
cultivars to be planted (upright and open or spreading and bushy canopy) and the type of
planting material (rooted cuttings or seedlings) are also important considerations.. Wide
inter row spacing, narrow cambered beds, deep drains, raised mounds, are some of the
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possible measures that may be adopted for overcoming adverse field conditions. Planting
just before the onset of the rainy season is the recommended practice. It may be possible Y
to plant continuously, if supplementary irrigation is available during the drier seasons.
Planting
Cherry seedlings are ready for planting out in the field when they are about 46 cm (18 ins)
high. Planting should be conducted during the wet season while there is still moisture in
the topsoil.
The recommended spacing for pure stand cultivation is 4.5 m x 4.5 m (15’ x 15’) giving a
population of 500 plants per hectare (200 plants per acre). For mixed stands or intercropping
systems, a lower plant population may be necessary,
Planting holes are dug to a size to accommodate the plant in the bag but usually around 30 cm
(1 ft.) in length, width and depth.
The topsoil removed in digging the plant hole could be mixed with rotted pen manure, compost
or some phosphate fertiliser. Some of this mixed soil is then returned to the planting hole before
putting the plant.
The plant bags in which plants are usually supplied should be carefully removed so as to keep
the root ball intact. The plants are then placed in the holes following which the balance of the
topsoil is returned to fill the holes and thoroughly compressed. If conditions are dry the plants
should be watered.
As part of their cultivation system, growers need to consider
•Intercropping
•Closer spacing & subsequent thinning out to the required spacing.
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Harvest
The Cherry plant usually comes into fruiting about 2-3 years after
transplanting depending on the size of the plants after transplanting.
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Rooted cuttings can produce much earlier with the first important
crop produced 18 -24 months after planting. Successive annual yields
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increase, peaking at 4-5 years after planting.
Healthy 6-year old trees have been reported to yield 15 kg per tree
per annum.
E
This soft fruit is harvested by hand picking. However, systems of
using tractor hauled hydraulic shakers with fruits being collected on
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tarpaulin or plastic sheeting spread under the trees have been tried
elsewhere. In some large operations, all fruits are picked at the same
time. This has several advantages, especially for the management
R
of labour, timing and standardization of field operations; and optimising
yield potential by reducing damage to new flowers. It also improves Vitamin C content since
Y
green fruits have a higher concentration of ascorbic acid than ripe fruits.
Post Harvest Handling

High losses are to be expected if sufficient care is not taken when picking and handling. This
may be of minor importance if the fruits are to be used shortly after harvesting. If fruits are to be
stored for longer periods before use, then refrigeration (for 3-5 days storage) or freezing (for
more than 7 days storage) are recommended.
In all cases, it is important to store in the shade because exposure to direct sunlight lowers
ascorbic acid content, alters flavour and leads to undesirable colour changes.
Fruits should be stored in open crates or baskets, which provide good ventilation. Bags provide
poor ventilation and storage in bags should be avoided.
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Introduction
Chive is a member of the Allium family (Alliaceae) which includes other crops such as eschallot, onion, C
garlic, leek and bunching onion. The chive is the most widely distributed of the Allium species. The crop
is a perennial, but in Guyana it is cultivated as an annual where the entire plant is harvested after an eight
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week growing cycle. Compared to onions and other alliums, chives have a strong tillering habit, forming
dense clumps without well-formed bulbs.
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V
Chives are grown mainly to satisfy the domestic market in Guyana. The herb has culinary and medicinal
properties. The fresh leaves are used for making herbal butters and vinegar as well as a flavouring in
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salads, soups and soft cheeses. The oils (leaf extract) of the plant are known to lower blood levels of
low-density lipoproteins. Chives contain some iron and vitamins and can be used as mild antibiotics and
laxative. The plants can also be grown for their attractive pinkish to mauve fragrant flowers.
Cultivation
Soil
Chives are tolerant to a wide range of soil conditions but fertile, well-drained medium loams with a pH
of 6.0 - 7.0 are generally considered most suitable. Sandy soils can also be used if organic matter (30-40
tons/ha) is incorporated. Clay soils need good drainage as well as organic matter (well-rotted pen
manure) to improve the soil structure and fertility.
Land preparation
Chive is a shallow rooted crop (25-30 cm), so land preparation should not be deep. For virgin lands,
plough the land twice down and across the field, to a depth of 20-25 cm, and harrow to obtain a fine tilth.
Form beds 120 cm wide and 20 cm high. For continuously cultivated lands, fork and rake the land
before planting.
If nut grass, Cyperus rotundus, is present at land preparation, use Roundup at 3-4 tbs/gal 7-14 days
before planting. The chemical is most effective when the weeds are actively growing.
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Irrigation
Chives respond well to regular irrigation, especially in the dry seasons. Watering in the morning is highly C
recommended.
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Weed Control
Chive is poor competitor with weeds for water and soil nutrients - due to its shallow fibrous root system
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and the lack of an aerial canopy to shade out other vegetation. V
Chive is affected by many weeds but Hog bhagee, Portulaca oleracea L. is of major economic importance. E
It affects the plant from a very early stage; it grows vigorously competing with the plant and if not
controlled, especially during the first three weeks of crop growth, it will smother the plants.
P. oleracea can be controlled effectively with the broadleaf-specific chemical, Runstar at15 ml/2-3 gal
water. Since this chemical does not affect straight vein weeds such as grasses, the most suitable method
of control is removal by hand.
Insect Pests and Their Control

Chive is subject to pest attacks like any other crop. Daily inspection is recommended for insect pests.
This should be done in the early morning or late afternoon. Apply insecticides only when the pests are
present at levels that can reduce returns of the crop.
1. Leafminer, Liriomyza sp.
Economically, this is the most important pest affecting chive cultivation on the coast. The larvae of the
leafminer feed between the leaf surfaces leaving irregular patterns of greenish-white mines on the leaves.
This pest occurs year-round and it indiscriminately attacks plants of all stages of the crop cycle. Serious
infestation causes yellowing, and subsequently browning of infected leaves.
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Control
Apply any one of the following: C
a) Leaf Guard (IGR) 75%. Mix 7g/18 litres water. For high insect population, repeat every seven days,
for normal levels repeat every 14 to 21 days. Pre-harvest interval is seven to ten days.
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b) Padan 50 WSP. Mix 15 g in 4 to5 litres of water. Ensure a seven day interval between applications.
Pre-harvest interval is ten days.
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c) Trigard 75% WP. Mix 2 g/3.8 litres water. V
It is advisable to alternate these chemicals to prevent the pest from developing resistance to the chemicals.
E
2. Crickets
Mole crickets, Scapteriscus spp. are present year-round and attack the crop indiscriminately. Crickets
bite through the pseudostem of the chive destroying the entire plant. This is common during the first
two weeks of planting.
Control
A bait comprising 0.9 kg (2 lb) freshly grated coconut and 3 ounces malathion and small handful of
sugar or 2 tablespoons of molasses can be used to control crickets.
This mixture is applied in the evening and evidence of control can be noticed the morning after. This
method is highly effective in controlling the pest and one application is necessary per crop cycle.
The pest can also be controlled by any of the following:
Diazinon (Contact) 1-2 tbsp/4.5 L (1-2 tbsp/gal)

Fastac (Contact) 1-2 tsp/4.5 L (1-2 tsp/gal)
Admire (Systemic) 28.4-85.2 g/4.5 L (1-3 oz/gal)
Fendona (Contact) 28.4-113.1 g/4.5 L (1-4 oz/gal)
Padan (Contact - ingestion) 2-3 tsp/4.5 L (2-3 tsp/gal)
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Post-harvest Management
Chive is a highly perishable crop and should therefore reach the market within 24 hours of harvesting. If C
refrigerated conditions are available, this can extend to 48 hours. Storing at 0-1oC at 95-100% relative
humidity can extend the shelf life of chives for 7-14 days.
H
Flow Diagram of Post-Harvest Handling System For Chives
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C
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In the main, Rootstocks are chosen for resistance to diseases, adaptability to soil type, quality and yield
of fruit. Nowadays, the primary selection of rootstocks is made for resistance to Tristeza, which is
considered the most destructive virus disease of citrus. C
The Tristeza-resistant rootstocks which are suitable for conditions in Guyana are Carizzo Citrange,
Cleopatra Mandarin, Rangpur Lime, Rough Lemon, Swingle Citrumelo and Volkameriana Lemon.
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However, as each of the rootstocks varies regarding resistance to additional virus diseases as well as to
the other factors mentioned, it is recommended that every estate should have plants on more than one
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type of rootstock.
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A limited amount of budded Citrus plants primarily on Rough Lemon rootstock, are usually available
from the NARI U
Nurseries, Also, plans are in place to produce Tristeza-free plants in the not to distant future. However,
growers of large areas are encouraged to produce their own plants.
S
Seeds are extracted from the fruit of the selected rootstock (e.g. Rough Lemon washed to remove slime,
dried at room temperature, soak for 10 minutes at 49-52OC then treated with a fungicide (e.g.) Captan)
and stored moist in polythene bag at 4OC, 40OF for not too excessive a time until needed. The seeds are
planted in prepared seedbeds or boxes and are transplanted when 4-6 inches (10- 15 cm) high into
individual plastic plant bags or field beds. Alternatively, the seed could be planted directly into the plastic
plant bags, putting 2-3 seeds per bag, thinning out and transplanting into other bags depending on the
germination and growth.
Depending on the rootstock being used, the seedlings should be ready for budding in 4 to 8 months from
sowing.
Budwood is selected from healthy, high yielding trees free from viruses. At this stage, it is recommended
that the grower solicit the assistance of an experienced budder or NARI horticultural personnel.
Budding is usually conducted at a height of 12 to 15 inches (30 to 37.5 cm) from ground level using the
inverted “T” method. After successful budding, the plants should be ready for transplanting in 3 to 6
months time.
Site Selection
Citrus can be grown in a variety of soils but irrespective of the soil type, it I essential that adequate
drainage be provided. For under waterlogged conditions, growth is stunted and the plants are more
prone to disease infestation.
In areas exposed to constant high winds, Windbreaks should be planted. Wind adversely affects the
growth of Citrus, causing excessive twig dieback and premature flower drop on the windward side. Fruit
trees such as Malacca Apple (Eugenia sp.) and Jamoon (Eugenia sp.) have successfully been used as
windbreaks.
Fruit trees such as Malacca Apple (Eugenia sp.) and Jamoon (Eugenia sp.) have successfully been used
as windbreaks.
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Pruning
As the young citrus plant begins to grow, shoots originating from the rootstock (below the bud
union) could develop. These rootstock shoots are usually very vigorous and could hamper the
growth of the scion or bud.
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Consequently, it is necessary to examine the young citrus plant at least once per month and remove
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all shoots developing from the rootstock.
Little other pruning is necessary except for the shaping of the framework to produce a structurally
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balanced tree.
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As the trees grow older, the rootstock shoots become less, and little or no pruning may be necessary
except for the removal of dead wood. U
However, sometimes the lower branches grow towards the ground, restricting air movement around
the rootstock area. This tends to increase the humidity around this area encouraging the development
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of fungal diseases. Pruning of those lower branches may therefore be necessary.
Fertilising
Fertiliser needs of the Citrus plants are directly related to the type and nutrient status of the soil. It
is essential’ therefore that a soil analysis be conducted to determine these factors for the particular
location. However, in the absence of a precise soil analysis, the following might suffice:
Riverain Soil - Compound Fertiliser 12:12:17:2 at the rate of 225g (1/2 lb.) to 0.9 kg (2 lbs.)
depending on the age and size of the plant, applied twice per year usually at the beginning of each
wet period.
Sandy Soil - The above could be used a the higher rate as well as 3:9:30 + FTE at the rate of 225g
(1/2 lb) per plant once per year.
WEED CONTROL
General Weeds compete with the Citrus plants for moisture and nutrients as well as providing
conditions for the development of unwanted pests and diseases. Therefore, the control of weeds is
highly desirous.
Weeding around the plants is usually done manually, while general weed control could be
accomplished by the following, singly or in combination.
• Manually
• Chemically
• Mechanically, by the use of brush cutters and/or mowers.
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Baiting
This method capitalises on the insect’s habit of taking material into the nests to culture a fungal food, and
the nests need not necessarily be located. Control is affected by the use of poison bait such as the one
developed by the NARI and sold at the Head Office or at Plant Nurseries.
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The bait is scattered along the working trail and feeding holes of the ants, but not poured into the holes.
Another method is to place the bait into open ended cylindrical tubes (PVC, Cans, Bamboo) which in
turn are placed in the trails or near feeding holes.
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Putting the bait into the tubes offers some protection against adverse weather.
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Contact by hands with the bait should be avoided as this might neutralise the effect of the attractant in the
bait.
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Fogging
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Fogging is recommended for the control of very large nests, which must be located. It is done with a
Swing Fog machine and the fogging agent could be any soil or contact insecticide such as Basudin
(Diazinon) or Malathion.
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It should be noted that all the holes in the nest except the fogging hole will have to be plugged to effect
the fogging exercise.
Spraying
Small nests with no mounds and little underground chambers can be sprayed with an appropriate soil
insecticide such as Basudin (Diazinon) at a rate of about 10 mls in 4 Litres of water ( 2 teaspoons in a
gallon of water).
It should be noted that the occurrence of any unusual pest or disease should be reported to the
Crop Protection Section at NARI for investigation.
2. Citrus Leaf Miner - Phyllocnistis citrella
Fig 2. Symptoms of the presence of citrus leaf miner
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If virulent stem pitting strains and T. citricida are endemic, citrus scion varieties tolerant to CTV should
be planted. These include mandarins, and tangarine. Only CTV-tolerant or resistant rootstock should be
used. Avoid planting grapefruit or sweet orange unless they have been pre-infected with a cross-protecting
CTV strain. If CTV strains are less virulent than the previous scenario, sweet oranges and grapefruit,
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preferably pre-inoculated with a mild CTV isolate, can be grown with consideration for the market
targeted (e.g. fresh fruit, domestic, export, juice, etc.). When CTV problems are anticipated, closer plant
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spacing should be considered to maximize land use during the grove’s early years. Trees that decline or
become stunted can either be replaced or simply removed and neighbouring trees allowed to fill in. T
Tree size is managed by trimming the sides and tops of trees. This practice produces conditions excellent
for CTV spread and allows tree canopies to touch in the direction of the row. Pruning induces new shoot
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growth in which CTV multiplication is optimal as long as temperature and moisture are favourable.
Hence the uniform growth that results from pruning maximizes opportunities for CTV acquisition and
inoculation.
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If CTV incidence is undetectable or mild and T. citricida is not established in a particular region, citrus
trees grafted on sour orange rootstock may still be acceptable. This decision depends on the risk of
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losses due to CTV versus the advantages gained by the use of sour orange (e.g. salinity, cold hardiness,
Phytophthora, high soil pH, poor drainage). Several areas have managed CTV by eradication of infected
trees. This programme is cost effective if virus incidence is low and spread is slow.
Regardless of the present CTV/aphid vector situation, a citrus budwood certification programme is
essential for a good citrus industry. CTV and all other citrus virus and virus-like agents are readily graft
transmissible. Diagnostic methods are available for testing and detection of citrus pathogens in budwood
sources. Serological and molecular biology allow some rapid evaluation of pathogen virulence.
Thermotherapy and shoot tip grafting are now standard methods to eliminate pathogens from budwood.
If a cross-protective CTV isolates are available, they can be incorporated into the budwood certification
programme.
Biological Control
Although natural enemies are important in regulating aphid populations, they alone may not be satisfactory
for controlling plant virus diseases. Aphid populations on citrus are often too variable to provide sufficient
natural enemies for effective vector control. One concept is to direct biological control activities to
reduce migrant vector populations before they spread through susceptible crops. Given that alternative
prey are available, natural enemies could reduce T. citricida populations to mitigate secondary spread of
CTV (tree to tree within a field), especially if conservation and augmentation efforts are used. In South
America, various natural enemies have been observed attacking T. citricida.
Chemical Control
Insecticidal control of T. citricida to slow spread of CTV is an unproven strategy. Although insecticides
may not act quickly enough to prevent primary infection by viruliferous aphids, reduction of aphid
populations would decrease secondary spread. Its effectiveness depends on longevity of suppression and
extent of the treated area in relation to inoculum reservoir and migratory activity of the aphid. It should
be cautioned that use of foliar insecticides can interfere with biological control agents and, ultimately,
their use to protect citrus is temporary. Several systemic insecticides including Acephate Imidacloprid,
Fastac, Karate and Pestac have been used against T. citricida with various residual effects. CTV is
transmitted only by vectors that colonize citrus because it is phloem-limited.
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Chemical Control:
Control of this disease is only possible when it is detected and treated early. Treatment requires firstly the
checking of the drainage and eliminating any deficiencies.
Further treatment consists of removing the infected bark and painting the exposed surface with a dressing
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of a copper fungicide such as Kocide or Cupravit made up as a paste of about 100g in 4 litres of water.
(4 ozs. in I gallon of water). I
Fungicides, such as Aliette (Fosetyl-Al) and Ridomil (Metalaxyl), can be used as a dressing or a spray at
about 15g in 4 litres of water (0.5oz in I gallon of water).
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2. Citrus Scab R
This disease is caused by the fungus Elsinoe fawcetti which produces raised brown corky warts on the
leaves, twigs and fruit of susceptible plants (Figure 5). U
As Oranges and Grapefruits are fairly resistant to this
disease, it is rarely seen in growing orchards, but is prevalent S
in the nurseries where Sour orange and Lemons are used as
rootstocks.
Control
Cultural Control
• Proper Nursery management
• Sterilize nursery equipment
Fig 5. Symptoms of Citrus Scab

Chemical Control
Proper nursery management and regular spraying of Captan or Ridomil at about 5ozs (140 gms.) in I
gallon (4L) could achieve control.
3. Viral Diseases of citrus

There are many virus diseases that attack the citrus tree but the one of main interest to Guyana at the
present time is the CTV (Figure 6). On susceptible
rootstocks, such as Sour Orange, the virus attacks the area
at the bud union. With the severe strain of the virus, the tree
could exhibit a quick decline, wilting, defoliation and death.
On the other hand, with a less severe strain, there could be a
more gradual die back with progressive wilting and yield
reduction. Very often when the tree dies, there could be a
large crop of small fruits still remaining attached to the dead
branches. Both infected budwood and several species of
aphids spread this disease.
Fig 6. Symptoms of CTV
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Harvest Methods
Oranges should be harvested using a pair of clippers or by carefully
twisting and pulling the fruit from the tree so the button (calyx and
disk) remains attached to the fruit (Figure 11). Stems left on the fruit at
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picking should be removed because they can puncture other fruit, causing
postharvest decay and fruit spoilage. Careless picking that results in
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plugging (part of the rind pulls loose from the fruit) is unacceptable. All
oranges are susceptible to plugging, but some cultivars are more likely
to plug than others, especially ‘Pineapple’ oranges. Fig 10. A total of 10 randomly
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Never shake the tree to harvest the fruit. Any fruit which falls to the
selected oranges should be cut in
half, squeezed, and the juice
filtered to determine % soluble
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ground is likely to be severely bruised and subject to postharvest
decay. Ladders may be needed to facilitate harvesting of fruit borne on tall
trees. Avoid rough harvesting practices which result in fruit bruising. It is a
solids:acidity ratio.
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popular misconception that citrus fruit can withstand rough handling. Citrus
is more durable than many other fruits, but it does bruise easily.
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The harvested fruit should be carefully put into padded field crates, well
ventilated plastic containers, or picking bags. Picking bags are either strapped
around the waist or put over the shoulder and made with a quick-opening
bottom. These harvesting containers can be made by sewing bags with openings
on both ends, fitting fabric over the open bottom of ready-made baskets, fitting
bags with adjustable harnesses, or by simply adding some carrying straps to a Fig 11. The button (calyx
small basket (Figure 12). and disk) should remain
attached to the fruit at
When filled with fruit, the bags of oranges are typically emptied into larger harvest.
field crates. Picking sacks are designed to empty from the bottom so that fruit
can roll out of the sack onto the bottom of a larger field container or atop fruit
already present, rather than being dropped. A strong wooden or plastic field container is preferred (Figure
13).
Fig 12. Various styles of Fig 13. Strong wooden field

picking bags used for crates that are stackable are
harvesting oranges. ideal field containers.
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Due to Guyana’s warm climate and high rainfall, postharvest diseases
of oranges can be quite high and cause significant fruit loss. Postharvest
decays may also limit export opportunities for Guyanese growers.
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Therefore, it is economically important to control postharvest diseases
and maintain the quality of the fruit.
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Postharvest decays are caused by latent (resting) or wound-induced
fungal infections. Latent infections typically become established on the
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fruit prior to harvest, but exist in a resting or dormant state until the
conditions are right for fungal growth after harvest. Wound-induced microbial infections usually take place
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after harvest, and begin in areas of the fruit which were injured during picking and/or handling. Oranges must
be harvested and handled gently to avoid bruising and skin injury, which greatly accelerates postharvest
microbial decay. Postharvest decay is also reduced by the use of appropriate pre-harvest and postharvest
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fungicides, proper sanitation of the wash water, and appropriate storage temperature and RH conditions.
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Green Mold
Green mold, caused by the fungus Penicillium digitatum, is generally the worst postharvest disease of
oranges. The fungus enters the fruit only through wounded areas and causes a rapid breakdown of fruit
punctured or bruised during harvesting and packing. The initial symptom appears as a soft, watery, slightly
discoloured spot (6-12 mm [0.2-0.5 in] in diameter) on the rind. The spot enlarges to 2-4 cm (0.8-1.6 in) in
diameter within 24-36 hours at 24°C (75°F), and the rot soon penetrates into the juice vesicles. White fungal
growth appears on the fruit surface, and after the spot enlarges to a diameter of about 2.5 cm, (1 inch) olive-
green spores are produced (Figure 14). The sporulating area is surrounded by a broad zone of white fungal
growth and an outer zone of softened rind. The entire fruit is soon covered with a mass of olive-green spores,
which are easily dispersed by air currents or movement of the fruit. If the storage RH is low, the fruit shrinks
to a wrinkled, dry mummy. If the RH is high, the fruit collapses into a soft, decomposing mass.
Green mold develops most rapidly at about 24°C. The rot can be almost completely inhibited by storing
oranges at 0°C -1°C (32°F - 34°C). Adequate ventilation of the storage room is important because high
concentrations of ethylene will increase the incidence of green mold. Also, preharvest and postharvest sprays
of benzimidazole fungicides will reduce the amount of green mold.
Fig 14. Different stages of

green mold decay on orange fruit.
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Phomopsis Stem-end Rot
Stem-end rot, caused by the fungus Phomopsis citri, is a serious type of decay on all orange cultivars. It
is more prevalent in the humid coastal production areas than in drier in-land zones. Decay begins at the
stem end of the fruit and will penetrate the rind and juice sacs. The infected tissue shrinks and a clear line
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of demarcation is formed at the junction between diseased and healthy rind (Figure 18). The disease does
not spread from decayed to healthy fruit in packed cartons.
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Fig 17. Anthracnose decay Fig 18. Phomopsis stem-end rot of
of Hamlin orange fruit. orange fruit.
Diplodia Stem-end Rot

Stem-end rot, caused by the fungi Diplodia natalensis, is a serious postharvest disease of oranges in
Guyana. Spores lodge beneath the calyx at the time
of flowering and remain dormant until the fruits are
harvested. The fungus becomes active at the stem end
of the fruit and symptoms appear within several weeks
after harvest at ambient temperature. Symptoms
include the formation of water-soaked spots near the
stem end of the fruit, which turn blackish-brown.
Fungal growth progresses rapidly through the spongy
central axis of the fruit. The decay proceeds unevenly
through the rind, producing finger-like projections of
brown tissue (Figure 19). Decayed tissue is initially
firm, but later becomes wet and mushy. Decay usually Fig 19. Diplodia stem-end rot of
does not spread from infected to healthy fruit in packed containers. oranges.
The incidence of stem end rot will be greater on fruit that requires a high concentration of ethylene to de-
green the peel. Control of stem-end rot is obtained by preharvest fungicide sprays, postharvest application
of imazalil, and low temperature storage. The decay is almost completely inhibited at temperatures
below 10°C (50°F). Diplodia rot in oranges can also be retarded by postharvest applications of 2,4-
dichlorophenoxy acetic acid at a dose of 500ppm, that retards senescence of the button and therefore the
entry of the pathogen.
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Stem-end Rind Breakdown
Stem-end rind breakdown (SERB) is a collapse and subsequent darkening of the rind around the stem
end of
oranges (Figure 22). A narrow band of rind around the stem usually remains undamaged. The collapse of
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tissue
develops within a week of harvest and is due to excessive moisture loss
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from the rind prior to harvest and continued moisture loss and shriveling of
the peel after harvest. Valencia oranges are particularly susceptible.
During hot weather, water moves from the citrus rind back into the tree
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causing the fruit to wilt. Fruit that feels soft when harvested is more likely
to develop SERB. Oranges borne on trees with a heavy crop of small fruit
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with thin rinds are more likely to develop SERB. Growers can reduce the
incidence of SERB by irrigating Valencia oranges prior to harvest during
hot dry weather conditions. If this is not possible, wet the fruit in the field
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containers bins and place them in the shade. Harvest and handle the fruit
carefully, since bruised fruit with a damaged rind can lose moisture and
Fig 22. Stem-end rind
breakdown symptoms on
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shrivel at twice the rate of non-bruised fruit. Transport the fruit to the Navel orange.
packing shed as soon as possible after harvest, followed by a wax treatment to prevent further moisture
loss. The fruit should also be kept cool.
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INTRODUCTION
In Guyana, coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) ranks third, next to rice and sugar, as a priority agricultural
crop. In spite of this, the potential of the crop has been largely under exploited and poorly developed.
Coconuts contribute only approximately 1% to the total gross domestic product (GDP) of the country,
an under achievement, considering the priority ranking of the crop in the agricultural sector.
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It is estimated that there are 24 000 hectares under coconut production, with an average annual production
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of 92 million nuts. In order to increase and sustain current levels of production to meet market demand
for greater economic efficiency, it is imperative that the issue of increasing coconut productivity be
urgently addressed.
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VARIETIES
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Coconut varieties and forms
Coconut is grown widely on the coastal regions of Guyana, primarily along the Pomeroon River, in the
Essequibo Coast, East Demerara, and West Berbice and on the Corentyne Coast. Coconut is mainly
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processed into cooking oil. Average copra yield from 100 nuts ranges from 13 to 16 kg. The use of
tendernut as a nutritive beverage is very popular in Guyana.
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Commercial holdings of coconut are mainly sown with two types of the Tall variety and two types of the
Dwarf variety. The Tall types are the predominant source of copra, while the Dwarf variety is specially
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grown for their sweet water. One variant of intermediate height, known as ‘Bastard Nut’, is grown in the
Pomeroon River area and is cultivated for both copra production and for its sweet water, although its
copra yield is inferior to the Tall types.
Tall types
The most common Tall types existing in the country are the Jamaica Tall and the Panama Tall, each of
which consist of two basic colour forms: green and bronze. The Jamaica Tall bears long, angular nuts
with distinct ridges and a thick mesocarp. Dehusked, its nuts are also angular and pointed at the end. On
the other hand, the Panama Tall’s fruits are much more spherical with a thinner mesocarp. These two
types may be considered the ‘original’ Tall types in Guyana. Another variant of the Tall type found on the
Coastal Corentyne (No. 60 Village), as reported by Manthriratoa (1980), is a type with spherical, medium-
sized nuts but with a pronounced dark pink mesocarp. Several variations in epicarp colour forms have
also been observed. Generally, commercial stands could not be classified on this criterion alone. Farmers,
however, could distinguish between the two Tall types known as Clara Nut and Cocrit Nut. Clara Nut is
similar in character to the Panama Tall. Cocrit Nut, on the other hand, seems to combine the nut
characteristics of the Jamaican Tall and the Panama Tall.
The Cocrit Nut is regarded as a ‘nut number’ type rather than a ‘nut size’ type. Fruits of the Cocrit Nut
are more spherical than oblong, with a thin mesocarp and thick kernel. Nut size ranges from small to
large, with trees of larger nuts being less prolific. Commercial copra producers prefer the ‘5-year’ (5
years to begin production) nuts with an intermediate nut size, high yield and precocity.
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1. Regular bearing habit and yielding not less than 80 nuts/annum.
2. Age 20 years or more (five years after reaching full bearing capacity). If the mother palms are the
progeny of elite planting material and give consistently higher yields for a period of not less than
six years, seed nuts can be collected from such palms. There is no need for insisting 20 years as
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minimum age for mother palms in such conditions.
3. More than 30 fully opened leaves with short strong petioles and wide leaf base firmly attached to
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the stem.
4. Bearing at least 12 bunches of nuts with strong bunch stalks.
5. Bearing nuts of medium size and oblong shape.
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6. Husked nuts should weigh not less than 600g.
7. Mean copra content of 150 g per nut or more.
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8. Avoid palms which (i) have long, thin and pendulous inflorescence stalks (ii) produce long,
narrow, small sized or barren nuts (iii) show shedding of immature nuts in large numbers and (iv)
are grown under favourable environmental conditions.
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Collection and storage of seed nuts
The nuts selected for propagation should be mature (at least 11 months old). Lowering of bunches by
means of ropes may be done when the palms are tall and the ground is hard. Discard nuts which show
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improper development or other undesirable features. Seeds should be stored in shade prior to sowing in
the nursery. For storing, arrange the seed nuts with the stalk-end up over an 8cm layer of sand in a shed
and cover with sand to prevent drying of nut water. Up to five layers of nuts can be arranged one over
the other. The nuts can also be stored in plots, provided the soil is sandy and the ground is sufficiently
shaded.
Before planting, the seed nuts must be further examined. Those without nut water and rotten kernels
must be discarded.
Planting seed nuts

The sites where the seed nuts are to be planted must be well drained. The soil should preferably be light
textured. Beds of 1.5m width and of convenient length with 75cm space between beds are recommended.
In areas with poor drainage, raised beds must be used.
The seed nuts should be planted in the beds in trenches 25-30 cm deep and covered with soil so that the
top portion of the husk alone is visible. The nuts may be planted either horizontally with the widest of the
segments at the top or vertically with stalk-end up. Vertical planting is preferable on account of convenience
in transporting and lesser risk of seedling injury. It is advisable to plant at the onset of the rainy season.
It normally takes between 4-6 weeks for the nuts to germinate.
Nursery production
After germination, the seed nuts are transferred to the main nursery that can be either poly bag or field.
The nursery site must be near or within the field to be planted to minimize handling cost and damage to
the seedlings. In addition, the site should be well drained and situated near a dependable water source.
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a) Early germination, rapid growth and seedling vigour;
b) Six to eight leaves for 10-12 month old seedlings and at least four leaves for nine month old
seedlings;
c) Collar girth to 10-12 cm; and
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d) Early splitting of leaves.
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Note. The recovery of quality seedlings will be about 60-65%. Since early germination is one of the
criteria for the selection of seedlings, the storing and sowing of seed nuts should be in lots rather than in
a staggered manner.
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Preparation of Seedlings for transplanting
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Thorough care has to be given to seedlings during removal from the nursery for transplanting in the field.
The common practice of removing seedlings from the nursery manually with or without the use of shovel
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to cut the roots, may result in low recovery of seedlings when transplanted in the field.
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To facilitate the easy removal of seedlings from the nursery, this activity must be done at the onset of the
rainy season when the soil is friable. To remove the seedlings, it should be pulled carefully and at the
same time cutting the roots that are attached to the ground with a shovel. For polybag seedlings, care
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should be taken in removing it by lifting and cutting any roots coming out from the polybag. The polybag
should then be removed while taking care not to break the soil around the roots.
FIELD ESTABLISHMENT AND TRANSPLANTING
FIELD ESTABLISHMENT:
This operation involves preparation of land for field planting and should be prepared six to twelve
months before planting. For replanting, the old coconut trees are felled, chipped and left to rot. After
weeding, staking and holing are carried out, land preparation should be timed to coincide with the dry
season. For a new area, the land should be cleared of weed and shrub.
The size of pits for planting would depend upon soil types and water table. In sandy soils, the size of pits
may be 0.75 x 0.75 x 0.75m. The pits may be filled up with topsoil to a height 60 cm below the ground
level. In low lying lands, take shallow pits and as the plants grows, raise the ground level by adding silt
and sand so as to cover the entire hole of the palm. The same procedure can be adopted when planting
is done on mounds or bunds. Burial of two layers of husks in the floor of the pits will be useful for
moisture conservation. The husk is to be buried in layers with the concave surface facing upwards.
The seedlings are removed from the nursery by lifting with a spade and cutting the roots. The seedlings
should be kept in shade and not exposed to the sun. The seedlings should be planted as early as possible
after removal from the nursery. The leaves or stems should not be pulled when the seedlings are being
removed.
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This mixture should be applied once every six month and 3-4 weeks after limestone application.
Sandy Soils (sand reefs) C

Young palms
Urea – 114g (1/4 lb)
TSP – 700 g (11/2 lb)
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MOP – 340g (3/4 lb)
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This application should be done at six month intervals. The placement should be the same as was described
above for clay soils.
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Bearing palms
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Apply 7.2 kg (16 lb) limestone to bearing palms every two to three years.
Urea – 700 g (1/1/2 lb)

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TSP – 1.14 kg (21/2 lb)
MOP – 700 g (11/2 lb) T
This mixture should be applied once every six month and 3-4 weeks after limestone application.
Insect Pests of Coconut (Cocos nucifera L)

i) Coconut Caterpillar, Brassolis sophorea (Lepidoptera; Nymphalidae)
ii) Coconut Moth Borer, Castnia deadalus (Lepidoptera; Castnidae)
iii) Coconut Cockle/Beetle, Stategus aloeus (Coleoptera; Scarabaeidae)
iv) Coconut Palm Weevil,Rhyochophorus palmarum (Coleoptera; Curculionidae)
v) Ant, Azteca spp., (Hymenoptera; Formicidae)
i) Coconut Caterpillar Brassolis sophorea (Lepidoptera; Nymphalidae)
Fig. 1 Coconut Caterpillar Fig. 2 Cocoon
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The emission of wet whitish wood, while drilling indicates a healthy palm on which the treatment will be
effective. The emission of dry reddish wood indicates a very old or dying palm and one on which the
treatment will not be effective. Insert the tube of the container which is filled with Monocrotophos 60%
E.C into the hole and fill it. DO NOT PLUG THE HOLE. Caterpillar will die within 3 – 5 days after
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treatment.
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ii) Coconut Moth Borer Castnia deadalus (Lepidoptera; Castnidae)
The caterpillars are creamy-white in colour and approximately 10 – 12 cm long

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when fully grown (Figure 6). They live and feed between the bases of branches
and trusses leaving shallow tunnels on the trunk. As they continue to feed, they
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move vertically upwards of the palm. Occasionally, larvae tunnel the bases of
leaves and trusses thereby causing no tunnels on the trunk.
An attack by this pest causes leaves and trusses to droop and nut to be shed
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Fig. 6 Larva of coconut
prematurely (Figure 6). Palms may die when larvae bore into the growing point.
with borer U
The adult moth is dark brown in colour with a whitish bar midway on the forewing and a cresent shaped whitish
mark on the distal portion of the hind wing with two rows of whitish spots (Figure 7). Life cycle ranges from
160 – 180 days.
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Fig. 8 Adult Moth
Fig. 7 Damage caused by the Coconut

Moth Borer
Control
Chemical Control:
With the use of a brace and a 5/16in bit, drill three holes, at equal distances, around the sides of the trunk.
Monocrotophos 60% E.C is poured into the holes (as described above for the control of the coconut
caterpillar). The caterpillar will die within 7 – 10 days after treatment.
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Treating Breeding Places: - If it is difficult to remove or destroy the insect’s breeding places of decaying
plant debris, then these should be sprayed using a 0.1% solution of a soil insecticide, as mentioned
above. C
Treating Plants That Have Been Attacked: - Young plants should be examined regularly for signs of
cockle infestation. An insecticidal solution of 0.1% concentration, as mentioned above, can be poured O
down the hole made by the cockle.
IV) Coconut Palm Weevil Rhyochophorus palmarum (Coleoptera; Curculionidae)

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The adult weevil (Figure 11) is known to be the carrier of the nematode, Rhadinaphelenchus coccophilus, O
which is responsible for red ring disease in coconut. Damage to adult palms is enhanced by wound on the
trunk. Evidence of the weevil’s presence is holes on the trunk from which pieces of chewed fibre, with a
thick brownish liquid oozing out (Figure 12). Life cycle ranges from 140 – 165 days.
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Fig. 11 Adult coconut palm weevil Fig 12. Damage due to coconut
palm weevil
Control
Cultural Control:
• Avoid injury to the trunk. Females lay eggs in wounds where the soft wood is exposed. Wounds
on the trunk should be tarred.
Chemical Control:
• Trapping: - Cut and split the trunk of a newly cut tree in 1m lengths. Treat each piece with a
0.2% solution of Basudin E.C or Vydate L 40% E.C and set these at various locations throughout
the cultivation. Weevil will be attached to these traps and die within 5 -7 days.
iv) Azteca Ants Azteca spp., (Hymenoptera; Formicidae)

The Azteca ants are brownish to black in colour and are about 0.5 – 1 mm in size (Figure 13). They build
carton nests, often near the crown, on the trunk of the palm. Additionally, many small ants’ shelters occur
on the leaflets to protect mealy bugs.
The Azteca ants inflict a painful sting when disturbed and, thus, interfere with coconut workers who
climb to harvest the nuts. The ants also interfere with insect pollinators, resulting in reduced yields.
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Symptoms:
• Brown, necrotic leaves hanging down;
• Brown, necrotic unopened inflorescence;
• Initial yellowing of spear leaves;
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• Breakage of frond at mid way;
• Completely necrotized crown; and
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• Collapsed crown (Figure 14).
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Control:
• All infected trees must be cut down and destroyed by
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burning.
• Undergrowth should be kept at a minimum by weeding
. Fig. 14 Coconut Cedros Wilt
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2. Coconut Red Ring U
Casual Organism: Bursaphelenchus cocophilus (nematode)
It is spread by the palm weevil, Rhycopophorus palmarum, and
also the sugarcane weevil, Dynamis borassi and Metamasius
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hempterus.
Symptom:
Symptom varies according to age, variety, and growing conditions.
Symptoms include yellowing or bronzing of leaves (Figure 15),
nut fall and necrosis or withering of newly opened inflorescence.
Production of small and distorted young leaves (little leaf
syndrome), the diagnostic feature of the disease is an internal red
discoloration at the base of the stem in the form of a ring. The red
rings usually extend up the stem, breaking up into streaks or discrete
spots, which may extend into the rachis and petiole and into cortical
tissues of the root.
Control:
• Control vector using insecticide, nematicide. Fig. 15 Symptoms of coconut
• Use resistant varieties and quarantine. red ring
3. Coconut Bud Rot and Coconut Fruit Rot / Coconut

Nut Fall
Causal Organism: Phytophthora katsurae
Symptoms:
• Young nuts rot and fall (Figure 16)
• Buds also rot.
Fig. 16 Coconut Fruit Rot
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The average yield is 1400 kg/ha ranging from 800 to 2000 kg/ha.
Minica 2
The plant is indeterminate. The leaves are pinnately trifoliate and dull green in colour.
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The pods which are green when immature turn brown when dry. There are usually 12 to 16 seeds per
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pod which matures in 70 to 80 days. The seeds are tan coloured, rhomboid in shape and about half the
size of California No.5. W
The average yield is 1500 kg/ha ranging from 800-2500 kg/ha.
Minica 3
The plant is indeterminate. The leaves are pinnately trifoliate and dull green in colour. The pods which
are light brown in colour are ovoid in shape and a little more than half the size of California No. 5.
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There are usually 12 to 16 seeds per pod.
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Minica 4 (Vita 3)
A
The plant is indeterminate. The leaves are pinnately trifoliate and dull green in colour. The pods which
are green when immature are brown when dry and contain 14 to 16 seeds each.
The seeds are kidney-shaped, dusty red in colour and about the same size as California No.5.
ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS
The cowpea is predominantly a hot weather crop preferring temperatures between 20o- 30oc and
rainfall ranging from 600 to 1500 mm per annum. Although generally regarded as being a drought
resistant crop, moisture stress after shoot emergence up to flowering can adversely affect production,
but low moisture does not have a significant effect on determinate types.
It can be grown on a wide range of soils provided they are well drained. It can be grown on poor soils
as it tends also to improve the general status of the soil. For optimum yield, loams are preferred. The
cowpea plant cannot tolerate salinity and although reasonably tolerant to acidity, a pH of 5.5 to 6.5 is
ideal.
CULTIVATION
LAND PREPARATION
On clay soils plough twice, harrow and prepare ridges 60 cm apart; on sandy soils, after the removal
and destruction of vegetation, rake the soil and prepare furrows 60 cm apart.
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Sandy Soils:
At Planting:
Urea 2 - 2.5 kg/ha using inoculated seed or 15 kg/ha using uninoculated

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seed.
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TSP 130 kg/ha
Muriate of Potash 110kg/ha

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At Flowering
Urea 2 - 2.5 kg/ha using inoculated seed or 15 kg/ha using uninoculated

seed.
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Muriate of Potash 110 kg/ha
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Fertilizers should be placed in a band 15 cm away from the stem of the plant. A
INSECTS PESTS AND CONTROL
The main insects which attack cowpea in Guyana and the method of control are outlined below:
Crickets: Gryllotalpa spp. (Orthoptera: Gryllotalpidae)

Acheta spp. (Orthoptera: Gryllidae) and
Cutworms: Agrotis spp.(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
Crickets (Figure 1) usually cut the primary leaves or growing points of the plant while the larvae of the
cutworm (Figure 2), which can be found at the base of the plant and a few meters deep in the soil, cut
young seedlings at ground level.
Fig 1. Adult cricket Fig 2. Larva and adult of the cutworm
Control
Cultural Control
• The areas where vegetables are grown should receive full sunlight; kept clean of weeds and
all crop residues should be removed and burnt.
the destruction of large soil clods, which act as hiding places for cricket.
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4. Bean Beetle: Cerotoma arcuata Diabrotica sp.
(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)
This is a black insect, about 6 mm in length (Figure 4) which causes “shot holes” on
leaves.
Sometimes, it damages flowers and pods, while serious damage can be caused on young
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plants. It is also a vector for the mosaic viruses.
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Control
Cultural Control
Fig 4. Bean Beetle W
and destruction of residues from previous crops will greatly reduce adult
populations thus lowering the potential infestation of the next crop.
adult population.
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• Integrated Pest Management.
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Chemical Control
Apply Sevin 85% WP at the rate of 6 g/4.5 litre (2 teaspoons/gal water). A
5. Leaf Miner: Liriomyza trifolii (Diptera: Agromyzidae)
These are very tiny maggots which tunnel between the inner and outer
surfaces of the leaves. Damage is done by their feeding habits which
leave irregular trails on the leaves (Figure 5).
Control
Cultural Control Fig 5. Damage due to leaf miner

and destruction of residue from previous crops will greatly reduce adult
populations, thus lowering the potential infestation of the next crop.
adult population.
Chemical Control
Apply Triazophos 40% EC 10 at the rate of ml/4.5 litre water or Fenithrothion (5 ml/4.5l water).
6. Leaf Eating Caterpillars: Spodoptera frugiperda

(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
Several species of caterpillars (Figure 6) feed on leaves of the
cowpea plant. Yields can be seriously reduced if there is severe
defoliation.
Fig 6. Larva and adult of leaf eating caterpillars
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8. Pod sucking bugs
Nezara viridula (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) Phthia picta
(Hemiptera:
These are various
Coreidae)
species of plants bugs; they actually do the same
type of damage, by puncturing and sucking the sap from leaves,
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flowers and fruits. Affected fruits become discoloured, hardened and
deformed.
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Nezara commonly known as “stink bugs” are green in colour and
about 1.5 – 2 cm and are recognized by their shield shape body (Figure
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8), and awful protective odours emitted when molested. The Phthia
are brownish – black bugs with a red band across the back of the
thorax and are about 2-2.5 cm in length. Both the adult and nymphs of
this pest do incur economic losses. The life cycle ranges from 35-70
days.
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Control
E
Cultural Control
• Good field sanitation- rid the field of weeds
Fig 8. Nymphs and adult
stink bug A
and plant residues from previous crops.
Chemical Control
• Among the insecticides which may be used are Fastac, Decis, Karate and Ambush
at 6 mls to 4500 mls water, and Sevin at 10 gms to 4500 mls water.
• Integrated Pest Management.
9. Thrips:
Fig 9. Adult thrips and damage caused.
Thrips are yellow, tiny, elongated insects about 1mm in length and can be found on the upper and
lower surfaces of leaves (Figure 9). Infestations are more severe in the dry season. Both young and
adult suck the sap from leaves and cause them to loose their colour (Figure 9). If attack occurs early
the young leaves becomes distorted. Older tissues become blotched and appear silvery or leathery in
affected areas, thus hindering photosynthesis. Flowers and fruits are also affected, thus yields are
reduced. Infected fruits are discoloured, distorted and hardened. Thrips are also vectors or major
viral diseases. The lifecycle maybe completed in about 14-21 days.
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Chemical Control
Apply
• Dinocap at 0.5 g/litre of water, or
• Benlate 1 g/litre of water, or
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• Bavistan 1 g/litre of water.
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Apply these chemicals when the disease is present in more than 10% of the field.
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3. Pod Rot: (Choanephora cucurbitarum)
This disease occurs during the pre-harvest period around 2-4 weeks before harvesting. The damage
caused by pod rot during this period is probably the major constraint to cowpea production in Guyana.
Symptoms P
Water soaked appearance of infected pods with whitish-greyish mycelia.
Chemical Control
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Apply same treatment as for Powdery Mildew.
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4. Ashy Stem Blight (Wilting Disease): (Macrophomina phaseolina)
This disease causes wilting symptoms even though the plant may not die. Some cankers (decayed spots)
may be found at the collar region. Root rotting may occur or graying lesions from the root level. These
lesions move upwards and display small dot-like black bodies (Figure 12).
Control Fig 12. Symptoms of ashy stem blight.
Cultural Control
• Provide adequate drainage since poor drainage encourages the development of disease.
Chemical Control
• Prior to sowing, treat seeds with Thiram, Captan or Carbendazim (Bavistin, 50 wp) at 3-4 g/kg
seed (3-4 oz/100 lb seed).
• When the disease is observed in the field, spray Carbendazin 50 WP @ 0.1%

(9 g/gal water) by directing spray at the root level of the plant. Repeat treatment after
2-3 weeks if the symptoms still persist.
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Control
Cultural Control
• Crop rotation;
• Use disease resistant seeds;
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Chemical Control
• Follow a fungicide (Kocide, Mankocide) programme to control the disease when it occurs
consistently.
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8. Rust: (Uromyces phaseoli)
Symptoms
Small reddish-brown pustules form on the lower side of leaves
(Figure 16). The fungus lives in crop residue.
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Cultural Control E
• If rust has been severe, crop rotation should be practiced.
• Disease resistant seeds should be used when past experience
indicates rust to be a problem.
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Fig 16. Symptoms
• Use an integrated crop management approach of rust
Chemical Control
• Apply approved fungicides (Kocide, Mankocide) at first sign of infection.
9. Root Knot Disease: (Meloidogyne javanica)

Symptoms
The nematodes stimulate the formation of root galls (Figure
17), which interfere with the plant’s water upply, resulting in
stunted and chlorotic growth, poor fruit setting and yellowing.
The females lay several hundred eggs which are released into
the soil. They enter the plant tissues, such as the root tips and
stimulate the formation of galls.
Control
Cultural Control Fig 17. Symptoms of
• Use an integrated crop management approach; root knot
• Resistant cultivars can limit the spread of the infection;
• Crop rotation is sometimes successful;
• Insects can be treated with hot water to kill larvae;
• Bury the residues of infected plants, to reduce the level of infection.
Chemical Control
Spray with approved nematicide-Nemacur.
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12. Viral Disease
Mosaic Virus: Leaves become puckered and mottled with light and dark-green areas (Figure 20). Infected
plants become stunted. The virus is seed-borne and can be spread C
by aphids.
Curly Top Virus: Infected plants are stunted and have distorted
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foliage.
Symptoms: Diseased plants are usually stunted and produce little

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or no crop. Flowers may fall off, but if they produce pods they
are usually mottled and ripen unevenly with a mixture of white
and green spots on the mature fruits.
Control P
Cultural Control
• Losses can be reduced by growing resistant varieties and
following an approved aphid control program;
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• Use resistant varieties. A
Chemical Control
• Pesticides can be used to control the vectors of the various

Fig 20. symptoms of
viruses
Viral disease
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Introduction
Peppers were domesticated 10,000 to 12,000 years ago by the Aztecs, Mayas and the Incas. Columbus
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in the fifteenth century introduced peppers to Europe and subsequently to Asia and Africa, and later to
India, China and Japan through the spice trade. It is estimated that more than 3 million hectares of O
peppers are grown annually around the world. Asia is the largest producer, followed by Africa and
Europe. Pepper production is found from the humid tropics, to the dry deserts, to the cool temperate
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climates. The ability of pepper to thrive under this range of climatic conditions has rendered it a common
crop worldwide.
Hot pepper is cultivated in all regions of Guyana. In some cases it is done on large scale in areas such as P
Parika Backdam (Region #3) and on farms in the Canals Polder. In Region #4, large scale production is
done in the Mahaica and Moblissa areas. The largest area under cultivation is estimated at three acres.
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There is tremendous scope for expansion in the production of hot peppers in Guyana. This is largely
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influenced by the Agricultural Diversification Strategy undertaken by the Government of Guyana through
the Ministry of Agriculture and the National Agricultural Research Institute. In addition, in recent times, P
the export market for both fresh and processed forms of hot pepper has statistically shown a steady rate
of expansion. The New Guyana Marketing Corporation which provides services to exporters has
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established a packhouse facility that assists in preparing high quality produce for the overseas market.
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Crop Management
Soil Preparation H
Tillage
In Guyana, land preparation is done three main ways. For new lands, the standard tillage method of
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preparing the soil involves ploughings twice (down and across), disc chiseling, harrowing and ridge and
furrowing. Clay soils may require several ploughing before harrowing. In large-scale production (>1
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acre) it is necessary to establish a drainage gradient to facilitate the drainage of excess water which in
turn reduces the risk of root diseases. For small-scale production, forking and chipping is adequate and
economical.
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Peppers can be grown in a flat field or on raised beds. Plants grown on high ridges are less likely to have
phytophtera root rot as compared to plants grown on flat grounds.
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Liming
On most farms in Guyana, liming is necessary to reduce soil acidity. The acidity can be determined from P
a soil test. Contact your extension agent or agricultural officer for soil testing Acidity adversely affects
the growth of hot peppers. Peppers require a soil with pH 5.5 – 6.8. Below pH5.5 will result in stunted
growth of pepper plants and poor yields. Liming requirements of different soil types to satisfy pH
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preference of 5.5 – 6.8 of hot peppers are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Liming requirements for different soil types.
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The liming material should be incorporated into the soil during the tillage operations. Liming takes at
least 4 weeks to act on the soil. To ensure that the plant benefits maximally from the liming, it is advisable
that seedlings are transplanted at least two weeks after the lime has been incorporated into the soil.
Once this process is properly done, it is not necessary to lime again in 3-5 years, or as determined by a
soil test.
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Preparing a seed box for pepper transplants
(a) Construction H
A seed box 45x30x7.5 cm in dimension is very convenient. In commercial farms, seed beds 1m*5m are
usually prepared in an area fully exposed to sunlight. O
(b) Soil
A friable and fertile soil is the best medium for starting seedlings. One part sand, one part compost or
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fully rotted pen manure and one part ordinary garden soil are mixed. This potting mixture can be used for
seedlings prepared in a seed bed, seed box or for containerised transplants. The sand will provide drainage
and irrigation; the compost will improve the soil texture and increase its fertility. The garden soil gives P
better anchorage to roots and increase CEC like compost.
(c) Soil Treatment
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As a precaution against pre and post emergence damping off, the seed box/bed should be drenched with P
Rizolex at a rate of 1-2 tablespoon (15-30g) per gallon or Banrot at 1-2 teaspoon (5-10 g) per gallon
before planting the seeds. Irrigate immediately after applying the drench with an equal amount of water. P
Allow one week between treating and sowing seeds. The seeds should not be broadcasted but sown
thinly in furrows.
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(d) Seed Treatment
Mix 2-4g Rizolex to 1 kg seed before planting to prevent soil borne diseases.
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(e) Seeding rate
Hot peppers are seeded 1-2 kg/ha with 1 g weighing approximately 250 seeds/g. The seeds should not
be broadcasted but should be sown thinly on shallow furrows. Cover the seeds with a thin layer of
compost to prevent seed exposure when watering.
(f) Shading and Hardening
Shading should be provided to prevent the exposure of seedlings to the extremes of the environment:
heat stress and flooding. Shading is important during the first 20-25 days after seeding. Harden seedlings
by restricting water and removing shade protection starting 4-7 days before transplanting; this is to
prevent transplanting shock.
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2. Bacterial Spot
Causal agent: Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria H
Affected Plant Stages: Vegetative growing stage, flowering stage,
fruiting stage, and postharvest. O
Affected plant parts: Leaves, stems, fruits, seeds and inflorescence.
Symptoms
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On young leaves, lesions begin as circular, water-soaked spots that
become necrotic with brown centres and chlorotic borders. The spots Fig 1. Typical symptom of
have dead, straw coloured centres with a dark margin. The spots are angular bacterial spot disease. P
because the bacteria spread along the veins. The presence of numerous spots results in leaf yellowing
and abscission or a scorched or blighted appearance. Narrow or elongated raised cankers may appear on
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stems which eventually become rough and light brown. Fruit spots are initially circular and green turning P
brown, but become raised with a cracked, scabby surface (Figure 1).
Control: The control measures recommended are:
1. Practice crop rotation;
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2. Use disease-free seeds and transplants;
3. Seed treatment by soaking seeds in 1.3 % sodium hypochlorite (one part bleach solution
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(5.25%) to four parts water) for 40 minutes with agitation. One litre of solution treats 0.5
kg of seed. Rinse thoroughly and dry seed immediately. Or soak in water at exactly 50 oC
for 25 minutes, then cooled and dried; or/and
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4. Twice weekly applications of a copper-mancozeb mixture, such as Mankocide 2-4 tbsp /
3.8 l of water every 5-7 days. Spray preventatively especially during the rainy season,
alternating a combination of Kocide 101 or Kocide DF and Manzate with Mankocide
every 5-7 days.
Rates: Kocide 2-3 tbsp/3.8 l
Manzate 1 tbsp/3.8 l
Mankocide 2-4 tbsp/3.8 l
The disease spreads rapidly during warm, rainy weather and persists in crop debris.
3. Bacterial Soft Rot

Causal agent: Erwinia carotovora pv. carotovora
Affected Plant Stages: Pre-emergence, seedling stage, vegetative growing stage, flowering stage, fruiting
stage and post-harvest.
Affected plant parts: Whole plant, leaves, stems, roots, growing points and vegetative organs.
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5. Anthracnose or Ripe Rot
Causal agent: Colletotrichum capsici H
Affected Plant Stages: Pre-emergence, seedling stage, vegetative growing
stage, flowering stage, fruiting stage and post-harvest. O
Affected plant parts: Leaves and fruits
Symptoms: T
Anthracnose may develop as post-harvest decay of fruits (Figure 4). Is appears
on mature pods as small, water-soaked shrunken lesions that expand rapidly,
to 3-4 cm in diameter. Fully expanded lesions are sunken and range from dark P
red to light tan.
The lesions have dark fungal spores in them, with a characteristic concentric E
ring appearance. On leaves, large grey areas bordered with black and dotted
with black spores are present.
P
1. Use only clean seed;
Fig 4. Pepper showing
symptoms of anthracnose. P
2. Practise crop rotation; or
3. Spray with Benlate alternately with Control and Saprol.
Begin spray at flowering and continue with harvesting at
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weekly intervals.
Benlate – systemic foliar, seed and post-harvest treatments R
1-2 tsp/3.8 l (5-10 g/3.8 l)
Control – contact, foliar applied
1-2 tbsp/3.8 l (15-30g/3.8 l)
Saprol – systemic, foliar applied
1-2 tsp/3.8 l (5-10 ml/3.8 l)
6. Early Blight
Causal agent: Alternaria solani
Affected Plant Stages: Fruiting stage and post-harvest
Affected plant parts: Leaves, stems and fruits
Symptoms:
The disease appears as small, irregular brown dead spots on older leaves
up to 16 mm in diameter with concentric black rings, with spots surrounded Fig 5. Typical leaf
symptoms of Early Blight.
by a yellow area. With many lesions the whole plant turns yellow. On the
stems, lesions are brown. Fruit infections occur while the fruit is green. Spots are dark, leathery and
sunken with a ridged appearance. Infection occurs during warm, rainy and humid weather.
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Premature leaf abscission is a prominent symptom of powdery mildew exposing fruits to direct sun
irradiation. H
1. Fungicides have been effective in controlling this disease;
Tri-Miltox Forte 410 WP applied at 1.9 to 3.8 kg per hectare at 7-14 days interval
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2. Sulphur dust and spray is effective;
3. Neem treatments and bicarbonate were found to be effective. T
Apply all chemicals to the lower leaf surface; or
4. Proper irrigation to prevent drought stress of aging plants.
9. Geminivirus
Causal agent: Geminivirus P
Affected Plant Stages: All stages of plant growth
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Symptoms:
P
The common symptoms are stunting, curling or twisting of leaves, bright
yellow mosaic, distorting of leaves and fruits and reduced yield (Figure 8).
Fig 8. Stunting and
curling of leaves due to
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Control: The control measures recommended are: Gemini virus.
1. Control is difficult once plants become infected; E
2. The virus is spread by whiteflies (Bemisia tabaci), hence this vector should be controlled
using recommended insecticides;
2. Destroy all perennial weeds which harbour the whiteflies; or
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3. Crop rotation.
10. Pepper Mottle Virus
Causal agent: Pepper Mottle Virus
Affected Plant Stages: Vegetative and reproductive stages
Symptoms:
Mild chlorosis and stunting especially if plants are young. Fruits are
small, malformed, mottled and may have necrotic depressions (Figure
Fig 9. Stunting of fruits due
9).
to pepper mottle virus.
1. The virus is mechanically transmitted by aphids; hence aphid
control should be effected by recommended insecticides.
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Thrips
Affected Plant Stages: Vegetative and reproductive stages H
Symptoms: O
Thrips are yellow, elongated insects less than 1 mm in length found
in the upper and lower leaf surfaces (Figure 11). Nymphs and adult
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flies feed on leaves causing discoloration. Fruits are also discoloured,
distorted and hardened. Leaves are distorted and curl upwards. The
lower surface of the leaves develops a silvery sheen that later turn P
bronze. Some species are known vectors for viruses.
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Fig 11. Thrips infestation
1.Adequate and timely irrigation regimes,
2. Crop rotation with cabbage, or
on pepper leaf. P
3. Use of recommended insecticides such as Vydate L. (2.5 ml/L) and Admiral (1 ml/L).
P
Whiteflies
Affected Plant Stages: Vegetative and reproductive stages E
Affected plant parts: Leaves
Symptoms:
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Whiteflies are minute insects (2 mm) with broad wings that are covered with
a fine, white, waxy powder. First instar nymphs are crawlers. Later instars
are light green, oval, flattened and are attached to the leaf surface (Figure
12).Both the immature and adult stages suck plant sap from the leaves causing Fig 12. Whiteflies
infestation
the leaves on pepper leaf.
to appear mottled, chlorotic and eventually drop. Honey dew is excreted and
glazes over leaves, allowing the development of sooty mold. Whiteflies are known to transmit viruses to
pepper plants.
Control: The control measures recommended are;
1. Control weeds which may act as alternate hosts;
2. Remove infected plants; or
3. Use recommended insecticides.
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Usually the first peppers are ready for harvest about 2 months after transplanting, depending on the
cultivar and season of the year. Several different indices are commonly used in determining harvest
maturity. Size of the fruit is the most widely used index of maturity. The fruit should be fully developed
H
and at full size for the particular cultivar, with a firm thick wall and waxy (shiny) skin. The calyx and
stem should be fresh and green. Peppers having a soft, thin flesh and pale
green colour (for certain varieties) are immature and not ready for harvest.
O
External colour is another widely used index of harvest maturity. Most pepper
cultivars change skin colour as they become fully mature. However, it is not T
always desirable to wait for the fully mature colour before -harvesting. For
example, the principal demand for sweet bell peppers is for uniformly green
coloured fruit. If the fruit is allowed to remain on the plant after reaching
full size, it will eventually change in colour, typically to red. Hot peppers
may change from green to yellow, orange, or red colour. Therefore, the P
specific colour demanded in the market will dictate when to harvest the
fruit. In most cases, it is recommended to wait and harvest the fruit until
after it has completely changed colour . However, some hot pepper cultivars Fig 14. Avoid harvesting
E
mixed-coloured bell
can be marketed with a mixed skin colour.
pepper fruit P
Pimiento pepper fruit should generally not be harvested until they are
dark red. However, since fruits will sometimes crack in wet weather
during the rainy season, they can be harvested at a light red stage and
P
set in a dry place to redden.
Chili peppers for processing are usually harvested when red. For the E
fresh market, they are usually harvested green because of better quality
maintenance during shipping. Chili peppers are usually green when
immature and turn red with maturity, so harvest time depends on product
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usage and market destination
Fig 15. Harvest of mixed-coloured

Harvest Methods hot pepper fruit may be acceptable.
Peppers should be harvested by grasping the fruit in the hand with the thumb and forefinger and pressing
against the stem, followed by snapping the fruit off the plant. Care should be taken not to sever or
damage the fruiting branches while attempting to remove the fruit. Pepper plants have brittle branches
that may break during harvest. Most sweet bell pepper cultivars lack a defined abscission zone in the
stem, while pungent cultivars do possess a clearly defined abscission layer, allowing for a cleaner separation
of the fruit from the mother plant.
Peppers are typically harvested once per week. They should be picked in the cool hours of the day and
placed directly into a field basket, plastic container, or field crate. Never drop or throw pepper fruit into
the picking container. Peppers should not be harvested when wet because surface moisture increases
decay.
Fruit which have injuries that penetrate the skin are likely to rot and should be eliminated. Unmarketable
quality or diseased fruit should also be removed from the plant and not mixed in the same field container
as the marketable fruit. The discarded peppers should be removed from the field to avoid the spread and
buildup of diseases and insect pests.
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export destined fruit should be firm, well-shaped, and free from damage caused
by scars, sunburn, disease, insects, or mechanical injury. Peppers that are
misshapen, cracked, damaged, decayed, or wilted should be discarded. The
fruit should also have a uniform colour typical of the cultivar with a shiny skin.
H
Pepper fruit of different colours should not be packed in the same carton. For
example, red or partially red bell peppers should not be mixed with green-co O
loured fruit .
All fruit packed in the same carton should be similar in appearance.
Waxing
Fig16. Fruit of different
colours should not be mixed
in the same market container.
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A light supplementary wax coating applied to the surface of pepper fruit
can increase market life, reduce fruit shriveling, and diminish the amount of
vibration damage incurred during transit. Fruit appearance may also be
enhanced by making the fruit more glossy. Pepper waxes must be food-
grade and are often made from plant extracts.
P
E
Packing
Only the highest quality peppers should be packed for export. They
Fig17. Waxed peppers
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should be selected for uniform maturity of colour, shape, and
size and be free from defects. Any pepper showing signs of sunscald,
mechanical or insect damage or disease should be discarded.
exhibit a noticeable surface shine.
P
Peppers should be sent to the market as soon as possible after packing.
E
Fiberboard cartons are the most common type of package used for export
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markets. The cartons should be well ventilated and strong. The carton should
have a minimum 275 psi bursting strength in order to avoid collapse while
stacked on a pallet. One-piece self-locking cartons or two-piece telescopic
cartons are the most widely used package designs.
Fig 18. Inner tube of woven
Hot peppers destined for export are typically packed in shallow perforated bamboo used to vent a large
fiberboard cartons containing 4.5 kg (10 lb) of fruit. Bell peppers destined sack of hot peppers.
for the North American export market are often packed in fiberboard cartons
that hold 14 kg (30 lb) of fruit. They may also be packed in smaller 40 x 60
cm (16 x 24 in) cartons holding two layers of fruit. This size carton is also
very popular in Europe.
Fig 19. Scotch Bonnet

peppers packed loose
in 4.5 kg (10 Ib) cartons.
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M
A
N
G
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During this entire process the plants should be protected from severe sunlight and receive adequate
water until transplanting in field.
Mango plants are ready for planting out in field approximately 4-6 months after grafting.
M
SITE SELECTION A
The mango could be planted in a variety of climates or weather patterns but it thrives more in areas that
have a marked dry season, which is necessary for flowering and fruiting. A good rainfall is required but
heavy rains reduce pollination and fruit set.
N
Mango can be grown on a variety of soils but wherever the mango is planted there is need for good G
drainage.
PLANTING
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Planting should be done during the wet season while there is an adequate supply of moisture for quick
establishment of roots. When planting, the vigour and growth pattern of the trees should be considered.
Grafted trees tend to be shorter than seedling trees. Generally, however, plants are spaced 20-25ft apart
(6-7.5m) giving approximately 100-75 trees/acre (250-175 trees/ha)
(a) Normal Areas

In areas where there is no waterlogging, planting holes are dug to a size that would accommodate the
plant in the bag. The size of the hole is therefore around 1ft (30cm) in length, width and depth.
The roots of bare root plants are more spread out and a larger hole will have to be made to accommodate
these plants. The topsoil removed in digging the hole could be mixed with rotted manure and/or some
phosphate fertiliser. Some of the soil is then returned to the hole filling about half way up.
The plastic bags are carefully removed to keep the rootball intact and the plants are placed in the holes.
The balance of the topsoil is then returned to fill the hole and thoroughly compressed. The plants should
then be watered.
After planting, it is recommended to stake the plant to prevent movement by wind.
(b) Areas Prone to Waterlogging

In areas where waterlogging is suspected, the same system is used except that planting is done on
mounds.
AFTERCARE
Training and Pruning
Mango plants should be pruned to encourage branching to ensure a good framework. Afterwards, pruning
should be practiced after harvest to remove dead wood, as well as maintain the framework of the tree. It
is advisable to plant wind breaks in windy areas or where there are heavy, salty sea sprays.
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Symptoms:
Fig 1. Symptoms of Anthracnose
This disease causes leaf spot; wither tip, blossom blight, fruit rosetting/staining and fruit rot. The affected
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young leaves and branches dry out from tip downwards resulting in excessive leaf fall. Young infected
fruits wither, turn brown and fall off; older fruits have black slightly sunken spots which grow together O
covering the entire fruit (Figure 1).
Some fruits may appear healthy but there could be a latent infection, which shows up when fruits ripen
and could lead to extensive rot within a few days.
Control:
Where there is severe leaf infection, trees are sprayed before the inflorescence appears. If little or no
infection is present trees are sprayed at blossom time. Benlate may be used at a dose of 80gm/5gallon
(20L) sprayer. Alternatively Kocide or Cupravit Blue may be used at a dose of around 2.5lbs/ acre
(2.80Kg/hectare) or 0.63lbs (283.50gm) / 5 gallon (20L) sprayer.
Harvesting
Harvest Maturity
Various non-destructive indices can be used to determine mango fruit harvest maturity for the fresh
market, including external color, size, changes in appearance in the fruit shoulder area, and waxiness of
the skin. Destructive indices used for determining harvest maturity include internal pulp color and %
soluble solids content. Grower experience, which uses a combination of these indices, is also a reliable
way to determine when to harvest.
The most obvious index of fruit maturity is external skin color. As the fruit matures, the skin color will
change from green to yellow. Normally sized fruits which have started to turn yellow are ripe and ready
for immediate harvest. However, fruits showing some yellow color on the tree are generally too ripe for
long distance marketing. They will bruise easily and soften during transport and distribution. Yellow
fruits typically have a shelf life of only a few days and must be sold in the local market. If the intended
market is for export, the fruit should be picked when firm and at the mature green color stage, using a
combination of fruit size and appearance to determine maturity. The fruit should arrive at the destination
market at some predetermined stage of color development
(usually more yellow than green). There is a range of maturity levels within which green fruit will
develop acceptable ripe fruit attributes. The rate at which ripening occurs depends upon the degree of
maturity at the time of harvest. More mature fruit will ripen sooner than less mature fruit. Fruits harvested
too immature green will not ripen properly, will not taste good, and will shrivel prematurely. The Buxton
Spice mango ripens quite
rapidly after harvest and if picked at the mature green stage will begin to turn yellow within 3 to 5
days at ambient temperature.
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Mature fruit may also exhibit tear stains, in which the anthracnose spores wash along in spore-laden
water droplets falling from infected twigs and panicles above the fruit. This results in a vertical spotting
pattern (Figure 5). M
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Fig 5. Tear staining symptoms of anthracnose infected
mango fruits.
Ripe yellow colored fruits are much more susceptible to anthracnose than mature green fruits. However,
the infection process generally begins on the tree when the fruits are green. The fungal spores often
remain dormant on the surface of the mature green stage fruit, but rapidly develop and penetrate the
surface of the weaker and softer yellow skin as the fruit ripens. Anthracnose is always more severe
during the rainy season. Buxton Spice fruit is highly susceptible to anthracnose. Long fruits are also
susceptible, but are generally less severely affected because of their tougher skin.
Management and control of anthracnose decay begins in the field. Proper cultural practices are necessary
to avoid the build-up of high levels of inoculum responsible for postharvest decay. These practices
include proper tree spacing to avoid crowding, periodic pruning to allow more air movement through
the canopy, monthly foliar fungicide applications (i.e. mancozeb, benomyl, iprodione, propiconazole,
and/or copper fungicides), and removal of fallen leaves under the tree. Manipulation of the time of
flowering (i.e. using KNO3 foliar sprays) so the fruit ripens during the drier months is another way to
reduce anthracnose decay.
Several postharvest decay control methods are useful in reducing the severity of anthracnose fruit rot.
They are effective in eradicating quiescent infections of the fungi that have become established on and
beneath the cuticle and within the pedicel. Treatment effectiveness varies with infection level and storage
temperature. The first decay control method involves submerging the fruit for 2 to 5 minutes in 50°C to
55°C (122° F to132° F) water or 5 minutes at 48° C to50°C (118° F to122° F) water. Control of the
water temperature and the length of submergence are critical for effective anthracnose control. If either
the temperature or duration of submergence is exceeded, fruit injury will result. On the other hand, if the
temperature is too low and/or the duration of submergence inadequate, the treatment will be ineffective.
The second method
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INSECT PEST MANAGEMENT
The main pests affecting ochro are aphids and mealy bugs.
Aphids
These are tiny brownish black insects feeding on the under side of the leaves and on the fruits. They also
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attract ant colonies. Insecticides such as Vydate L, Basudin and Fastac are used for controlling the pests.
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Mealy Bugs
There are small white and pink bugs with a white coating over their bodies. They feed on the fruit and
flowers resulting in fruit drop. Roguing infested plants and burning them is recommended. Spraying of
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Vydate L reduces the spread of the bugs.
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DISEASE MANAGEMENT
The major diseases of ochro are Cercospora Leaf Spot and Sooty Mould.
Cercospora Leaf Spot
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The first symptom of this is gray spots that gradually become darker on the leaves progressing to form
circular lesions with holes in the centre. It is a major problem during the wet season. Spraying with
Trimiltox, Maximo and Kocide will reduce the spread of the fungus significantly.
Sooty Mould
This is another fungus that affects the crop during the wet season. The symptoms first appear on the
underside of the leaves as dark moulds covering the entire under leaves. This reduces growth significantly.
Spraying with Trimiltox, Bravo and Kocide in rotation will reduce the disease incidence.

Each plant commonly produces numerous fruiting pods borne in axils
along the lateral shoots (Figure 1).
Under normal growing conditions, the first pods are ready for harvest
within 2 months after seeding. The plants continue to flower and set
fruit over at least 3 months under favorable weather conditions, if the
pods are regularly harvested. Ochro pods are ready for harvest four to six
days after flowering (Figure 2).
The most widely used index of harvest maturity is pod length and
diameter. Figure 1. Well-formed okra pod
Typically, ochro should be harvested when the pods are 7.5 to ready for harvest.
12.5 cm long (3 to 5 in) (Figure 3). However, in some situations there
may be a strong market demand for smaller sized ochro and harvest stage
should be adjusted accordingly. Due to the rapid rate of growth and
development, ochro should be harvested every other day to ensure pods
remain within the marketable size range. Regular picking increases yield
and prevents the pods from becoming overmature. Ochro pods should be
harvested while still tender and with immature seeds. Pods with tips that
bend between the fingers without breaking are undesirably tough. If left to
grow, the pods will attain lengths of 20 cm (8 in) and up to 2.5 cm (1 in) or
more in diameter.
Figure 2. Pods develop extremely fast.
From bloom to 15 cm length takes about 8
days.
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Ochro plants and pods may have small spines to which some people are allergic. Pickers should wear gloves
and long sleeved shirts for skin protection (Figure5). It is recommended that harvesting be conducted at the
coolest time of theday, typically in the early morning. Ochro should not be harvested in the rain orwhen the
pods are wet. The pods should be moved to a shady, cool area as soon as possible afterharvest to maintain
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product quality and minimize moisture loss. The harvested pods should be left in the plastic harvest container or
gently transferred from the harvest container to a well-ventilated field crate for transport to a nearby packing C
facility. Sacks or bags should not be used for transporting okra. They allow for heat build-up inside and can
result in considerable abrasion of the pod surface and subsequent
discolouration. Field containers should have sufficient ventilation to
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prevent heat build-up. Pods kept in non-ventilated containers will
lose colour rapidly due to bleaching. During transport from the field R
to the packinghouse, the field containers should be covered from
the sun and rain. O
A simple field packing station for okra can be constructed from
wooden poles and a sheet of polyethylene (Figure 6). Thatch
over the roof will provide shade and keep the station cool.
The structure should be oriented so that the roof overhang keeps
out the majority of the sun’s rays. Figure 6. Simple and easy to construct field
packing station for ochro.
Cleaning of ochro generally involves the elimination of leaves, stem sections,

and other types of debris from the pods. Broken pods should also be
discarded. This should be done in the packing area while the pods are
spread on a flat surface (Figure 7) or conveyor belt. Ochro should not be
washed, since this would lead to a greater incidence of postharvest decay.
Cleaning
Grading Figure 7. Elimination of organic
The initial grading of the harvested ochro should take place in the field at matter and other types of debris
from the harvested pods.
the time of harvest. Pickers should separate unmarketable or damaged
pods from the marketable ones. Oversized and partially decayed pods
should also be removed from the plant and out-graded in the field. Even with some preliminary grading at the
time of picking, the ochro pods arriving from the field are usually quite variable in size, shape, and colour.
Grading for uniformity of appearance is important to satisfy the buyer.
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Temperature Control
Ochro has a high rate of respiration and deteriorates rapidly, unless the pods are cooled soon after packing.
Heat build-up will accentuate spoilage and cause pod blackening. A bleaching type of injury may also develop
when ochro is held in non-ventilated harvest containers for more than 24 hours without refrigeration. Unless O
intended for immediate marketing, pods should be cooled within a few hours after harvest. The ideal storage
temperature for ochro is 10°C (50°F). Pod quality can be maintained for up to 10 days at this temperature.
When held at higher ambient temperatures, pod quality quickly deteriorates due to dehydration, fading of the
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green colour, and decay. Ochro held at 25°C (75°F) will become soft and unmarketable within 2 to 3 days. On
the other hand, okra held at temperatures below 10°C will develop chilling injury. H
Relative Humidity Management
Ochro is very susceptible to postharvest moisture loss and pod shriveling. This results in a reduction in market
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quality as the pods lose their fresh appearance. In addition, pod texture is adversely affected due to an increase
in toughening. In order to minimize dehydration, it is important to maintain the pods in a high relative humidity
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(RH) environment. Ideally, ochro should be held at 95% RH.

Ochro is susceptible to postharvest decay from several different fungal and bacterial organisms. Decay is
mostly associated with damaged or wounded areas of the pod. Deterioration is typically very rapid at high
storage temperatures, which usually range between 24°C to 27°C (75°F to 80°F) in Guyana. At the other
temperature extreme, chilling injured pods are also very susceptible to decay. The most common postharvest
fungal diseases of ochro are gray mold, soft rot, pod rot, and sour rot. Bacterial blight is the most common
bacterial disease.
Gray Mold
Gray mold, caused by the fungus Botrytis cinerea, is a common postharvest disease
of ochro. Symptoms begin as small discoloured spots on damaged areas of the pod surface.
They enlarge into circular water-soaked lesions covered with a gray mold growth. Fungal
growth is rapid at ambient temperatures. The pods should be cooled immediately after
harvest and held as close to 10°C (50°F). as possible to minimize the development of gray
mold. Use of protective pre-harvest fungicide or fixed copper sprays will help lower the
incidence of this disease. Also, careful harvesting and handling practices that avoid damage
to the pod surface will reduce the incidence of gray mold
Soft Rot
Soft rot, caused by the fungus Rhizopus stolonifer, is a frequently observed
postharvest decay of ochro. The fungus attacks wounded areas of the pod, including the
broken stem. Symptoms begin as small water-soaked lesions in the areas of damaged
tissue. They soon enlarge at ambient temperatures and the entire pod may become covered
with a grayishwhite mass of mold, which eventually turns black. Decayed tissue is brown,
soft, and sticky. Nests of mold and decaying ochro pods form within packed cartons.
High temperature, high humidity, and damaged tissue increase the likelihood of disease
development. Methods to control Rhizopus soft rot include the sanitization of harvest
containers and grading surfaces, careful handling to minimize wounding of the pod surface,
avoiding picking when the pods are wet, and cooling of the harvested ochro to10°C as soon as possible after
harvest.
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Sunrise
Fruit is small, pear-shaped, red-fleshed, with very high sugar content
and aromatic. Weighs about 400 g. P
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Tainung No.1
Plants are vigorous, prolific, and easy to grow. Fruit weighs about
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1.1kg with red flesh and good aroma.
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Tainung No.2 Y
Large fruit with pointed blossom end, weighs about 1.1 kg. Flesh is
orange-red, tender with good taste and quality. A
Site Selection
If the land is low and accumulate water, ridges should be built about 45-
60cm high and 60-90cm wide. If the land is high no ridges are needed.
Papaya does not tolerate waterlogged conditions as such good drainage is
a necessity.
Land Preparation
Planting holes should be dug 45cm wide by 45cm long and 30cm deep at
a distance of 2.4m x2.4m. The first 15cm of top soil should be set aside
and there organic matter is added to improve the soil structure. The lower 15cm of soil is discarded. TSP is
added at 225g to the mixture along with about 450g of limestone for every rise in pH. Papaya requires a pH
near neutral. The mixture is then added to the planting holes and built up into a mound, for best results this
should be done about 6-8 weeks before planting. Planting should be done at the beginning or middle of the
rainy season.
Planting
Seedlings should be about 6-8 weeks old at time of transplant. A planting hole the size of the planting bag
should be dug on the pre-prepared site. The soil should then be treated for phytophthora with alliete or
Ridomil at recommended rate. Before extracting the plants from the bags, make sure that the bags are properly
watered; this will prevent the soil from loosening from the roots. The bag is then cut down the sides and the
plant with the soil attached to the roots are taken out and placed in the planting holes and the soil around it
gently firmed.
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PESTS OF PAPAYA
Papaya mealybug (Paracoccus marginatus)
Damage Symptoms
There is a general reduction in leaf size and surface, curling, crinkling,
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twisting and general leaf distortion. Premature aging, chlorosis and leaf
drop are also observed (Figure 2).
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Sooty mould may cover the entire plant contributing to generally poor
appearance and weakness of the plant.
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Management and Control
Fig 2. Symptoms of papaya
mealybug
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The crawler stage of the papaya mealybug can be easily blown about by the wind and all stages can be washed
off by rain or transported by birds and animals. Ants attracted to the honeydew can carry mealy bugs from
plant to plant. However, humans are the main means to which the pest is spread .
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Chemical Control
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A number of insecticides have been reported to have some control e.g. Diazinon, Perfekthion,
Malathion and, Admire. However, the effectiveness appears to be short lived.
Biological Control
This method has been recorded as the most effective weapon for the control of this pest as a result of
the successful biological control of the Pink Hibiscus Mealybug. Four natural enemies are used for the
biological control. These are:
Anagyrus sp.
Apoanagyrus sp.
Pseudophycus sp.
Acerophagus sp.
2. Mites (Brevipalpus californicus)

Symptoms
Mites suck the plant sap, leading to poor plant growth and
blemishes on the fruit. Predatory mites generally provide adequate
control, an additional reason for restraint in the use of acaricides or
insecticides with miticidal action.
Cultural Control:
• Cultivation method such as controlling the amount and quality
of water a plant receives is important not only from the aspect
of plant growth, but also to prevent mite infestation;
• Crop rotation;
• Weed control may reduce mite infestations;
• When an Integrated Pest Management programme is evaluated, the use of predatory mites,
cultivation methods, limiting doses of fertilizer, weed and chemical control are usually
acknowledged as the main tools of such a programme.
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Diffuse mats of white mycelium commonly develop on the lower leaf surface, especially in areas adjacent
to the leaf veins, but can occur occasionally on the upper surface of leaves. Initially, infected areas
become light green and chlorotic and lesions may be surrounded by a dark green margin. Stems, flower
pedicels, and fruits as well as leaves can become infected.
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Although leaves of all ages are considered susceptible, infection is largely confined to the older leaves
approaching senescence. Seedling plants are especially susceptible to attack and may be seriously affected
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(Figure 5). Defoliation, stem and fruit lesions on young plants may lead to measurable yield losses.
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Affect leaf Affected seedlings
Fig 5. Leaves and Seedling affected by powdery mildew
MANAGEMENT
1. Non-Chemical Control
Although control measures are generally not needed applications of wettable sulfur, sulfur dust, or lime
sulfur have proved helpful in controlling this disease. However, wettable sulfur may be toxic to the plant
during hot weather and is not very effective during periods when the disease is severe.
CHEMICAL CONTROL
Fungicides effective in controlling powdery mildew on other crops have generally been effective in
controlling papaya powdery mildew. Benomyl, bupirimate, carbendazim, mancozeb, thiophanate-methyl,
and triadimefon have demonstrated efficacy in the field.
2. Foot Rot of Papaya (Pythium aphanidermatum)
It is a severe disease of papaya. It is characterized by the appearance of water-soaked patches on the
stem near the ground level. These patches enlarge rapidly and girdle the stem, causing rotting of the
tissues, which then turn dark brown or black. Such affected plants withstand strong wind and topple
over and die. If the disease attack is mild, only one side of the stem rots and the plants remain stunted.
Fruit if formed are shriveled and malformed. Gradually the plant dies.
Control : Application of Trichoderma viride (15 g/plant) mixed in well-decomposed FYM should be
applied around the root zone of the plants at the time of planting. The crop should be irrigated by
adopting the ring method of irrigation so that the water does not come in direct contact with the stem.
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Fig 6. Shoestring symptom on leaves Fig.7. Oily streak on a papaya
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of infected papaya plant in Parika. plant infected with PRSV.
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Fig 8. Typical ringspot patterns on a fruit Fig 10. Severely distorted fruit produced on
produced by a diseased plant at Parika a plant infected with PRSV.
Fig 9. Severe ringspot patterns on the

fruit of a plant infected with PRSV.
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1. Use of cross protection in disease management. Some successes have been reported in Taiwan and
Hawaii using this method. In this method plants are inoculated with a mild strain of PRSV that
protect them against economic losses resulting from infection from the more severe strains of this
virus.
2. Planting of a non-host crop such as corn around papaya orchards has also been used in disease
management. The strategy here is for the aphid vectors transmitting the virus, in a non-persistent
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manner, to feed first on the non-host plants thereby reducing the chance of them infecting papaya
plants.
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3. Insecticides may also be used as part of disease management. Insecticides are used primarily in
controlling the aphid vector and thus, the spread of the papaya ringspot disease. Data available has
so far indicated that the use of insecticides has only been effective in delaying the spread of this
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disease.
The papaya ringspot disease has been positively identified in Guyana and has so far only been diagnosed on
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papaya plants in Parika in Region 3. This disease has caused widespread destruction to papaya industries in a
number of countries and has the potential of causing similar destruction in Guyana. It is therefore imperative Y
that this disease be isolated within the identified area in order to prevent its spread to other papaya growing
areas in the country. The movement of plants from this area to other parts of the country will result in rapid
spread of this disease to disease free areas. It is therefore essential that quarantine measures be put in place to
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restrict the movement of papaya plants from this region to other parts of the country. Additionally, research
into the use of available resistance to this disease is critical if the papaya industry is to survive and continue to
grow. The National Agricultural Research Institute has started to conduct research on the PRSV including
those aimed at identifying and evaluating resistant cultivars to this disease.
5. DAMPING-OFF (PHYTOPHTHORA PARASITICA OR P. PALMIVORA)
Whole plant
Seedlings usually display damping-off or blight symptoms, often resulting in death of the plants. Infected
plants may be cut at the stem base and show early senescence.
Leaves
Wilting is the most common symptom. Some leaves may be chlorotic, yellowing, developing lesions and
then rot, resulting in death and defoliation.
Stem
Brownish-black discoloration occurs at or near the soil level, gradually girdling the stem, leading to plant
death. Affected tissues are soft and water-soaked. Secondary adventitious roots often emerge above the
lesions.
Roots
The roots of affected plants blacken, decay and become entirely rotted. Affected tissues are soft and
water-soaked.
Growing Point
The growing point of infected plants may rot and dieback and mycelium may be present.
Cultural Control:
The control of plant diseases caused by soil-borne pathogens is difficult.
• Good aeration, drainage, and hygiene are important to curb these fungi in the orchard as well as
in the nursery.
• Crop rotation
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Fig 11. FRUIT AND TREE INFECTED WITHPHYTOPTHORA BLIGHT
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Weed Control of Papaya (Carica papaya L.) in Guyana
• Effective use of Paraquat and Glyphosate in papaya is dependent on avoidance of spray contact
to green bark and foliage.
• Pre-emergence herbicide tolerance is dependent on age, size and maturity of the crop, and soil
type.
• Only Oryzalin can be tolerated by papaya immediately after transplanting.
• Herbicides with a broader spectrum of weed control, such as Diuron and Oxyfluorfen, generally
injure young plants, but they can be effectively used later in development.
POST HARVEST TREATMENT
Anthracnose is a major post harvest disease occurring in Papaya resulting in severe losses of fruits. Work done
by (R. Persaud , NARI, 2002) showed that Mertect give the best result in controlling post harvest infection
than several other fungicides that were evaluated.
Use 6 ml of Mertect to 2 liters of water and dip harvested fruit into it. Allow fruits to air-dry, then wrap
individually in newspaper, this will ensure uniform ripening and also act as a cushion from the other
fruits. The fruit should now be ready for packaging and shipping. Package should be well cushioned to
avoid impact damage.
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Destructive indices used for determining harvest maturity include
internal pulp color and % soluble solids content (sugar content). These
indices are used to test randomly selected fruits in order to correlate
fruit size with maturity. The internal pulp color of mature papaya
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fruit changes from cream to yelloworange as the external skin color
changes from green to yellow-orange during ripening. The soluble A
solids content of mature fruits should be at least 11.5%, and can be
determined by placing several drops of juice on a hand-held
refractometer. Experienced growers use a combination of external
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and internal maturity indices to determine when to harvest.
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Fig 15. Papaya fruits harvested at
full ripeness (yellow-orange skin
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Anthracnose color) have a very short market
Anthracnose, caused by the fungus Colletotrichum gloeosporiodes, is a
serious postharvest disease of papaya. The pathogen initially infects intact,
life.
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non-wounded, immature green fruit in the field. However, symptom development generally occurs after
harvest, especially when the fruit is ripe. Disease symptoms begin as small water-soaked spots on ripening
fruits. As the spots develop, they become sunken and turn brown or black and may enlarge to 2 in. (5 cm)
in diameter (Figure 16). The fungus may produce a pink mass of spores in the middle of these older
spots. The pathogen can grow into the fruits, resulting in softening of the tissue and an off flavor of the
pulp. The environmental conditions that favor the pathogen are high temperatures (optimal is 28°C) and
high humidity. Disease spores must have free water to germinate and are spread by wind or rain.
Anthracnose can be controlled by following an adequate fungicide spray program beginning at fruit set
and continuing at regular intervals (usually every 10 to 14 days) while the plants are producing fruit.
Postharvest application of the fungicide thiabendazole (1000 ppm spray or dip) is effective in reducing
the amount of anthracnose decay. Also, a postharvest hot water dip at 48°C for 20 minutes will significantly
reduce the amount of anthracnose. Specialized equipment is needed for circulating the water and
maintaining a uniform temperature, as fluctuations in water temperature will reduce the effectiveness of
the treatment and may damage the fruits. Although no known cultivar of papaya offers complete resistance
to anthracnose, the Hawaiian cultivar Sunrise is more resistant than is Kapoho.
Fig 16. Anthracnose decay of mature green (left) and ripe (right) papaya fruit.
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Watery Soft Rot
Watery soft rot, caused by the fungus Rhizopus stolonifer, is a common
postharvest disease of papayas. It is important only during fruit storage
and transit and is rarely seen in the field. When Rhizopus infects fruit already
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packed for market, the watery leakage causes an unsightly mess. Watery
soft rot is characterized by a soft and watery rot that quickly causes the A
collapse of the entire fruit but leaves the cuticle intact (Figure 19). The
fungus can grow through any break in the cuticle and spread rapidly to
adjacent fruit, often destroying the entire contents of a box within a few
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days. The infected fruit is often covered by a coarse gray to black hairy
fungal mass. The affected fruits quickly becomes colonized by yeasts and A
bacteria and have a sour odor.
Rhizopus can enter the fruit tissue only through wounds and cannot penetrate Y
uninjured fruit surfaces. Therefore, wounding that occurs during harvesting, Fig 19. Typical symptoms
transporting, or postharvest handling plays an important role in the development of watery soft rot.
of the disease. The incidence of watery soft rot increases during rainy weather, in part because of higher
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inoculum levels, higher humidity, and an increase in the number of fruit lesions caused by other fungi.
High humidity and temperatures of about 25°C during storage or transit are optimum for Rhizopus soft
rot development. The most important control measure is sanitation in and around the packing plant.
Rotting fruit in packing plants should be removed and destroyed. Bins and water tanks used for fruits
should be chlorinated to prevent the buildup of this and other pathogens. Conveyor belts, rollers, and
other equipment that touch the fruit should be regularly sanitized. Preventive field fungicide sprays
control Rhizopus soft rot by reducing field inoculum levels.
Wet Fruit Rot
Wet fruit rot is caused by the fungus Phomopsis, and in its early stages resembles Rhizopus watery soft
rot. It occurs most frequently as a stem-end rot, although any part of the fruit can be affected. Symptoms
include a discoloration of the tissue around the stem end, which soon breaks down and becomes colonized
by a whitish-gray mold (Figure 20). The fungus grows rapidly, causing lesions to expand very quickly
and extend into the seed cavity. The cuticle over the infected area remains intact and develops a delicate,
is soft, mushy, and wet but, unlike tissue affected by Rhizopus watery soft rot, does not usually leak
liquids. Wounding of the fruits is required for infection. The
disease usually develops on fully ripened fruit and is rare on
green fruits in the field.
Control of wet fruit rot, like the control of many other
postharvest diseases of papaya, must begin in the field. Regular
field sprays with protective fungicides reduce inoculum levels
and prevent infection through wounds that might occur in the
field. Dead leaves should be removed from trees because they
may become heavily infected with Phomopsis and interfere with
spraying. The removal of leaves is best accomplished by
periodically cutting the petioles that droop below horizontal Fig 20. Phomopsis stem-end rot on
about 30cm from the stem and removing them about a week later ripe papaya fruit.
after the abscission zone forms but before the petiole stub has dried.
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Kaveri is the hybrid passion fruit presently marketed grafted on rootstock of the yellow variety. It is
very vigorous and high yielding. Its fruits are a blend of purple and yellow varieties but having the size of
the yellow variety. The pulp is less acidic than the yellow variety. This variety is resistant to collar rot,
wilt and brown leaf spot diseases and nematodes.
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Noel Special is a promising variety that has been found to be tolerant to Alternaria disease. This precocious A
bearer comes to yield as early as one year after planting. This promising variety is however, self-
incompatible and it needs a pollinator for satisfactory fruiting. S
Cultivation
Propagation S
Passion Fruit plants are normally available at the NARI Plant Nurseries but they can be easily propagated
by seed. I
Seeds should be taken from mature fruits selected from healthy high bearing plants. They are separated
from the pulp, washed and dried at room temperature away from direct sunlight. After drying the seed O
would remain good for about 1 month if stored in a cool dry place.
Sowing of the seeds can be done in prepared seedbeds, boxes or plant bags. The seed should be planted N
about 1 cm below the surface and covered with a thin layer of soil.
During germination and early growth, the seedlings should be shaded and receive adequate but not
excessive water.
The seedlings are ready for planting out in the field when they are 25 – 30 cm tall. F
Site Selection
Passion Fruit can grow in almost any soil type provided that there is adequate drainage. R
Trellising
For optimum growth and yield the passion fruit vines should be trained to grow on trellises. These trellises
U
should remain for the life of the vine and therefore must be securely erected.
A Single Row Trellis system is recommended where a single row of wooden fence posts around 2.4 m in
length is used. These poles are driven some 0.6 m into the ground and stout fencing wire is then stretched
I
along the top of the poles anchoring at both ends of the row to prevent sagging.
The spacing of the Passion Fruit plants is directly related to the spacing of the poles of the trellis. As such, the
T
poles are to be placed in such a way that there are two plants, spaced 3 metres apart, between the poles.
Under heavy fruiting, excessive sagging might occur and it will be necessary to use intermediary poles to
prop up the wire.
Also, in arranging the trellis, consideration should be given to the direction of the wind and wherever possible
the rows should be parallel to the direction of the wind
The distance between the rows is largely dependant on any mechanical implement used in the control of the
weeds between the rows. However, it is usually 2 to 3 metres.
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LIGHT PRUNING
The downward growing secondary shoots will be producing fruit as they approach the ground, but must
not be permitted to trail along the ground.
If they do trail on the ground, there is a great temptation to pick them up and put them on the top wire.
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This is to be avoided as it defeats the purpose of any earlier disentanglement of the vines.
Light Pruning is the practice whereby these secondary shoots are kept cut 15 cms. (about 6 ins.) above A
the ground.
FURTHER SELECTIVE PRUNING

S
As the main secondary shoots grow downwards bearing fruit, they produce more laterals which are also
encouraged to grow downwards producing fruit and without entanglement as far as possible. S
However, there comes a time when some of the older shoots would be producing less and less fruit and
removal of these shoots to make way for the development of younger shoots would be more desirable. I
Further Selective Pruning is therefore the removal of the older uneconomic shoots. It should not be
considered before 2 years of production when some decline of yields might be apparent.
O
Also, depending on previous pruning practice, it may be necessary for the disentanglement or
unbunching of the shoots before the pruning could be accomplished. N
SEVERE PRUNING
Severe Pruning is practiced when:
a. Good pruning practices were neglected and/or F
b. When vines are old and might be rejuvenated by pruning.
Severe Pruning entails the removal of all secondary shoots approximately 20 cm. below the leader.
R
Fertilising
U
Fertiliser needs are directly related to the type and nutrient status of the soil. It is necessary therefore that
a soil analysis be conducted to determine these factors for the particular location. I
In the absence of a precise soil analysis, a compound fertiliser (normally 12:12:17:2) could be used. It is
usually applied twice per year (at the beginning of each wet period) at a rate of 100 gm to 1 kg per plant T
depending on the size and age of the plant.
Alternatively, use can be made of composted material.
Weed Control
The control of weeds is highly desirous to reduce competition for nutrients and the incidence of unwanted
pests and diseases.
Manual weed control is usually conducted around the plants while between the rows weed control is
accomplished by the following, singly or in combination:
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The minimum ripeness stage for initiation of harvest should be when at least 50% of the fruit surface has
turned yellow or purple. Fruit quality will improve if the fruit are allowed to completely change colour
and ripen on the
vine. Passion fruit will turn a deep purple or yellow colour when ripe
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and eventually fall to the ground after full colouration. Colour changes
in the fruit begin 7 to 21 days before the fruit abscise, depending on A
cultivar and environmental conditions.
In order to optimize flavor quality and storage life, passion fruit intended
for export should be harvested with 75% purple or yellow colour
S
(Figure 1). Fruit harvested at this stage of ripeness will have a longer
storage life and are less likely to spoil than fruit picked at more advanced S
stages of ripeness. However, full yellow or purple coloured
passion fruit can also be picked for export if the fruit is still firm (Figure
Fig 1. Ideal harvest stage
(75 percent yellow colour) for
I
harvesting fruit for export.
2). Export market destined fruit should be harvested twice a week,
before the fruit falls naturally from the vine. O
Fruit intended for the fresh market should not be allowed to drop to the
N
ground, particularly if it is destined for export (Figure 3). Dropped fruit
will suffer impact bruising and scarring of the skin tissue. Postharvest
deterioration of dropped fruit will be significantly higher than picked fruit.
The fruit will soon shrivel and brown spots will
develop on the damaged area of the skin, lowering the market quality.
F
Fig 2. Firm and fully
colouredfruit of high quality
Fallen fruit quickly lose moisture,
which typically results in a 10% to 20% R
ready for harvest. loss in original fresh weight within
several days. In addition, freshly fallen
passion fruit are very susceptible to
U
sunburn damage.
I
Non-export fruit intended for immediate processing in the domestic
Fig 3. Avoid postharvest
juice market may be allowed to fully ripen on the vine and naturally deterioration of dropped fruit by
T
abscise, falling to the ground. The fruit should be collected off the picking before abscission.
ground on a daily basis and processed as soon as possible.
Harvest Methods
Passion fruit is harvested manually by cutting or clipping the fruit off the vine. The recommended harvest
tools are a sharp knife or clippers with a sharp edge (Figure 4).
Fruit should be picked at the stricture in the stem and not close to the shoulder of the fruit. A short piece
of stem, approximately 4 cm (1.5 inches) in length should be left
attached to the fruit to help prevent water loss and fungal development (Figure 5). The
fruit should not be pulled from the plant.
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In order to avoid the spread of disease, the wash water should be clean and regularly sanitized by
maintaining a 150 ppm sodium hypochlorite concentration (or household bleach) and a water pH of 6.5.
150 ppm is equal to 2 oz of household bleach (such as Marvex) per 5 gallons of water, or .3 liters of
bleach per 100 liters of water. The chlorine level and pH of the wash water should be checked at least
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hourly during the day with paper test strips or portable meters. Trimming of the fruit stem to an appropriate
length should be done at the time of washing (Figure 6). Stem length is typically 4 cm (1.5 in) for export A
destined fruit, but trimmed to shorter lengths for domestic marketing. Following washing, the fruit
should be placed on a flat surface to air dry prior to grading/
sorting, possibly waxing, and packing.
S
Grading/Sorting
Pre-sorting of fruit should be carried out in the field, and additional S
grading performed at the packing area to remove fruit that does
not meet market requirements. Passion fruit must be sorted and
graded according to various external quality characteristics prior
I
to packing. The main characteristics used in grading passion fruit
are size, skin colour and uniformity, shape, firmness, and the O
amount of surface blemishes. Fruit marketed domestically should
be clean,
firm, free from visible signs of disease, mature, uniformly coloured,
N
and free from damage which detracts from the appearance or edibility Fig 6. Washing and stem trimming
of yellow passion fruit for the domestic
of the fruit (i.e. bruises, cuts, healed or open cracks, insect damage, market.
sunburn, etc.). At least 90% of the fruit in any lot should have a glossy appearance and not be soft or
shriveled. F
Three different grades have been established by the National Bureau of Standards for domestic marketing
of passion fruit (Grade 1, Grade 2, Grade 3). Grade 1 passion fruit are the highest quality. All Grade 1 R
fruit shall be firm with a shiny appearance, absent of any signs of shriveling, free from visible evidence of
insects, disease, and surface blemishes. Grade 2 passion fruit must be of good quality, although 10% of
the fruit in this grade may be soft or show signs of shriveling, and not have a glossy appearance. Grade
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3 passion fruit do not qualify for inclusion in the higher grades, but should be clean, mature, free from
pests and disease, and have similar colour, shape, and size. Tolerances with respect to quality and size I
shall be allowed in any lot for product not satisfying the requirement
of the grade. A total of 5%, 10%, and 15% by number or weight
of passion fruits not satisfying the requirements of grades 1, 2,
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and 3, respectively, shall be allowed.
However, the fruit not meeting the minimum grade requirements
must not be rotted or affected by another type of deterioration
rendering it unfit for consumption. The quality standards of export
grade passion fruit should meet the minimum requirements of
Grade 1 fruit. Export quality fruit must be firm, uniformly coloured
and shaped, and free of insect damage, physical injury, disease,
brown discolouration, and other surface blemishes (Figure 7). The
Fig 7. Passion fruit with surface
skin colour should be at least 75% yellow or purple, depending on scarring and slight decay is not suited
type. The pulp should be juicy and without air cavities. The fruit should for export.
have a smooth, shiny external appearance, and should be either round or eggshaped.
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Waxing
Passion fruit may benefit from a postharvest wax application. Much of the fruit’s natural wax is removed
during washing, so it should be replaced. Waxing enhances the shine and external appearance of the fruit,
reduces postharvest weight loss, minimizes shriveling, and extends market life. A carnauba-based wax is
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preferred for passion fruit. The simplest ways to make the wax application are as a manual rub or an
overhead spray of water-emulsion wax as the fruit are rotating on a bed of soft brushes made of horsehair
A
or equivalent grade. A liquid paraffin wax dip may also be used, but it is more costly and does not impart
a shine on the fruit surface. After waxing, the fruit is packed for market. S
Packing S
Passion fruit should be packed in strong, well-ventilated containers capable of being stacked without
damaging the fruit. The fruit surface should be free of moisture before packing. Passion fruit in Guyana
are typically packed in large synthetic mesh sacks for both the domestic and export market (Figure 10).
I
This type of package provides little or no protection to the fruit, and the sacks are typically overstuffed
with product. O
Compression bruising of the passion fruit often occurs when the sacks are piled on top of each other,
resulting in deformed or split fruit.
Wooden containers or durable plastic crates are preferred for the domestic market. The preferred export
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package for passion fruit is a single-layer fiberboard carton containing either 2 or 3.5 kg (4 to 7 lb) of
fruit (Figure 11). The cartons should be strong and selflocking so they can be stacked. Ventilation holes
are needed for horizontal air movement and efficient cooling. If sea shipment is used, the carton should
also have vents for vertical air flow. F
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T
Fig 10. Passion fruit packed in large Fig 11. Purple passion fruit
mesh sacks for export to Barbados. packed in 2 kg carton for the U.K. market.
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Relative Humidity
Passion fruit will lose a significant amount of moisture if held under low relative humidity (RH) conditions.
This may result in noticeable shriveling of the peel P
and unsightly appearing fruit, making it difficult to
market the product (Figure 15). In order to avoid
peel desiccation and excessive weight loss, passion
A
fruit should be stored at 90% to
95% RH. Also, water loss can be prevented if the S
time between harvesting and packing is kept to a
minimum.
Storage of the fruit in perforated plastic bags or in
S
containers lined with perforated plastic film will
reduce postharvest weight loss and minimize fruit I
shriveling. Peel shriveling does not adversely affect
the edible quality of the pulp. In fact, partially
shriveled fruit are typically sweeter. Fig 15. Passion fruit held at a low RH for
O
several weeks become noticeably wrinkled.
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Passion fruit are susceptible to a number of postharvest diseases. Infections normally originate in the
field and disease development is accentuated with tissue injury. Using inappropriate harvesting techniques,
dropping fruit, overfilling containers, and allowing stems to rub against adjacent fruit during handling F
and transport may result in punctures and bruising injury. During storage and ripening, these damaged
areas serve as an entry
point for fungal infection.
R
Postharvest decay can be reduced by using good field sanitation practices, pruning to open the canopy of
the plant, pre-harvest fungicide applications, careful harvesting and handling practices to avoid injury to U
the fruit, proper wash water sanitation, and holding the fruit at its ideal storage temperature (7°C or
45°F for yellow types and 4°C or 39°F for purple types). The principal postharvest diseases of passion
fruit are caused by
I
various fungi, including brown spot, Phytophthora, and Septoria.
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Brown Spot
Brown spot, caused by the fungus Alternariapassiflorae, and is the worst postharvest disease of passion
fruit. The disease is most severe during the rainy season.
Symptoms of brown spot first appear as tiny spots, which enlarge into sunken circular lesions with
brownish centers . Eventually the rind around the diseased area
becomes wrinkled and the fruits shrivel and drop.
Phytophthora Fruit Rot
Fruit rot, caused by the soil-borne fungi Phytophthora nicotianae var. parasitica, can be a serious
postharvest disease of passion fruit produced on poorly drained soils.
Symptoms appear as water-soaked, dark-green patches that dry out.
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P
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2. BOTANY
The peanut is an annual herbaceous plant that grows to a maximum height of 60 cm. It is characterized
by bearing of fruits that develop and mature underground. Fertilization of the ovary results in the
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development of an elongated stalk (peg) which grows downwards and carries the ovary into the soil to E
a depth of 2-7 cm. Pegs can attain a length of 15-30 cm. Once penetration of the soil surface has
occurred, fruit enlargement proceeds at the peg tip with eventual formation of the peanut pod. Pods can A
contain 1-6 seeds.
Peanuts are divided into two main species hypogaea and fastigiata based on the arrangement of the
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vegetative and reproductive branches. This division is not only important for taxonomic purposes but U
has production implications. The hypogaea species does not flower on the main stem; it matures later
than other sub species and has a high water requirement. This species has alternate branching patterns T
and produces large seeds. Virginia and runner types are in the hypogaea sub species. The fastigiata
species produce flower on the main stem, has sequential branching, mature earlier, has lower water
requirement and produces smaller seeds. Spanish and Valencia are in this sub species.
3.0. ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS
3.1. Soil
Peanuts grow best on soils that are well drained, loosely textured and well supplied with calcium, potassium
and phosphorous. The soil should be well aerated and contain moderate amounts of organic matter.
Heavier clay soils or those that tend to have surface crusting are unsuitable due to their high resistance
to peg penetration and pod expansion. Peanut grows best in slightly acidic soils with a pH of 6.0 to 6.5
but a range of 5.5 to 7.0 is acceptable. Saline soils are not suitable since peanut has a very low salt
tolerance.
3.2. Moisture Requirement
The peanut seed has a high demand for water during germination. For optimum germination, high soil
moisture is required to facilitate the 35-40% water intake by imbibing seeds. Seeds should be planted
when moisture levels are favourable for rapid germination and growth. Rapid germination and vigorous
growth help the young plant to counteract diseases.
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4.1. Runner Market Types
4.1.1. Florunner P
Florunner is a late maturing (120 days) large seeded variety. It yields relatively
well (1500-2000 kg/ha) under local conditions. Florunner has a spreading runner E
growth habit with a typical branching pattern. It has a prolific fruiting habit
with pods concentrated near the taproot.
A
4.1.2. Guyana Jumbo
Guyana Jumbo is a large seeded roasting variety planted by farmers in the Rupununi. It was obtained
N
from Brazil and sometimes referred to as ‘Brazil nut”. It produces yields up to 1200 kg/ha. It is tolerant U
to leaf spot and rust.
4.1.3. C99R
T
C99R is a runner type recently introduced to farmers in the Rupununi Savannahs. It is moderately
resistant to fungal leaf spot and rust disease affecting peanuts. The average yield is 1200 kg/ha. This type
is mostly recommended for peanut production in the Rupununi
4.2. Spanish bunchy market types

4.2.1. AK 62
AK 62 is an early maturing (90 days), red medium seeded variety. Its yield
potential in the savannahs ranges between 800 – 1,200 kg/ha. AK 62 is
more susceptible to Cercospera leaf spot than Florunner.
4.2.2. GN 94-A2
GN 94-A2 is a large seeded variety which originated from Brazil. This variety
exhibits good adaptability and yields up to 1200 kg/ha.
4.2.3. Basanti
Basanti has a bunchy growth habit with good yield potential of up to
1200 kg/ha.
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7.2. Timing
Commercial production should be limited to the May-June season. Planting is dependent on the on-set
of the rains, and it extends to the end of May or in some instances up to mid-June.
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It is better to plant during the middle of the rainy season (i.e. May/June or November/December), so that E
the crop matures in the dry season. This makes it easier for harvesting.
7.3. Inoculation
A
Before sowing, a Rhizobium inoculum should be applied to peanut seeds, especially when the soil is N
being used for the first time. Inoculation with Rhizobium bacteria stimulates nodulation on the roots,
thus, causing the plant to provide its own nitrogen and consequently reducing the need to apply large U
quantities of nitrogenous fertilizer.
When inoculating seeds, they should first be dampened and then mixed thoroughly with Rhizobium
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inoculant at 168 grams / 36 kg seed.
7.4. Spacing and Seed rate

Seed spacing and row width will depend upon grower practices; whether mechanization is used or the
crop is managed with labour. Generally in peanuts, the higher the planting density, the higher the yield.
Close spacing promotes compact fruiting, even maturity, weed suppression and also reduces soil erosion.
For mechanized systems, the currently available technology in the savannahs, allows, primarily for a row
spacing of 75 cm and wider. Seeds are usually sown at a rate of 80 kg/ha for runner varieties and 75 Kg/
ha for bunchy varieties. The following are recommended spacings for the various cultivars and soil
types:
Bunchy type (AK 62, GN 94-A2, Basanti)

10 cm within rows and 60 cm between rows
Spreading type (Florunner, Guyana Jumbo, C99R)

15 cm within rows and 60 cm between rows
Heavy soil
Light textured soil 2-3 seeds per hole, 3-4.5 cm (1.5-2") deep
2 seeds per hole, 5-7.5 cm (2-3") deep
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9.0. FERTILIZER USE
It is always advisable to have the soil tested before applying fertilizers. When nutrients are needed (low P
or very low soil test levels) split broadcast applications are recommended, first application at planting
and second application at 50% flowering. E
At planting
100 kg/ha DAP
At 50% flowering
250 kg/ha 12:12:17:2
A
50 kg/ha T.S.P
250 kg/ha Sul-po-mag N
100 kg/ha Sul-po-mag
40 kg/ha F.T.E U
T
Gypsum
Along with the second fertilizer application, Gypsum should be applied at the rate of 500 kg/ha. This
helps to reduce the number of “wind nuts”.
Boron
Boron applications may be necessary to produce high quality and high yields of peanut, especially on
sandy soils. This element can be applied by adding soluble boron at a rate of 0.5 -0.25 Kg/ha in the first
fungicide application or alone at pegging time.
10.0. INSECT PEST MANAGEMENT
Peanut is attacked by a wide variety of insect and mite pests. The main insects that attack peanuts are the
leaf feeding caterpillar, thrips, stalk borer, leaf eating ants, bean and flea beetle, aphids and leaf miner.
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The time from egg to female depends on the moisture and the temperature, but under favourable conditions
two to four cycles can occur per season. Infected plants are usually stunted and chlorotic (75 to 90 days P
after planting). Typically, injury is not uniform in fields, and infected areas are often circular. Roots,
pegs, and pods of infested plants are galled (swollen infected tissue). Galls on pods are wart-like in E
appearance and dark in colour. Knots in the roots appear much like nitrogen fixing bacterial nodules.
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(V) Weevil
Casual agent: Sitophilus zeamis
N
Weevil attacks the peanuts during storage and can cause significant damage once the pest populations
are high. Jute bags or sacks used for storage can be treated with neem oil or neem extracts to prevent
U
pests particularly weevils (Sitophilus species) and flour beetles (Tribolium species) from penetrating for T
several months.
11.0 DISEASES MANAGEMENT
(I) Early & Late Leaf Spot

Casual agent: Cerosporium orachidicola, Cerosporidium personatum
Both early and late leaf spot cause drastic and direct damages, resulting in reduced photosynthesis
(Figure 5). Both types of leaf spots can appear as early as 40 days after
planting, but can be earlier depending on the suitability of environmental
conditions for spore germination. In both cases, the fungus can girdle
pegs, and necrotic leaflets falling on soil surface promote soil borne
diseases. Early leaf spot lesion is usually tan to brown or reddish-brown
and is often surrounded by a yellow halo. Late leaf spot lesions are darker,
often nearly black, with little or no halo. Fig. 5 Early leaf spot
Control
The recommended methods of control include the use of resistant cultivars, deep ploughing to move
plant debris away from the soil surface, crop rotation and appropriate fungicides.
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Control
Use good quality undamaged seed for planting, crop rotation, crop sanitation and resistant varieties.
Seed dressing can be very effective and plant when conditions are favourable for germination.
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(IV) Peanut Rust
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Casual agent: Puccinia arachidis A
The orange-coloured pustules develop on all aboveground plant parts except
flowers and pegs. The spores appear first on the lower leaf surfaces. Rust-
N
damaged leaves often remain attached to the plant (Figure 8). U
Damage
Peanut rust mostly occurs late in the season, so it mainly affects pod filling and
T
maturity distribution. Severe infections are relatively rare. However, it can cause Fig 8. Peanut rust
significant yield losses if no fungicides are applied. Weather conditions favour heavy
disease development, and infection begins more than six weeks before harvest.
Control
Indirect: Growers can reduce their crops’ exposure to rust by planting early, controlling volunteer peanuts,
and avoiding contamination from external sources.
Direct: Direct control currently relies on fungicides used to control leaf spot, but rust requires shorter treatment
schedules or higher inputs. In the long term, fungicide-resistant populations of the rust fungus may develop.
(V) Pod Rot

Casual agent: Rhizoctonia solani
As peanuts approach maturity and plants are pulled up to make
maturity assessments, rotten pods may be noticed. This is a disease
commonly called pod rot, but it is a complex problem involving soil
fungi, nutrition (calcium deficiency and/or out of balance calcium/
potassium ratio) and probably other factors. Pod rot is the only visible
symptom when this disease occurs.
Pods of any size may rot, but most commonly only full size pods rot.
Rot usually starts at the distal end (the end away from the stem
Fig. 9. Pod Rot
attachment). Pods may be partially or completely rot (Figure 9).
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13. THRESHING/ SHELLING
Threshing / shelling is done mostly by hand, a process where fully dried nuts are cracked open by hand
to get the seeds out. P
Mechanical threshing is being used by some farmers in the Rupununi
14. DRYING E
The two most important operations in handling peanut after harvest are cleaning and drying. Peanuts
must be properly cured if desirable flavour, texture, germination and overall quality are to be maintained.
A
Moisture reduction is the major consideration in peanut curing and may be accomplished by natural N
window drying or by artificially drying in a mechanically control environment. Once the prevailing humidity
is low in the productive areas open window drying for 5-7 days under good conditions is usually sufficient. U
In managing the drying system quality control is important, as constant checks must be done on peanut
kernels especially as moisture content approaches the 12% moisture level. Do not allow average moisture
T
content to get below 8.5% for any lot with no portion of the lot containing less than 7 % moisture nor
more than 10 % moisture. Drying should be rapid to prevent mould growth and the possible formation
of Aflatoxin. However, the drying rate must be controlled to prevent excessive slippage and splitting
when the nuts are shelled. Nuts should be dried to a moisture content of approximately 8-10% using a
temperature of about 340 C for 2-3 days.
15. STORAGE
Safe storage of peanut requires an atmosphere with low relative humidity of 60 to 70 %. Storage facilities
for peanuts should be weatherproof and free from insect and disease bearing litter. Buildings should have
provisions for good ventilation to prevent condensation of water. Adequate air space should be provided
between the surface of stored peanuts and the floor using pallets or similar materials. Avoid storing
peanuts in buildings where the temperature may become too high. Proper storage is important to maintain
peanut quality and prevent aflatoxin contamination. Aflatoxions are very potent cancer causing chemicals
that are produced by various fungi. Thus, under no conditions should moldy peanuts be eaten or sold.
Peanuts saved for seed must be protected from insects, rodents, as well as from high temperatures and
high relative humidity. Peanut is usually stored in the form of unshelled nuts. Seed retain viability longer
when stored in the pod than shelled. Peanut seeds to be use for planting should be treated with fungicides
to prevent damage from seed rotting and damping off fungi in the soil.
The use of dried neem leaves could also be used to control storage pests in peanuts. This was demonstrated
successfully in the Rupununi.
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INTRODUCTION
The centre of origin of the Pineapples (Ananas spp.) is believed to be in the Parana-Paraguay River
drainage basin area in South America where the original seed species still occur wild. Another centre P
of origin is said to be along the river banks of the most southern areas in Guyana.
It is reported that the Tupi-Guarani Indians were the first people to select and cultivate the pineapple
I
in that area and later took it with them on their subsequent migrations. The records of the early
explorers show that the pineapple was widely distributed throughout most of tropical America and N
later taken to other tropical areas of the world e.g. Africa, Asia, the South Pacific and Australia.
The pineapple is one of the most important fruit crops in Guyana for the domestic and export
E
markets. There are lucrative markets for pineapples in the Caribbean Region. There are also good
prospects for extra-Regional exports. The major producing areas are in Administrative Regions 3 and A
4 where yields range between 15. 0 - 18 .0 tons/ha. With improved technology, yields can go as high
as 30 tons/ha.
The pineapple fruit itself is made up of 100-200 berry-like fruitlets or “eyes” fused together on a central P
axis or core and is borne on a stem or stalk which is an elongation of the apical meristem.
The pineapple was originally consumed only as a fresh fruit. With the development of the processing
P
industry, the fruit is now prepared and consumed in various forms such as pineapple chunks, slices,
juices, syrups, jams, crushed pineapple, diced pineapple etc. also the wastes from processing the fruit are L
now further processed into sugar, wines, vinegar, animal feed, etc.
In the Philippines and Taiwan, high quality fibres, ideal for the manufacture of luxury clothing, are
E
produced from the leaves of their pineapple varieties. In Brazil, fibres of the wild species are used for
making rope and fishing nets. The fibre is also used for making pulp in the paper industry.
VARIETIES
In Guyana, Montserrat is the main variety grown. Other varieties cultivated in small quantities are Sugar
Loaf, Smooth Cayenne, and Tiger Head.
Montserrat
This is the principal variety cultivated in Guyana. It has long leaves with stiff serrated edges. The fruit
is mainly conical in shape, hardy and delicious. It is pale-fleshed with small pointed ‘’ eyes ‘’ and weighs
between 1.5-3 .0 kg.
Sugar Loaf
This is a delicate variety with a very short shelf life. The leaves have serrated spiny margins. The fruit is
oblong in shape, dark green when mature but acquires a bright yellow colour and a strong aroma when
fully ripe. It is yellow-fleshed and averages about 2 kg in weight.
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On riverain and potential acid-sulphate soils where water control is critical, a system of raised beds and
drains will be required. The width of the beds will depend on whether single or double rows of plants will
be used. If single rows are to be used the beds should be made 240 cm (8 ft) wide and for double rows
the beds should be 390 cm (13 ft) wide. Drains on either side of the bed should be made 60 cm (2 ft)
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deep. This will enhance
the removal of excess water from the plants’ rooting zone. Control of weeds can be initiated at this land
I
preparation stage.
N
Propagation and Planting Materials. E
The pineapple is propagated vegetatively. Planting materials are obtained from various parts of the plant
and are identified according to the part of the plant on which they are found. A
Ratoon Suckers are shoots produced from ground level and, when used, will produce fruit in twelve to
fourteen months after planting. Side Shoots or suckers are shoots produced above ground level and,
when used, bear within eighteen to twenty months after planting. Basal suckers known as “slips” (Figure
P
1) are located at the base of the fruit. They produce fruit within fourteen to sixteen months after planting
and are the preferred type of planting material.
P
L
E
Fig. 1
Plant shoots used for planting material
CR = crown; SL = slip; SS = side shoots or suckers; RS = ratoon suckers
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Double Row Planting
Two rows are spaced 70-80 cm (28 -32 ins) apart. The suckers should then be planted staggered 45 -
60 cm (18 - 24 ins) within the rows(Figure 3). The distance between the double rows or every two
rows should be 150 cm (5 ft.). This arrangement will give 25,000 - 29,000 plants/ha (10,000 to
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12,000 plants/ac).
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Fig. 3 Double Row Planting
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Fertilizers
The fertilizer recommendations are based on a plant density in the double-row system of 25,000 -
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29,000 plants/ha (10,000 - 12,000 plants/ac).
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It is important to have the soil analyzed to obtain recommended levels of fertilizers, but on the whole, the
pineapple plant requires high levels of fertilizers for satisfactory production.
In the absence of a precise soil analysis, the following general recommendations will suffice.
(1) Sandy Soils
The upland sandy soils are infertile and require a complete fertilizer with added trace or minor nutrients.
A general recommendation will be to apply on a per annum basis:
600 kg/ha (532 lb./ac) of 12:12: 17:2

24 kg/ha (20 lb./ac) of 3:9:30 +FTE (trace elements)
The total amount of nutrients should be applied on equal split applications at two months intervals, i.e.
104 kg/ha of the total mixture is to be applied every 2 months. If 12:12:17:2 is unavailable then it may
be substituted by:
Urea - 200 kg/ha (90 lb./ac)

TSP. - 150 kg/ha (80 lb./ac)
M of P - 112 kg/ha (95 lb./ac)
Magnesium Sulfate- 23 kg/ha (5lb./ac)
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Gramocil (paraquat + diuron)
2-4D amine
Gesapax (Ametryn)
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Weed control before land preparation I
Except diuron the other compounds can be used postemergent as “burn down” herbicides before land
preparation and tillage. This is an important stage to destroy weeds since they can be difficult to eliminate
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at later stages. E
Roundup, gramoxone, and gramocil must be used at 1.5 L/ha. A
Roundup and gramoxone can be tank mixed separately with 2-4D amine for a more even and complete
kill. (Roundup/gramoxone at 1.5 L/ha + 2-4D amine at .75 L/ha).
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Generally it takes about 8 (eight) CP3 knapsack spraycans to spray an acre.
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For Roundup use 5 ounces per spraycan or 10 rum corks per can.
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Gramoxone: 3 ounces or 6 rum corks per can.
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Gramocil: 3 ounces or 6 rum corks per can.
2-4D 2 ounces or 3 rum corks per can
Weed Control at Planting
Karmex can be used both as pre-emergent and post emergent applications. It is used at planting to kill
weeds as soon as they germinate. This compound has a persistence of about 3-4 months after which
follow up postemergent applications have to be made. When used pre-emergent, Karmex must be applied
at the rate of 2- 2.5 kg a.i/ha. This is 0.5 (half) to 0.75 (three quarters) pounds per spraycan.
Weed Control During Growing Stage
After the first applications of Karmex, hand weeding should follow as soon as weeds are at 4-5 leaf
stages. Karmex can also be used as a post emergent (over the top) applications at the rate of 2.5 -4 kg a.i/
ha when late emerging weeds are at the 2 and 3 leaf stages. This is a rate of 0.75 (three quarters) to I
pound is used per spraycan.
During the growing period, care should be taken in selecting the rates and types of herbicides for use as
post-emergent sprays. This will depend on the level of weed infestation as regards grasses or broadleaves.
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Table 1. Recommended herbicides and dosages during land preparation
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Table 2. Recommended herbicides and dosages at planting
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Using the acoushi ant bait:
To apply the acoushi ant bait, first place a piece of aluminum foil, or plastic near nest. The purpose
of this foil is to prevent the bait from absorbing soil moisture. Moist bait is rejected by the ants. P
Place bait in any suitable container with the acoushi ant bait on the aluminium foil or plastic.
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Cover the container of bait with another piece of aluminium foil. Weight the foil down with stones or
pieces of wood. The second piece of aluminium foil protects the bait from rain and sunlight. Disturb the
ant nest with a cutlass or any suitable object to arouse the ants for early uptake of the bait.
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Finally, cover everything with trash to protect the bait, container and foil from vandals and intruders.
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Using the milk bait:
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Apply the milk bait by coating the inside pieces of split bamboo, pineapple, leaf or other suitable material.
Remember not to touch the bait with your hands.
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Place the bait-coated material with the inner surface down, near the nest. As before, disturb the ant nest
to excite the ants for early feeding on the bait.
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Cover baited material with trash.
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Both baits are available at the National Agricultural Research Institute (NARI). E
Control of the Mealybug
Spraying the plants in the field after the ants have been eliminated can control the Mealybug. Insecticide
application is recommended throughout the plant growing cycle to keep the pest under control. The
frequency of these applications depends largely on the level of pest infestation, but are particularly
important at the early plant growth stage and during the fruiting season.
It is also necessary to apply chemical treatment to the plant suckers before planting (refer to section
6.3.1).
Apply any of the following insecticides:
i. Basudin 60% EC. Apply 0.2 spray. Mix 10 ml/4.5 L water. (2 tsp/1 gal water).
ii. Malathion 50% EC. Apply 0.1% spray. Mix 10 ml in 4.5 water. (2 tsp/1 gal water).
When spraying, ensure that the nozzle is directed towards the lower parts of the plant where the mealybugs
are found.
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Stage 1: The first set of symptoms of the condition seems to be the appearance of a pale to pinkish
colouration mainly at the middle of the leaves of the 4th whorl. This discolouration spreads
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outwards towards the leaf margin and upwards towards the leaf tip. Eventually such
leaves curl downwards at the margin while the tip remains erect. Irregular spots are
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sometimes observed on the leaves.
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Stage 2: The pink colouration intensifies and the leaves become bright pink to reddish or bronze.
Subsequently, the leaf tips turn yellow and curl downwards and the entire plant begins to
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wilt. Also, during this stage, older leaves (5th whorl) begin to show the pinkish
discolouration.
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Stage 3: The entire plant becomes severely wilted, leaf tips become straw-coloured and begin to
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Stage 4:
die back while older leaves tend to bend over at about midway along the length.
The plant becomes withered and can be easily uprooted as the roots are severely reduced P
and rotted. Fruits produced from plants that show symptoms are usually reduced in size,
malformed with fibrous, corky and sour flesh. L
Development of “scarlet tip” E
The causative virus is known to exhibit “latency”. This means that even after plants have been infected
with the virus by the feeding mealybug, the scarlet symptom may not appear for a period of time, the
length of which varies depending upon a number of factors. These include: the nutrient status of the
plant, the number of mealybugs feeding on the plant, frequency of feeding of mealybugs on the plant,
plant age, and prevailing weather conditions. However, plants of any age have been observed to be
affected by “scarlet tip”, but those that have reached 12-15 months seem to succumb to the condition
more readily than younger or older plants.
Favourable Weather Conditions
In Guyana, hot, dry, sunny weather conditions seem to favour the development of “scarlet tip”. During
these conditions the disease symptoms seem to be most enhanced. With the onset of rains and cooler
conditions, some plants may recover from the symptoms.
Control Measures
1. Rogue and burn all diseased plants as soon as they are spotted in the field.
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The insecticidal solution remaining in the half drum should be used for spraying ant nests in the field. In
the absence of ant nests, the insecticide can be used for spraying the soil before planting.
Some Points to Note

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(1) It is preferable that these operations occur under shaded conditions. I
(2) Protective clothing should be worn at all times when treating planting material with an insecticidal
solution. For example, wear long boots, long pants, long sleeved shirts, gloves, eye goggles and
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respirators.
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Follow these instructions for the insecticidal mix:
(1) To prepare Basudin 0.05%, use one “drinks cork” of the chemical to each gallon of water. A
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PLANT NUTRITION, WATER RELATIONS AND THE ABILITY OF THE PINEAPPLE
PLANTS TO WITHSTAND THE SCARLET TIP DISEASE. P
The Scarlet Tip condition in pineapple in the Canals Polder is reportedly associated with mealybugs.
When they feed on fruits they cause localized deformation and reduced fruit size, but may also be
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associated with viral transmission. Several factors affect the intensity and development of the symptoms
of the condition. This presentation will address two main factors
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• plant nutrition and
• soil water
Proper nutrition and irrigation, particularly during the hot dry periods, can reduce intensity of the disease
and the ability of the disease to affect the plants. The critical periods for these requirements are
• in the early stages of plant development during shoot development

• and at flowering
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This ratio should work out to 2 parts of urea to I part of TSP to 2 parts of muriate of potash. In Guinea
about 50 gin (2 ozs) of urea 25 gin (1 oz) of triple superphosphate and 75 gin (3 oz) of muriate of potash
is used.
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Soil Water
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Mealybug infestation and Scarlet Tip condition are more evident during the hot dry seasons. Water
requirements far outweigh any other element and must be regularly satisfied. After all, soil water is the
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medium that contains the mineral elements which the plant uses.
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Water-logged conditions causes reduction in the number of roots, and root hairs and therefore affect
mineral absorption. In severe cases, root rot may occur. In droughty conditions, there is hardening of the
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tissue, limited root growth and root activity, fruit growth is affected showing such symptoms as prominent
fruitlets, lackluster shell and corky flesh. This weakens the plant and increases ability of the disease to
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attack the plant.
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In some farms in the Canals Polder, growers compromise on good land preparation. Some practise the
low cost “juk and plant” method of planting. This practice affects root development which in turn affects
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shoot development. Water logging also occurs particularly when proper drainage is not provided. In
farms where good land preparation and irrigation and drainage are provided, incidence of Scarlet Tip is
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not as high as in farms where these essential preconditions are not provided.
Some tips for better plant tolerance to Scarlet Tip

1. Prepare land thoroughly and destroy all pineapple residues
2. Irrigate plants during the dry periods and provide proper drainage
3. Ensure good plant nutrition
4. Time planting to avoid critical periods when stage of plant development coincide with greater
mealybug activity and excessively dry and wet conditions.
SAFE MOVEMENT OF PINEAPPLE PLANTING MATERIAL FOR THE CONTROL OF

SCARLET TIP
This subject focuses mainly on the principles and guidelines for the safe movement of pineapple planting
material within Guyana, for the control of Scarlet Tip. The external movement of pineapple planting
material i.e. the movement of material from any area of Guyana to another country or from any other
country to any area of Guyana is also considered.
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General characteristics of “clean”, healthy-looking planting material:-
- Material should only be selected from healthy looking parents (green or fitting the description of
the variety, vigorous, thrifty and relatively free of ants or mealybugs). P
- Material should be green (or must fit the description of the variety), vigorous, thrifty and sizeable.
- Planting material should be free of mealybugs; (“blight”), ants or ant shelters. I
General characteristics of infected planting material:-
- Planting material with mealybugs (“blight”)
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Although mealybugs may not always be readily visible on material, it should be thoroughly
examined for their presence. This should be done by examining the base of the plant, the area
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between the leaves, and the heart.
Planting material with ants or ant shelters
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Ant shelters can be seen as clumps of earth found between the leaves.
Planting material showing leaf discolouration
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This includes any form of leaf spot, or abnormal colouration of yellow, pink, red, creamish or
white; not fitting the description of the variety.
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- Unthrifty planting material.
These are generally pale, wilted, twisted and or undersized.
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Preparation of selected planting material for removal/dissemination
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Material should be treated, as described before, immediately after selection and harvesting. Planting
material should be treated with a solution of a suitable insecticide such as Basudin (diazinon), malathion
or Sevin (carbaryl), to kill any ants or mealybugs present.
Storing of material after treatment

Ideally, planting material should not be stored for more than 3 weeks even after treatment, as this
encourages build up of mealybug populations and subsequent re-infestation. However, if material is
stored for longer periods (more than 2 weeks), then it should be treated again as described above.
External Movement of Planting material

In general, the international transfer of pineapple planting material is prohibited. Countries requiring
planting material can only obtain such for scientific purposes. This means that any external movement of
pineapple planting material (other than for scientific use) is considered illegal and the person or persons
involved can be subject to prosecution.
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Gummosis Disease of the fruit:
This disease follows the attack of the fruit by the Thecla butterfly and is characterized by the exudation
of an amber coloured resinous material or gum from the wound. Control of the disease is directed at
controlling the Thecla butterfly previously described.
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ARTIFICIAL FLOWER - INDUCTION I
Artificial flower-induction is a procedure that utilizes synthetic hormones to
induce plants to flower. It permits better scheduling of the harvest as it takes
five months from the time of induction to full maturity of the fruits. The process
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works best when the following criteria are fulfilled:
The plants in the block to be treated should be homogeneous in size and not
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less than 12 months old or possess less than 25 leaves(Figure 4). Young and
unhealthy plants should not be induced to flower since they will produce small
fruits, (unless small fruits are specifically required for a particular market).
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Treatment should take place in the cool of the day, early morning or late
afternoon, with preference for the latter. The main products used to induce
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flowering are Naphthalene Acetic Acid (NAA) and Ethrel. The NAA is available
in tablet form (0.5 mg active ingredient per tablet) and treatment is achieved by
placing one or one-half a tablet into the whorl of each suitable plant. Ethrel is a
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liquid and is used as a 0.1-0.2 %
spray solution. To enhance its performance, it is recommended that Urea be
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Fig 4. Artificial flower-induction
added to the solution to the level of 2 %.

In practice this is 20-40 mls of Ethrel + 400 gms of Urea per 20 L Sprayer or approximately 1.5-3
Tablespoons of Ethrel + 1 lb. Urea per 5 gal. Sprayer. The application is made to the centre of the whorl
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delivering about 30 mls (2 tablespoons) of the mixture per plant.
It must be remembered that the use of the herbicides Karmex and Krovar are to be avoided during this
blooming period. If these herbicides are being used around this time, then the application should be so
scheduled to conclude before floral induction commences.
HARVESTING
The time of harvesting the Pineapple depends on whether the fruits are for the domestic or overseas
market. Fully ripe fruits are suited more for local markets while unripe but mature fruits can be shipped
overseas.
The Montserrat pineapple has excellent quality when optimum ripeness is reached. As a fresh fruit,
however, it has two (2) undesirable features:
1) After picking, it does not ripen or improve in eating quality

and consequently the fruit must be harvested at the optimum
ripeness to suit the particular market.
2) In some cases, there may be a difficulty in estimating the internal quality of the fruit based on external
or skin colour and other means will have to be employed.
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Code:
CS3 Code:
CS4
Eye Colour:
20-40% Eyes Yellow Eye Colour:
40-80% Eyes Yellow
Description:
Intermediate Green
Green Mature/Fully Ripe
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Observing the flesh condition can also assess fruit maturity. Random samples of fruit can be taken and
sliced horizontally at the point of the largest diameter. Where more than half of the area is translucent,
the fruit is considered beyond optimum maturity. If the facilities are available, the sugar content or Brix
measured by a portable refractometer could be determined. The minimum Brix required is 10% at the
top and 12 % at the bottom for the green mature pineapple. Also a brix; acid ratio measurement of 2.0 at
the top and 2.75 at the bottom of the fruit may be used but this will also depend on market requirements. P
It is clear therefore that the stage of maturity at harvest is, however, dependent on the storage life and
distance to the particular market. Fully ripe fruits are unsuitable for transporting to distant markets and
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less mature fruits are selected in this case. Immature fruits are not shipped since they do not develop
good flavour, have low brix and are more prone to chilling injury. Generally, for export CS1 and CS2 are N
used.
Harvesting and Field Preparation E
The Pineapple is hand harvested with the pickers being directed as to the stage or stages of ripeness
required. It is harvested by breaking or cutting the stalk a few centimeters below the fruit. The harvested
fruit is packed either in the field or at a central packing shed. While in the field it should be placed in
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shaded conditions. From the collection in the field and from field to Pack house, polyethylene sacks or
bags should not be used for packing and transport, as this will cause a high level of mechanical damage P
and eventual losses in quality. The fruit should be placed in field crates for transport to the packing shed.
In the field, a preliminary grading exercise can be conducted. Undersize, oversize, overripe, under ripe,
damaged, bruised, insect and fungal infested fruits should be rejected.
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Transport L
Fruit should be transported in such a way as to avoid unnecessary damage. The transporting vehicle
should allow for good air circulation and protection of the produce from sunlight. Transport of fruit
should be done in the cool periods of the day and on roads / dams that allow for smooth traveling.
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Cleaning
Pineapple fruits are quite perishable and should ideally be packed for market within a day of harvest.
The initial step in preparation for market involves cleaning of the outside of the fruit. For the domestic
market, this generally involves trimming of the stem at the base of the fruit to a length of 1-2 cm,
removing any damaged or unsightly leaves in the crown, and a gentle dry brushing of the fruit surface to
remove dirt and dust. A similar protocol should be followed for the export market, with more emphasis
placed on fruit uniformity and quality. Depending on the export market requirements, all fruits which
are undersized,
oversized, over-ripe, under-ripe, damaged, bruised, or show fungal or insect damage should be
discarded.
The Barbados market requires a specific protocol to be adhered to. The stem must be trimmed very
close to the base and the crown has to be cut back to a length of 10 cm. Then the fruit has to be washed
in a soap solution and thoroughly scrubbed on theoutside with a brush to remove all live insects (Figure
6). The wash water should beproperly chlorinated (150 ppm free chlorine) and maintained at a pH of
between 6.5 to 7.0.In addition, an approved postharvest fungicide should be added to the wash solution
to reduce decay. Bayleton and benomyl are two postharvest fungicides commonly used in other
countries. After washing, the fruit must be dried and inspected by a trained and certified Guyanese
Ministry of Agriculture (Plant Health Unit) inspector. Fruit approved for export by the inspector can
then be packed.
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Pineapple fruit destined for Barbados require the crown be trimmed back to a length of 10 cm. On the
other hand, fruit destined for U.S. and Canadian markets must have an intact crown > 10 cm in
length. No more than 10% of the crown leaves should be discolored. Mechanical damage must be
confined to < 5% of the fruit surface area and any bruise must not exceed 3.75 cm in diameter or be
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deeper than 0.6 cm.
Packing I
All fruit packed in the same carton or container should be
uniform in size, shape, and external color. Immature or over N
mature fruit should not be packed for export. It is important
that the carton be properly ventilated and be of sufficient
strength to withstand the rigors of distribution without
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collapsing. Weak cartons do not have sufficient physical
strength to be stacked and result in major losses of the fruit A
upon arrival in the destination market. Inferior packaging is a
constraint facing Guyanese exporters. P
Fig 7. Uniform sized and shaped fruit
A carton with at least 275 lb/in² bursting strength should be
used to avoid damage to the product during transport and handling.
destined
for U.S. market.
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A commonly used package in the international trade of pineapples
is a full-telescopic two-piece corrugated fiberboard carton. Top
and bottom ventilation, in addition to side vents are required,
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particularly where seashipments are used. Typical carton inside
dimensions are 30.5 cm wide x 45 cm long x 31 cm deep (12 in x E
17.7 in x 12.2 in).
The preferred method of packing is to place the fruit vertically on
the base, and then to place dividers between the fruits to prevent
rubbing and movement. With some cartons, this is not possible and
fruit are laid horizontally in alternating directions; where two layers
of fruit are packed, a divider is required between the layers. Another
commonly used export carton for pineapples is a single-layer
corrugated fiberboard carton.
The Barbados market requires the fruit be packed in corrugated Fig 8. Typical corrugated fiberboard
containers (Figure 8). The fruit may be oriented vertically or carton
used for exporting pineapples.
horizontally inside the carton. Typically, about 40 ±5 lb. of fruit are
put in each carton.
It is important the carton be properly ventilated and be of
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After treatment, size grading and separation according to stage of ripeness should be carried out. Large
is considered to be greater than 1.6kg medium 1.2 to 1.6kg and small less than 1.2kg. The fruit is then
packed in special cartons with good ventilation. The preferred method of packing is by placing the fruit
vertically or in a standing position in the carton. Dividers or separators are placed between fruits in the
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carton to prevent the fruit from rubbing together and minimize abrasion and damage.
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Fruits are normally packed to a net weight of 10- 15kg but this depends, however, on the carton and the
market. Fruits in individual cartons should be the same size which would determine the counts that can
be accommodated. Accepted counts are as follows:
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(i) 6 count - over 1.6kg E
(ii) 12 count - 1.2kg
(iii)
(iv)
12 count - 1.0kg
20 count – 0.75kg
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8.2. Storage P
Mature green pineapple should be stored at a temperature of 8-10 oC and at relative humidity of 85-
90%. Under these conditions it should have a storage life of 2-3 weeks. P
Sensitivity to chilling injury is, however, related to the level of ripeness of the fruit. Storage of green
fruit (CS1) below 8oC will result in chilling injury symptoms such as incomplete colour development, L
wilting and darkening of the flesh, crown and peel.
It should be noted that if low temperature storage is used this will have to be maintained throughout
the postharvest and marketing chain so as to avoid condensation of the produce which may later
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cause fungal diseases such as black rot etc. to develop.
8.3. Grading Standards
Pineapple should have the following minimum quality standards to stimulate consumers appeal and
increase profits.
(i) Fruit needs to be mature, firm and well formed.
(ii) Fruit should be free of surface debris and stains.
(iii) Fruit should have no wounds, scratches, punctures or bruises.
(iv) Fruit should have no scars or residues from insects or spray chemicals.
(v) Fruit should be free of soft rots or surface moulds.
(vi) The size of the crown and ratio of crown to fruit length should be guided by market
requirement.
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False Horn a/k ‘Horse’ Plantain – This variety is
distinguished by the small number of hands, usually
with few fingers on a bunch that weighs about 10
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kg (20 lbs) (Figure 2). It is similar to the Medium
French Plantain and produces many suckers. L
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Fig 2. False Horn Plantain
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A
True Horn a/k ‘Horse’ Plantain – This variety usually
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has between one and three hands (Figure 3). The
fingers are few in numbers, seldom as much as ten. N
These are longer and stouter than those of the False
Horn. It is less important to the farmers because it
is not prolific as the other varieties.
Fig 3. True Horn Plantain
Giant French a/k ‘Giant’ Plantain – The variety, as

the name implies, is robust and tall. It has a girth of
around 70 – 75 cm (2- 2.5 ft) and an average height
of about 5 m (15 ft). The bunch is very large
weighing as much as 90 kg (200 lbs) with many
hands ad short fingers (Figure 4). This variety
produces more than forty leaves prior to flowering
and takes as much as fifteen to eighteen months to
produce a mature bunch. It does not produce many
suckers from its base but there is often a fine
successor.
Fig 4. Giant French Plantain
259
SELECTION OF PLANTING MATERIAL
There are three types of planting materials: the Sword Sucker, the Maiden
Sucker, and the Bull Head (Figure 6). P
The Sword Sucker is the choice above all the other planting materials - the
longer it is with a full corm at the base, the better it will grow L
under favourable conditions. It has the advantage of having an
adequate supply of food in the corm to enhance rapid growth and
with less chance of being affected by pests than other types of
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planting materials.
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The Maiden Sucker is a young plant that has not yet borne fruit.
The Bull Head or Corm is the round under ground basal section
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Fig 6. Types of planting materials
of the plant from which the roots and leaves emerge.
PLANTING
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The neck of the sucker, where the stem meets the corm, is placed slightly below soil level in the
previously prepared planting hole. The hole is then filled with the remaining soil and lightly earthed –
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up around the sucker.
Maintenance of Cultivation N
General Maintenance
Weed control is most importan during the first four – five months after planting. There after, as the plants
develop, the soil is covered and weeding will no longer be necessary. Removal of old, dried out, handing
leaves should be done frequently.
After flowering, staking with bamboo or propping with forked poles is advisable to support the plants
and prevent them from falling during strong winds. Two or three suckers of different sizes should be
allowed to grow on each matt in order to stagger production. Other suckers are to be carefully pruned,
uprooted and used for further planting.
Fertilizer Application
As a general rule, before applying fertilizers, the soil should be analyzed to determine the types and
amounts to be used. If a soil analysis (soil test) was not done, the following are the recommended rates
can be applies to each plant:
Urea – 450 gm (1 lb)
Triple Super Phosphate (TSP) – 225 gm (1/2 lb)
Muriate of Potash (MoP) – 225 gm (1/2 lb)
With a spacing of 2.4 m x 2.4 m (8’ x 8’) one hectare will accommodate 1,700 plants/ ha
(approximately 680 plants/ ac). Hence for one hectare the following amount of fertilizers will be
required:
Urea – 300 kg (680 lb)
TSP – 150 kg (340 lb)
Muriate of Potash – 150 kg (340 lb)
261
Calcium
The symptoms of calcium deficiency are a reduction in the length of
the leaves and a slowing down of the rate of emission. Later, a P
thickening of the secondary ribs will be noted on the younger leaves,
giving them a crinkled aspect (Figure 10).
Finally, there is dentate interveinal chlorosis directed towards the
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midrib. The chlorosis develops into necrosis which may occur in the
middle of the blade and form ‘button holes’. A
Fig 10. Symptoms
Phosphorus Calcium deficiency
Phosphorus deficiency is characterized by blue green coloration of the leaves. On the lowest four or
N
five leaves there is marginal necrosis, developing in an angular manner towards the midrib.
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INSECT PEST MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
A
Plantain/Banana is grown on a wide range of soil types throughout Guyana, and is affected by insect
pests, diseases and weeds which adversely affect yields. The most devastating pest is the MOKO
DISEASE, to which all the commercially grown varieties are susceptible.
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Insects (particularly the Plantain/Banana ROOT WEEVIL) are also responsible for substantial yield N
losses.
WEEDS, contribute to yield losses through competition for water and nutrients, and by serving as
alternate hosts for insects and diseases.
It is essential that the establishment of cultivations be done with clean and healthy planting materials.
Proper field sanitation ensures a clean environment for crop growth. The utilization of adequate
agronomic practices such as fertilizer application and weed management contribute to plant vigor
Plantains and Bananas are affected by three major insect pests:
a. PLANTAIN/BANANA ROOT WEEVIL – Cosmopolites sordidus

(Coleoptera; Curculionidae)
b. PSEUDOSTEM BORER - Lapaeumides licus

(Lepidoptera; Castinidae)
c. FRUIT SCARRING BEETLE – Colapsis hypochlora

(Coleoptera; Chrysomelidae)
a. Plantain/Banana Weevil
This pest is widely distributed throughout the country but is more problematic in areas where the
crop is cultivated on a large scale.
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1. Field Treatment of Infested Plant :- Plants that are infected in the field can be given an
insecticidal treatment. The insecticides Triazophos, Basudin or Vydate L are
recommended at the rate of 15mls to 4500mls (½ fl.oz. to1gal) water and applied
thoroughly to the plant stand.
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The insecticide solution should be sprayed on to the pseudostem immediately above the
corm, and the soil immediately around the base of the plant. This treatment should give L
control for approximately 3-5 months.
2. Trapping: - The adult weevil is attracted to cut or damaged pseudostem. During

A
harvesting, the pseudostem from these plants which would have already borne fruit can
be split longitudinally and cut into 45cm (18ins) long pieces. The cut surface of each N
piece can be treated with 0.05% concentration of Triazophos or Basudin solution.. Each
cut piece should then be placed with its cut surface downwards on the soil surface
between the standing crop. Traps will attract and kill adult weevils during a 7-10 day
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period.
Untreated traps can be placed in the field as described above, however, these must be A
serviced and replaced every 48hours. This system will also rigorously reduce the pest
population in the field. I
b. Pseudostem Borer
The larva (3.75cm long) bores into the pseudostem at any point up to one metre from ground
level. At
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the point of boring, and evidence of infestation, a slimy, colourless material continuously
exudes.
The larvae bore mostly the periphery of the stem, but sometimes attack the core and reach the
growing point, thus killing the plant. Once plants are checked regularly, slimy secretions will
indicate the location of the larva.
Control
• Practice good field sanitation.
• Injection Method: - Make 2 – 3 holes 9cm (3ins) about 60cm (2ft) from the ground. These
holes should go down at on 45degree angle and sideways into the trunk. With the use of a
dispensing bottle, pour Triazophos 40% E.C. into the holes.
• DO NOT APPLY THIS TREATMENT TO PLANTS WHICH HAVE IMMATURE OR
MATURE FRUITS.
c. Fruit Scarring Beetle
The adult beetles feed on almost all stages of the fruit, thus, causing wounds on fruit surfaces.
These wounds exude a clear fluid which eventually turns black. These wounds are only superficial
and do not extend to the edible portion of the fruit, but renders it unmarketable. Conditions
suitable for development of this pest are:-
• poor field sanitation;
• water logged conditions; and/or
• and heavy shade.
265
MOKO DISEASE
Moko disease is the major disease of plantain/banana in Guyana. It is widespread throughout the
plantain/banana growing areas. This disease is caused by bacteria which attack the plants. These
bacteria enter the plants, grow and block the channels that carry water to all parts of the plant, thus,
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preventing much needed nourishment. Subsequently, the plant dies. The name of the bacteria that
causes this disease is Ralstonia salanacearun (Race 2). Rigid sanitary methods are the best means of L
control as no chemical treatment is available to prevent or control infection.
A
Symptoms of Moko Disease
The signs indicating the presence of the disease are as follows:-

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• Yellowing and drooping of young leaves with brown patches resulting in the death of the
plant.
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• Premature and uneven yellowing of fruits which, when cut, display black spots or
blackening of the pulp.
• Presence of a dark brown to bluish – black ring in the cross-section of the pseudostem
A
(trunk) of the plant.
• Naval, i.e. male flowers ends, wither and become black.
I
• Breaking of the leaf petioles, wilting, drying and eventual death of plant.
Disease Dispersal
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• use of planting materials taken from diseased stands,
• from mother corm into the suckers and followers,
• by insects, e.g. bees, wasps,
• from one country to another by people and goods; by air and sea,
• and the use of un-sterilised farm tools.
Management of Moko Disease

a) use of planting materials from disease free fields,
b) removal and destroy by burning all plants which show any signs of disease,
c) proper field sanitation – plots should be weed free, since “moca-moca” bush and other weed
species may keep Moko bacteria alive,
d) disinfection in the fields can be achieved by flaming tools (heat exposure) or sterilised in a
solution of 70% ethanol (alcohol), formaldehyde (formalin) 10% or chlorine solution 10%
(marvex /bleach), for at least 10 minutes,
e) provision of adequate drainage to avoid run-off water from contaminated fields so that the
disease cannot be transmitted from field to field,
f) if fields are already infested, then all plants should be removed and destroyed by burning. The
fields must then be fallowed for at least 12 months,
g) crop rotation – crops, such as yams, sweet potato and eddoes may be used,
h) and before leaving the diseased site, soak hands, tools, boots etc. in alcohol, bleach or formalin
solution.
267
The distance between perforations (vertically and horizontally) is 2.5 X 3.0 cm (1 to 1.2 inches) in the
pinhole style and 7.6 X 7.6 cm (3 x 3 inches) in the half-inch style of bunch cover. Perforated bunch
covers may also be impregnated with a slow-release volatile insecticide to protect the fruit against insect
pests during growth and development. The most commonly used insecticide impregnated in the plastic is
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chlorpyrifos, an organophosphate insecticide sold under the trade names of Lorsban or Dursban. Several
other insecticides, dichlorvos and diazinon, are also effective in warding off bunch pests. They are typically
L
impregnated into plastic strips which are placed inside the bunch cover. The preferred type of bunch
cover depends on the amount of insect pressure, environmental conditions, and market requirements. A
Source and Cost
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Bunch covers are highly specialized items available from only a few plastic companies in the areas of
commercial banana production. There is no company in the U.S that makes bunch covers. Therefore, a
T
more extensive worldwide search was made and several sources of bunch covers were found. Several
companies in Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico, and Ecuador fabricate a wide diversity of bunch cover
types for the Latin American banana export industry. Commercial growers throughout the region, and as
A
far away as Hawaii, use these companies as their source of bunch covers. The specific company which
supplied the bunch covers for the introductory trials in Guyana was Empaques Universal, S.A., located
I
in Costa Rica (phone: 506-438-0525; fax: 506-438- 0557). The other source of bunch covers was a
company in Queensland, Australia, called Green Harvest, which sells a non-perforated bunch cover for
the sub-tropical banana industry in the Queensland area (phone: 617-5494-4676; fax: 617-5494-4674).
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Bunch covers can be purchased in rolls, which range in length from 60 to 100 meters, or as pre-cut bags.
The rolls and pre-cut bags come in different widths and thickness of plastic. In addition, the bunch
covers come in different styles, including non-perforated, perforated (pinholes and 1.3 cm [0.5 inch]
holes), and perforated with chlorpyrifos impregnated insecticide. A typical bunch cover length is 1.2
meters (4 feet), therefore, a total of 83 bunch covers can be obtained from one 100 meter roll. The cost
per roll and per bunch cover varies slightly depending on the style and length of bunch cover and the
number of rolls purchased. The cost per 100 meter roll (from Empaques Universal) is approximately
$3.60, or slightly less than $0.05 per bag. Another company in Costa Rica (Yanber S.A., phone: 506-
763-3245; fax: 506-222-6244) sells pre-cut chlorpyrifos bunch covers in 500 unit amounts for $34. This
is equivalent to about $0.07 per bunch cover.
However, these prices do not include the freight cost from Costa Rica to Guyana. Nevertheless, the
price is very reasonable in relation to the positive benefits obtained from use of the bunch covers. It may
also be possible to source the bunch covers at competitive prices from other Caribbean banana-growing
countries (i.e. Jamaica, St. Lucia, Guadeloupe), Surinam, Colombia or Venezuela).
The cost of the non-perforated bunch cover from Australia is $1.23 per meter. Thus, a 1.2 meter length
bunch cover costs $1.48, plus freight. This is extremely expensive, and in addition, this type of bunch
cover is not likely to be adapted to the humid, tropical production areas of Guyana.
269
Harvesting
Plantains require about 3 months from the beginning of flowering until harvest. Multiple fruits are
produced on a large bunch, weighing between 30 to 100 lbs. Within the bunch are clusters of double
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rows of fruit called ‘hands’, and individual fruit called ‘fmgers’.
Crop Maturity Indices
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Maturity standards for plantains are less precise than they are for bananas. Several different external and
internal fruit characteristics can be used to determine plantain maturity. These include fruit diameter, age
of the bunch, angularity of the fruit, length of the fruit, and peel color. The stage of maturity for harvest
A
depends on the intended market destination. Locally marketed plantains can be harvested at a more
advanced maturity stage compared to export market fruit. Export market destined fruit should be harvested N
the day before or the same day of shipment.
Plantain maturity is related to the diameter of the fingers. This is

T
determined by measuring the diameter of the fruit at its midpoint
with a pair of calipers (Figure 13). A
Another method for estimating plantain maturity is to record the I
age of the bunch. The time from when the fruit bunch first becomes
visible (‘shooting’) is recorded. Bunches can be tagged with different
colored ribbons at the
N
time of shooting, and subsequently harvested after the appropriate
time for
the particular cultivar, based on the season of the year and
experience.
The color of the ribbons is changed weekly to coincide with the Fig 13. Caliper used to measure
time of shooting and subsequently the age of the bunch. plantain fruit maturity.
A third method used to determine harvest maturity is to observe the shape (fullness) and angularity of the
fruit. Immature fruit is angular in cross-sectional shape and has distinct ridges. As the fruit matures, it
becomes less angular and more rounded or full. The degree of roundness differs between cultivars and
location of the hand on the bunch. Typically, the fullness of the fruit on the middle hand is measured.
271
Transportation to Collection Area

After harvest, the plantain bunches are taken P
from the field to a collection area or
consolidation site, where they are often piled
up on one another (Figure 15). Piling should
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be avoided, as it results in considerable
bruising injury and mechanical damage to A
the fruit. Rudimentary grading at this point
should be done to eliminate diseased,
damaged, or over-ripe fruit. The fruit should
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not be exposed to sun, rain, or wind. Fruit
temperature of plantains exposed to the sun T
may be up to 10°C higher than shaded fruit.
Collection points for the harvested fruit
should be shaded and easily accessible to Fig 15. Plantain bunches piled together at
A
vehicles for transportation
Transportation to Packing Area
collection site near Parika.
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The bunches of plantains from the collection sites are
normally loaded in bulk in trucks (Figure 16) or vans
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for travel to Georgetown or other domestic market
destinations. The bunches are piled on top of each other
to maximize the load capacity and often over several
hundred bunches are stuffed in the truck bed. No specific
measures are taken to protect the fruit from physical
damage during transport. Considerable peel damage is
incurred during loading and unloading and injuries such
as bruising from compaction during the journey are
common. In addition, many fingers may twist and fall
off the bunch. Significant losses occur during transport Fig 16. Loading of plantains in bulk for
in fruit intended for the export market, as there is less transport to Georgetown.
tolerance for damaged fruit in these markets.
Suggested changes for reducing mechanical injury and damage to the bunches during transport
include:
• use of foam padding along the bottom and side walls of the truck
• placement of foam padding between the bunches
• creating several levels in the truck bed with horizontal boards to stack the bunches
• de-handing the bunches and transport in stackable field containers
• driving the transport vehicle at a low speed
273
In some packinghouses, separate washing and de-Iatexing tanks are used. The fruit is first washed for
about 5 minutes, followed by de-Iatexing for about 10 minutes. The fungicide can be included in the de-
Iatexing tank, or sprayed onto the crowns with a hand sprayer while on the drying tray. Alum may also
be applied at the same time and serves as an anti-oxidant to prevent subsequent latex exudations from
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staining the peel.
The recommended fungicides for postharvest disease control in

L
plantains are thiabendazole (500 ppm) and/or imazalil (1000 ppm).
It is very important to keep the fungicides agitated to prevent the A
active ingredient from settling out. Relatively large amounts of the
fungicide are usually required because the wash water becomes dirty
and must be changed from time to time.
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The water flow transports the hands from the de-handing side of
the tank to the opposite side where the hands are separated into
T
clusters of 4 to 8 joined fingers, and small or defective fingers are
removed. Some markets require each finger to be separated from A
the bunch. The Clusters are removed from the tank, placed on trays, Figure 20. Plantain fruit in
dried, and graded (Figure 20). drying trays after de-handing
and washing.
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The packing area should be located in an easily accessible area that is shaded, covered, and has good
air flow.
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Grading
Quality standards vary for different markets. They are the most stringent for the North American and
European export market and the least stringent for the domestic Guyanese market. However, the following
grade standards apply to green plantain fruit on the bunch for both domestic and export markets:
• fruit must be clean and free of adhering dirt on the peel

• fruit must be well developed, without pronounced ribs or marked angles
• fruit must be similar in shape, color (pale green), and skin typical of the variety
• fruit must be free from visible decay
• bunches must be well trimmed
• the neck, which hold the stems of the fingers together, must be between 1 to 2.5 cm from the
pulp
• fruit must be free of damage, or defects caused by malformation, which detract from
appearance or edibility
In addition to meeting the above requirements, the Guyana National Bureau of Standards has three
grade classifications for plantains based on size. Size is determined by weight and length of individual
fruit.
Minimum weight (gm) Minimum length (cm)
Grade I 70-110 18
Grade II 250 15
Grade III 140 10
275
Marine container transport is an option if transit time is less than 2
weeks and sufficient cooling capacity is available to maintain storage
conditions between 12°C to14°e (54°F-57°P), 90% RH during transit.
If this mode of transport is used the fruit should be packed in cartons
P
lined with perforated plastic film or enclosed in semi to permeable sealed
plastic bags and the transport temperature should be maintained between
L
12°C to 14°C. The modified atmosphere of low 02 and high C02
established inside the sealed bags from respiration of the fruit will
significantly extend the shelf life of the plantains. The plastic film or
A
bags will reduce moisture loss during transport and provide some
protection from chafing damage. The fruit should also be harvested at N
the proper maturity stage to avoid ripening during transport.
Fig 23. Typical export T
carton used for plantains.
Temperature Management
The optimal storage and transport temperature for maximizing plantain shelf life is between 12°C to A
14°C. This temperature will delay ripening, but avoid low temperature chilling injury. The average shelf
life of mature green harvested plantains stored at 12°C is between 4 to 5 weeks. If the fruit is harvested
at a more advanced stage of ripening and/or the storage temperature is higher, the shelf life will be less.
I
Green harvested plantains that are stored under ambient temperatures in Guyana will have a shelf life of
about 7 to 10 days. At temperatures above 30°C, the pulp will soften but the peel will remain green.
However, shelf life of green mature plantains can be extended at ambient temperatures by storing the
N
fruit in polyethylene bags with an ethylene absorbent (potassium permanganate) wrapped in porous
paper. In this microenvironment, plantain shelf life can be extended up to 4 weeks at 29.4°e (85°F) and
up to 7 weeks at 12.7°e (55°F). To obtain maximum shelflife from plantains, ethylene must be removed
from the atmosphere and the fruit must be kept at 12°C.
277
INTRODUCTION
Cucurbita maxima (pumpkin) is believed to have originated in South America, while the other species
became differentiated in the southern U.S.A, Mexico and Central America. Pumpkins are now grown all
over the world with the exception of Antarctica.
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Pumpkin belongs to the Cucurbitacae family, which includes cucumber, melon and squash. Within this
family is the genus Cucurbita which includes all varieties of pumpkin.
U
Pumpkin plants are hardy creepers or soil surface runners, but able to climb where there are supports. The M
fruits vary in shape, colour and sizes. They are monoecious and can be bred from pure lines.
Pumpkins are cultivated for their ripe fruit with the seeds in the central cavity and the yellow or orange flesh
P
being eaten. Pumpkin contains an important antioxidant, beta-carotene, which is converted to vitamin A in
the body. In the conversion to vitamin A, beta-carotene performs many important functions in overhall
health. Research suggests that pumpkin seeds have unique nutritional and health benefits.
K
Varieties
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There are numerous pumpkin varieties. The basic types of pumpkins are
(1) American pumpkins - very long, soft and rounded. Some have trailing stems of 3m long
while some are non-runners.
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Three types of fruits are produced within this category:
(1)Two layered or turban type (mainly red, with green, yellow or orange markings). These
pumpkins weigh up to 5 kg: (ii) a yellow, white or red colour and weighs up to 40 kg and (iii)
hubbard green, squash-dark green and pear shaped.
(2) Butternut squash is called “butternut pumpkin” and neck pumpkin. These are annuals
with soft leaves and stems 3-5 m with branched tendrils. Fruits are orangish, ovoid or rounded.
Fruits weigh about 1 kg. The flesh is white without yellow or red. It is best suited for the
tropics. It is hardy and disease resistant. Some are non-runner types and late maturing,> 1 00
days.
(3) Marrows- these are variable species both in vegetative growth and fruit structure. Stems are elongated, thin
and trailing or sometimes short and thick (non-runner type). Fruits are very large, green mottled, ovoid and non
ribbed. They may also be pear shaped and rounded.
Environmental Requirements
Cultivated cucurbita species are photoperiod neutral, with differing thermal optima. The area where pumpkin
is cultivated should receive maximum sunshine to maximize the photosynthetic process, and therefore, produce
the largest plant and fruit. The crop grows best with altitude up to 2000m and temperature of 22-25oC, though
some are well adapted to high temperatures. Low humidity reduces the incidence of diseases such as mildew.
Heavy rain adversely affects flowering and delays development. Pumpkins grow well on soil that is high in
organic matter, has good moisture retention capability and is easily drained. Soil pH ranges between 5.5 – 6.8
are ideal for cultivation.
279
279
Insect Pest Management
Vegetable production occurs within a relatively short time frame and as such yield losses due to pests may be
substantial if the problem is not identified early, and remedial action not implemented in a timely manner. Correct
identification of the pest and an understanding of its behaviour, including its most vulnerable stages, would
P
provide insights into its management.
U
The early maturity of vegetables and short intervals between harvests during the cropping season impose constraints
on the pest control strategy option. Care must be then taken if pesticide application is contemplated, since there
is the likelihood of high residual levels remaining in the product after harvest if an inappropriate formulation is
M
used.
Pumpkin is subjected to, attack from many insect pests and diseases. The following is a detailed description the
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major pests and the appropriate management strategies that may be employed for control.
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1. Cricket
Gryllotalpa spp. (Orthoptera: Gryllotalpidae)
Acheta spp. (Orthoptera: Gryllidae)
I
Sumptoms
Cricket attacks seedlings of all vegetables. Fully grown crickets are brown in colour and are about 2.5 – 3.5 N
cm long. The various species of these insects usually live either in the soil, bushes and under decaying crop
residues and vegetation.
Mole crickets, which have heavily sclerotised front legs that are adapted for digging, are usually common in
sandy soils (Figure 1). All crickets are nocturnal, feeding at night and secluded by day, under the soil. They feed
at or slightly below the soil surface and can cause considerable damage before being discovered. Seedlings may
be denuded of leaves or cut below the soil surface without any trace of insect on them. Crickets spend their entire
life cycle below the soil, which may be for a period of approximately 28 -35 days. They are termed soil insects.
Control
Cultural control:
• The areas where vegetables are grown should receive
full sunlight, kept clean of weeds and all crop residues
should be removed and burnt. Fig 1. Mole crickets
• Proper land preparation serves to control weeds, diseases, and soil insects, and also helps in the
destruction of large soil clods, which act as hiding places for cricket.
Chemical control:
• Any approved soil insecticide at the recommended rate may be applied, such as Basudin 60% E.C
(Diazinon) or Vydate L 40%E.C at the rate of 10 mls to 4500 mls water, to seed beds and cultivated
cropping areas.
281
281
Control:
Biological control:
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• The natural predator lady bird beetle, frequently feeds on
aphids. When aphid population is low and lady bird beetles U
are present, there is no need for chemical control.
Chemical control:
• Chemical may be applied when the population is high. A
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contact or stomach insecticide may be used such as Fastac,
Decis or Karate at 6mls to 4500mls water, Sevin 85% W.P. P
(Carbaryl) at 6g to 4500 mls water or Malathion 57% E.C. at 15 mls
to 4500 mls water. Fig. 3: Nymph and Adult
aphids
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N.B. Sprays should be directed to underside/surfaces of leaves. When Sevin or Malathion is used, crops
should not be harvest until 7 -10 days after application of the chemical. In the case of Fastac, Decis or I
Karate, crops can be harvested within 3-5 days after chemical application.
4. White flies
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Bemisia tabaci (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae)
These insects are in fact bugs. The adults are white, moth-like
insects that fly upwards from the plant when disturbed. They are
about 2 mm in length and their wings are covered with a white waxy
powder (Figure 4).
The pinhead size nymphs are oval and flattened, and are attached to
the leaf surface until maturity. All stages of this pest can be found on
the underside of leaves. Nymphs and adults feed by sucking plant sap,
resulting in leaves becoming mottled, yellow and brown before dying.
Feeding whiteflies excrete honey dew on leaf surface which encourages
the growth of sooty mould, thus hampering photosynthesis. Ants are
also attracted to the honey due. This pest is also a vector of viral Fig. 4:White flies
diseases. The life cycle may be completed in about 28-35 days.
Cultural practices:
• Do not plant a new crop next to one which is mature. The common practice of having
• Good farm sanitation, including the removal of weeds around the cultivation is recommended
since weeds act as hosts for white flies.
Chemical control:
flies. Targeting both nymphs and adults with soap based products, should be applied
very early in the morning or late in the evening. Other chemicals which may be used
include Admire, Pegasus and/or Basudin/ Vydate L at 10 mls to 4500 mls water.
283
283
7. Fruit sucking bugs
Nezara viridula: (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae)
Phthia picta: (Hemiptera: Coreidae)
These are various species of plants bugs (Figure 7). They actually do the
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same type of damage, by puncturing and sucking the sap from leaves,
flowers and fruits.Affected fruits become discoloured, hardened and
U
(a) Nymphs
deformed, thus the market value of the fruits is reduced. Nezara com-
monly known as “stink bugs” is green in colour and about 1.5 – 2 cm
and is recognized by its shield shape body, and awful protective odors
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emitted when molested. The Phthia are brownish – black bugs with a red
band across the back of the thorax, and are about 2-2.5 cm in length.
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Both the adult and nymphs of this pest incur economic losses. The Life
cycle ranges from 35-70 days. K
Control:
(b) Adult
Fig. 7: Nymphs & adults
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from previous crops.
Chemical control:
fruit sucking bugs
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• Among the insecticides which may be used are Fastac, Decis, Karate and Ambush at 6
mls to 4500 mls water or Sevin at 10 gms to 4500 mls water.
8. Striped Cucurbit Beetle
(Acalymma vittata)
Symptoms
Striped cucurbit beetle (Figure 8) feeds on wild hosts until cucurbits are planted.
Once cucurbits are present, adults can appear in a matter of hours in a field. They
move from fence rows and wooded areas into the first few rows.
Once in the field, beetles congregate on a few plants in large numbers.
Beetles are most active in the morning and the late afternoon as they first begin to
move into cucurbit fields. After a few days of massing and mating, beetles Fig. 8: Striped cucurbit
disperse throughout the field where they continue to feed (Figure 9). beetle
After dispersing, females begin to lay eggs in the soil near the base of cucurbit plants.
Eggs hatch in 6-9 days into larvae that begin to feed on the roots and stems of plants. The lifecycle ranges between
28-35 days.
Chemical Control
• When the insect population is very high, chemical control may
be required. An appropriate contact insecticide may be used
such as Malathion, Sevin, Fastac, Decis, and Karate at 6ml to
4500ml water. Spraying should start as soon as plants are in the
field and at intervals once every two weeks up to harvest.
Fig. 9: Damage to pumpkin

leaves from striped
cucurbit beetle
285
285
Phytophthora Blight
(Phytophthora infestans)
Plants infected with this fungus express several symptoms depending on the plant part affected and the P
stage of disease development. The following are some common symptom types:
1. Damping off of seedlings U
2. Leaf spots that are dark brown and large (up to 5cm) and in some cases with a yellow halo.
3. Water-soaked, oily, sticky decay and collapse of stem and petiole.
4. Root rot and crown rot causing the entire plant to collapse and then die.
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5. A white downy fungal growth may first appear on the surface of the fruit (Figure 12). This will quickly
expand and cover the entire surface of the fruit, especially in moist humid conditions and may consist of
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fungal mycelia and numerous sporangia mixed with saprophytic bacteria (Figure 13)
6. Fruit symptoms first appear as a small water-soaked spot, usually on the under side in contact with the
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soil. These spots are soft and easily punctured when handle. These water--soaked spots increase in size
rapidly and the entire fruit collapses in a short time (Figure 13).
I
7. Stem end infection can be seen as decay with dark exudates around the affected area.
8. Affected fruits are soft, mushy and watery when opened (Figure 14). N
Fig 13. Fruit completely Fig 12: White mycelia of

covered with fungal mycelia P. capsici on infected pumpkin fruit.
Fig 14: Destruction of pumpkin

fruit tissues by P. capsici.
287
287
4. Downy Mildew
(Peronospora cubensis)
Symptoms
Downy mildew is a fungal disease often identified on pumpkin crops.
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Yield loss associated with downy mildew is most likely related to soft
rots that occur after plant canopies collapse and sunburn occurs on
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fruit. Initial symptoms include large, angular or blocky yellow areas
visible on the upper surface (Figure 16). As lesions mature, they expand
rapidly and turn brown. The under surface of infected leaves appears
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water soaked.
Cultural options:
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• Planting early season may further reduce the already minor
threat posed by downy mildew. Fig. 16: Symptoms of
downy mildew
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Chemical control:
• Broad spectrum protectant fungicides such as Mancozeb are at least somewhat effective in I
protecting against downy mildew infection.
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5. Black Rot
(Xanthomonas campestris)
Symptoms
Black rot is caused by a fungus that attacks pumpkins. It causes the disease known as “gummy stem
blight” on cucumbers and melons. Yield loss due to black rot occurs as a result of rapid defoliation of
vines and fruit infection and subsequent decay. Black rot affects leaves, stems, and fruit of pumpkins.
Stem infections result in irregular, tan lesions that have a corky
texture and often exude an orangered- brown gummy substance
(Figure 17). The key diagnostic feature of black rot is the presence
of small black fungal structures called pycnidia embedded in the
diseased tissue.
Cultural control:
• Implementing cultural control options alone will not result
in satisfactory control of black rot. However, employing
options such as rotating fields with non-susceptible crops
for at least two years is recommended.
Chemical control:
• Apply protectant fungicides at 10- to 14-day intervals
beginning when vines form a complete canopy within
rows. A fungicide recommended for use on pumpkins is
Mancozeb. Fig. 17: Symptoms of
black rot
289
289
Cultural control:
• Control weeds within and around fields.
Chemical control:
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• Attempts to control insects for virus disease control may be futile,
because insects may transmit the virus before insecticides are
effective.
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Fig 19. Leaves of virus infested
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plants
Pumpkins should be harvested when the fruit are completely mature. Several different indices can be
used to determine harvest maturity, including time after
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planting, external appearance, hardness of the rind, stem
texture, die-back of the tendril nearest the fruit, and internal I
colour. The number of days after planting can be used as a
guide to predict the beginning of harvest. Pumpkin fruit are
usually fully mature and ready for harvest about 3 months
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after sowing, or approximately 45 days after flowering.
External appearance of the fruit changes with maturity.
Immature fruit typically have a bright surface sheen. As the
fruit matures, the amount of shine diminishes. The rind of
mature pumpkins has a dull waxy appearance that has lost
much of its gloss. The fruit surface should have a good Fig. 20: Mature pumpkin
colour, characteristic of the cultivar.
Also, there will usually be a noticeable lighter coloured ground
spot on the fruit underside (Figure 20).
Hardness of the rind is a good indicator of harvest maturity. As pumpkins

mature, the rind tissue becomes noticeably tougher and harder. When
the rind is sufficiently hard to resist puncture from the thumbnail or from
fingernail scratches, the fruit is mature enough for harvest. At this stage
of development the seeds are also mature. Stem texture can be used to
determine when to harvest pumpkins. As the fruit matures, the area of
the stem attached to the fruit will change from a uniform green colour
and fairly succulent texture to a brownish colour and hard dry texture.
Die-back of the tendril nearest to the fruit can also be used to determine
harvest maturity. The tendril is a small curly appendage which grows on
the vine in the node (joint) nearest the fruit. A green actively growing
tendril indicates the fruit is immature. When the tendril starts to dry
from natural senescence, the fruit is nearly mature. When the tendril
completely dries, the pumpkin fruit nearest that node is mature and ready
for harvest. Fig. 21: Immature fruit
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Sorting/Grading
Pumpkin fruit are quite variable in size, shape, and colour; therefore
it is difficult to obtain consistent uniformity of product from a single
harvest. However, grading for uniformity of appearance is important
to meet market requirements. There are 3 established size categories
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(small, medium, and large) for domestic marketing of pumpkins,
based on fruit weight. Small sized pumpkins weigh between 1.4 to
3.2 kg (3 to 7 lbs), medium sized pumpkins weigh between 3.3 to
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5.5 kg (7 to 12 lbs) and large sized pumpkins weigh 5.6 kg (12 lbs) Fig. 24: Various types of pump-
or more. Export markets accept a range in fruit size, although large kin
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sized fruit weighing between 5.6 to 8 kg (12 to 18 lbs) are preferred.
Fruit shape may vary from round, to oval, to slightly flat (Figure
24). Similarly, rind colour ranges from green, to blue-green, to
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tan. The striping pattern or mottling of the rind also varies, although
the striations are typically white or cream coloured. The rind may
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be smooth or sutured. Domestic consumers and importers prefer
uniformly regular shaped fruit that have a smooth, tough rind
(Figure 25).
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All fruit should be examined for external maturity characteristics,
and only mature pumpkins should be packed. The fruit should be
Fig. 25: Uniformly shaped fruit
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free of noticeable skin blemishes. The rind should not be
discoloured or have any surface mould growth. Fruit should be
free of insect or mechanical damage and any partially decayed
fruit should be discarded. The fruit must have a closed blossom
end and be free of cracking in order to avoid serious decay
problems. The flesh should be thick and dark orange, since many
pumpkins are sold as cut fruit in the market (Figure 26).
Randomly selected fruit should occasionally be cut open for
assessment of internal colour.
Packing
Packages used to market pumpkins vary depending on market
Fig. 26: Pumpkin sold as cut fruit
destination. Fruit sold in the domestic market and nearby Caribbean
export destinations is usually packed in mesh sacks (Figure 27). The sacks typically contain from 3 to 7
fruit and weigh around 23 kg (50 lbs). However, mesh sacks provide little or no protection against
bruising and physical injury. Variability in fruit size will also
cause bulging problems of the mesh sack. Smaller sized
pumpkins intended for more distant export markets should be
packed in strong, wellventilated fiberboard cartons containing
19 kg (42 lbs) of fruit. The cartons should have a minimal
bursting strength of 275 psi and internal dividers should be used
to separate and protect the fruit. Large wooden bulk bins holding
from 360 to 410 kg (800 to 900 lbs) of fruit may be used for
marine transport to export market destinations. Pumpkins
packed in cartons and transported by marine container should
include an additional 5% weight to ccount for moisture and Fig. 27: Pumpkin packed in
respiratory weight loss that will occur during transport. mesh socks
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Planting
Planting material for sweet potato is the slip (stem) of mature plants. The apical portion of the stem
should be used. S
This apical stem cuttings should be about 25 cm long. In order to control pests during the initial stages
of growth, planting material should be treated by soaking in an insecticidal solution for approximately
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ten minutes. The insecticides recommended are Admire at a rate of 1ml / L of water or Vydate at a rate
of 2ml/l of water. E
Ridges should be 0.75 m apart and cuttings should be planted 0.3m apart.
MAINTANENCE OF CULTIVATION
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General Maintenance T
Drains must be properly maintained during rainy periods since sweet potato cannot withstand
waterlogging.
Fertiliser Application
As a general rule, before applying fertilizers, the soil should be analysed to determine the types and P
amounts to be used. If a soil analysis is not done the following fertilizer elements may be applied:
Fertilizer Rate of Application

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Urea
TSP
168 kg/ha
150 kg/ha T
MOP 140 kg/ha
Apply the TSP and MOP to the ridges one or two days before planting. Apply all the Urea six weeks after
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planting, when the vines are turned to prevent formation of small tubes at the nodes (joints) of the stems.
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Weed Control
Weed control is important during the early stage of this crop before the vines begin to spread. For a
good crop, the weeds need to be controlled during the first six to eight week after planting.
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Turning of Vines
It is customary to turn back the vines from time to time to prevent rooting at the nodes of the plant.
This is to ensure a more even crop and fewer smaller tubers.
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2. Vine Borer
Symptoms
(Omphisa anastomosalis) S
O. anastomosalis adults are white with a brownish-yellow pattern on the wing. They lay slightly domed,
greenish eggs with a flat base, on the upper and lower surfaces of the leaf and on petioles. The eggs are W
usually laid singly and egg incubation lasts for about one week.
Soon after hatching, the larvae bore into the stems and gradually eat
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their way down the vines. Full-grown larvae are 30 mm long and
light purple, although they may also be yellowish-white. The head E
capsule is brown, the ventral surface and legs are white, and the
back and lateral sides have yellowish-brown grooves. (Figure 2). T
The larval period usually lasts 30-35 days, but may vary between 21
and 92 days depending upon temperature. Pupation usually takes
place in the vine but larvae may also bore into storage roots and
pupate when roots are close to the soil surface.
Fig. 2- Larvae of the vine borer P
The adults are active at night. Both males and females mate at 1-6 days old.
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Cultural Control:
• Integrated Pest Management; and
• Crop rotation
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Chemical Control: A
• The use of Sevin and/or Decis gives effective control of O. anastomosalis, increasing the yield
of treated plants.
• Systemic insecticides such as Carbofuran are applied to the soil in the vicinity of the main stem.
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The chemical is translocated, killing the insect larvae boring in the stem, but does not come into
contact with natural enemies. However, treatment with Carbofuran is barely economical because O
the price of sweet potato roots in local markets is low.
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Cultural Control:
• Do not plant a new crop next to one which is mature: The common practice of having
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• Good farm sanitation, including removal of weeds around the cultivation is necessary W
since weeds serve as hosts for the pests.
Chemical Control:
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• Several new generation insecticides are now available for the effective control of white flies.
Targeting both nymphs and adults with soap based products should be applied very early in the E
morning or late in the evening. Other chemicals which may be used include Admire, Pegasus and/
or Basudin and Vydate L at 10 mls to 4500 mls water. T
Diseases of Sweet Potato (Ipomoea batatas) in Guyana
1. Fusarium Wilt
(Fusarium oxysporum) P
Symptom
The disease is caused by fungi that persist in the soil for long periods of time. Symptoms include a dark O
tanned rot that extends into the root and usually has a sharp line separating
the rot from the healthy portion of the root. Stem infections appear as swollen
areas at the base of the stem that have internal vascular discoloration (Figure
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5 ) .
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Cultural Control:
• The disease can be avoided by practicing two-year rotations out
of sweet potatoes and by using clean planting material.
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Chemical control:
Fig 5. Field showing signs
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• Use Carbendazime, Cuprasan and Rizolex for effective control.
of Fusarium Wilt
2. Soil Rot
(Streptomyces ipomoea)
Symptom
Roots develop black necrotic lesions which traverse its entire cross section
(Figure 6). Usually the necrotic portion of these roots breaks off when the
roots are dug, leaving a small portion of the lesion at the broken end of the
root. Vine growth may be severely stunted with lower leaves bronzed or
yellow and the plants wilted. Lesions on roots are necrotic, black, roughly
circular in outline, and often have cracks radiating from the centre.
Fig. 6 – Symptoms of Soil Rot
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Cultural Control:
• Practice good farm sanitation;
• Practice crop rotation; and
• Flood fallow
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Biological Control: W
• Plant marigold flowers, tulsi, neem in and around cultivated areas
Chemical Control:
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• Use any approved nematicide E
5. Viral Diseases
Symptom
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Viral disease on sweet potato is caused by a synergistic combination of sweet potato feathery mottle
virus (SPFMV) and sweet potato chlorotic stunt virus (SPCSV).
Chlorotic dwarf virus is caused by the synergistic interaction of three viruses: two potyviruses, SPFMV
and sweet potato mild speckling virus (SPMSV), and a crinivirus (SPCSV).
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SPVD is transmitted by grafting. The individual viruses are transmitted O
by their insect vectors.
Symptoms vary with plant genotype but typically include severe stunting
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of plants, the production of small leaves (Figure 9) which are often
distorted, narrow and crinkled and with a chlorotic mosaic and/or vein- A
clearing, giving affected plants an overall pale appearance.
Whole plant: dwarfing. Fig. 9 – Symptoms of

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Leaves: abnormal colours; abnormal patterns; abnormal forms.
Major vectors:
Viral Disease
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Aphid and whitefly
Cultural Control:
• Use of disease-free planting material and crop rotation are the most reliable means of controlling
these diseases and its insect pest’s vectors.
• Use of resistant varieties.
Chemical Control:
• Spraying with insecticides such as Fastac, Decis or Karate on the undersides of the leaves to kill
aphids.
• Spraying insecticides such as Vydate L, Newmectin and Admire is an effective control measure
for whiteflies.
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Single or multiple row diggers undercut the roots and use a rod
conveyor chain to separate the soil from the roots. The roots
may be placed back on top of the ground, or conveyed up the
chain to a sorting crew riding on the harvester in the sophisticated
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models (Figure 13). The sweet potatoes are detached from
the main stem by hand and graded by size or quality into field
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containers. Mechanical diggers can cause considerable root
skinning in very dry soil or at high operating speeds. The chains
should be padded to reduce bruising. A one-row chain-type
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digger is ideal for harvesting small plots and typically harvests 1
to 1.5 hectares per day at a harvest speed of 1.2 km/hr. Fig 13. One-row chain type digger capable
of harvesting 1 to 1.5 hectares per day.
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Roots should be field graded by size and quality at the time of harvest. The rigorousness of grading depends on
the demands of the market and the amount of variability in root size and quality. Select out sweet potatoes that
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are badly bruised, cut, severely mishapened, or insect damaged. Severely damaged or unmarketable roots
should be put in a separate field container away from the sound and marketable roots. Roots less than 2.5 cm
(1 in) in diameter (strings) are generally discarded. The marketable roots should be gathered off the top of the
soil as soon as possible after harvest. Sweet potatoes are highly susceptible to sunburn damage if exposed to
intense or direct sun even for periods as short as one-half hour. The damaged areas of the skin remain permanently
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discoloured and are very susceptible to postharvest decay. In order to avoid sunscald, the harvested roots
should be put in field containers as soon as possible and covered with vegetation or stored away from direct
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sunlight exposure. Sweet potatoes should never be thrown or left in open piles in the field. The roots should be
gently dry brushed to remove excess soil prior to curing. Cotton gloves are typically worn to facilitate field
cleaning of the roots.
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Field Containers A
The most common field containers used in Guyana for removing sweet potatoes from the field are nylon sacks,
reed baskets or wooden crates. Nylon sacks are the least durable and the
least protective to the roots (Figure 14). Considerable root abrasion and
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skinning occurs during loading, transport, and unloading due to rubbing of the
delicate skin against the inside surface of the sack and against adjacent roots.
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The most desirable field containers are made of smooth wood or durable
rigid plastic and are ventilated on the sides and bottom. These containers are
sufficiently strong to be stackable and are easily cleaned and sanitized. Their
smooth inner surfaces result in minimal root damage. Field containers should
not be overfilled with roots above the upper rim, as stacking will cause injury
to the top layer of roots. Rectangular crates stack better and allow more
efficient use of space in a storage house than do sacks or reed baskets. When
properly stacked, rectangular or square crates distribute the weight to the
strong points on the crate (the corners and ends) and prevent the roots from
bearing the weight load from
Fig 14. Considerable root

skinning occurs if nylon sacks are
used as field containers.
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Sweet potatoes can be expected to lose between 2 to 5 percent of
their weight during curing. It is not unusual to see short (less than
one centimeter)
sprout buds develop on a few roots toward the end of curing;
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however, curing should be stopped before sprouting is widespread.
Roots should never be washed prior to curing and/or storage, as this W
would result in severe decay after several weeks. They should be
stored in bins or crates, and washed only prior to packing for market
(Figure 19). An ideal curing facility is an enclosed structure with
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temperature and RH control equipment. Adequate ventilation is also
necessary to remove the CO2 and replenish the O2 inside the curing E
facility.
Storage Temperature
Following curing, the sweet potatoes should be moved carefully to a
Fig 18. Curing sweetpotatoes inside a
temperature-humidity controlled room.
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separate well-insulated storage room at 13oC ± 1oC and 90 to 95 percent RH. A storage life of 6-10
months an be expected under these conditions, although sprouting may begin to occur after about 6
months, depending on the cultivar. Temperatures above 15°C (59°F) lead to more rapid sprouting and
weight loss. Roots can be stored up to a year without sprouting under optimal conditions (Figure 20).
Ideally, sweet potatoes should be stored in well-ventilated crates stacked at least 10 cm off the floor and
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15 cm from the wall. Leave 2.5 cm between stacks for air movement.
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Fig 19. Sweetpotato roots should Fig 20. Sweetpotato roots can be
never be washed before curing. stored for many months under the
proper temperature
and relative humidity.
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INTRODUCTION
This tomato is believed to have its origin in the Peru-Ecuador areas from where it spread as a weed
throughout
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many parts of tropical America and then domesticated in Mexico. It was introduced into Europe early in
the sixteen-century and the United States of America two centuries later. Tomato belongs to the family
Solanaceae and its scientific name is Lycopersicon esculentum. Tomatoes can be considered one of the
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most important vegetables. The fruits can be cooked or eaten raw. Additionally, this vegetable is used
extensively in the
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canning industry in the production juices, sauces, ketchup and paste
Varieties
A
In Guyana, the varieties are described as “Creole” and “English”. Within the Creole there are the smell
rounded cherry types and the large flat types. “English” are those varieties that are imported and include
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Heat Master, Heatwave, Capitan, Alafua Winner, TA, TB, and TC etc.
CULTIVATION
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Propagation
Plants are propagated from seeds that should be sown either in seed boxes or in seedbeds from where
they are transplanted into the field.
Seed Treatment
As a precaution against seed-borne disease, seeds should be treated with fungicides e.g. Captan, Mancocide
at 2-3 g/kg seed. Seeds can also be treated with 0.8% acetic acid overnight or in hot water (50°C) for 30
minutes.
Soil Treatment
Sterilize seed-box or nursery bed with Formaldehyde 1:3 (1 part in 3 parts water), Captan or Phosal 80
Wp at 2g/ liter of water. The use of Rhilolex to treat the soil has also been shown to be effective. Cover
soil with a polyethylene bag for one day. Seeds should not be sown until 5-6 days after.
Sowing
Moisten soil before sowing seeds. Use a mixture of four parts pen manure or compost, three parts burnt
rice husk and one part black sand. Scatter thinly over the area. Barely cover seeds with soaked jute bag,
which should be kept, damp and removed immediately after germination commences. Germination should
take place 3-4 days after sowing.
Shading
Shading is necessary to protect young seedlings from being burnt by the sun or beaten down be rain.
Overhead shades about 30cm above the seedbed should be provided. Saran netting or coconut branches
can be used to provide shade.
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(vi) Spray lasso into the bed before transplanting;
(vii) Keep the space between hills at 40cm;
(viii) Stake a 150-180 cm bamboo pole beside each plant 3-4 weeks after transplanting:
(ix) Mulch the bed with rice straw or dry grass the during dry season; and
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(x) Tie the vine to the bamboo stake and pinch off the sprouted auxiliary bud in order to maintain a single
stem per plant. O
Weed Control
It is recommended that weed control be done manually. If herbicides are to be used, the following are
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recommended:
- Spray Lasso with sprayer at rate 9m1/litre of water on the top of bed before transplanting. Lasso is A
more effective when the soil is relatively moist; or
- Spray Gramaxone or Amaxone with a nozzle shield at the rate of 6ml/litre of water. Avoid contacting
tomato plant with these chemicals.
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Irrigation O
It is desirable to have the soil well supplied with water before ripening begins so that subsequent irriga-
tions may be kept to a minimum. However, don't keep the air spaces in the soil filled with water.
INSECT PEST MANAGEMENT
MITES
The tomato russet mite, Aculops lycopersici is smaller and more
elongate that spider mites, with the body tapering toward the rear
end. This mite is pale in colour and, like spider mites, has eight legs
(Figure 1).
Symptoms:
-Mites Attack the undersides of lower leaves, causmg them to be-
come silvery and chlorotic and then necrotic;
- As the attack spreads, stems and leaf petioles appear bronzed, and
lower foliage desiccates; and / or
- Plants may be killed in only a few days in hot dry weather.
Fig 1. Mite
- Chemical control; spray with Hostathion, Abamectin (lOml/5 liter of water) etc.; and or
- Effective weed management.
APHIDS
There are two main species of aphids (Figure 2) that attack tomato. The potato aphid, Macrosiphum
euphorbiae, is a large aphid, which may be either green or pink. The green peach aphid, Myzus persicae
is smaller and light
to dark green in colour. Aphids invade tomato fields as winged adults but produce unwinged offspring
parthenogenetically. There have piercing-sucking mouthparts and disseminate important viral diseases
in tomatoes.
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LEAF MINER
These are tiny yellow maggots that tunnel between the leaf surface.
Symptoms: The Symptoms of leafminer are:

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- Damage done by their feeding habits, which leave irregular trails on the
leaves (Figure 5); O
- Yellowing and drooping of leaves; and /or
- Loss in yield. M
Control: The Control Measures recommended for leafminer are:
- Crop rotation; A
- Spray with Abamectin, Trigard, Vydate L etc.; and /or Fig 5. Symptoms of
- Weed control leafminer attack T
DISEASE MANAGEMENT
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CUCUMBER MOSAIC VIRUS (CMV)
This disease is widely distributed in the tropics.
Symptoms: The symptoms of CMV are:

- Crinkled leaves;
- Necrosis on the stem and leaves (Figure 6);
- Sun scald on fruits; and/or
- Reduction of number of flower and fruits produced.
Disease Cycle Fig 6. Symptoms of CMV

Mosaic virus is transmitted by seeds, by soil through the debris of infected plants and mechanically
from the infected plants by farm practices, namely, transplanting, disbudding etc. Continuous cropping
enhances the disease incidence.
Control
In order to manage the CMV infected plants should be rouged. Alternatively seeds should be treated
with hot water at 50°C for 30 minutes before planting .
SPOTTED WILT (SW)

Tomato spotted wilt virus is common and important in the tropics.
Symptoms: The Symptoms fo SW are:

- Yellowing of leaves;
- Wilt of leaf tips;
- Appearance of brown necrotic lesions on leaves (Figure 7).;
- Necrotic streaks on stem and petioles.; and/or
- Distorted fruits. Fig 7. Symptoms of
spotted wilt
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Control: Types of control measures are as follow:
- Provide adequate drainage to remove excess water;
- Pull out and destroy infected plants to reduce spread of disease;
- Apply limestone to achieve a pH of 5.8 - 6.8. This pH level will render conditions unfavorable for
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the
wilt infection; O
- Spray soil with Phyton 27 (fungicide) at transplanting during the wet season; and /or
- Plant resistant varieties. M
BLOSSOM END ROT
Symptoms: The symptoms of blossom end rot are: A
Small water-soaked spots at the bottom end of the fruit which en-
large overtime into large blackish -brown sunken water - soaked ar-
eas (Figure 10).
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Disease Cycle O
This is caused by a physiological disorder as a result of uneven levels
for water application combined with a lack of calcium in the soil.
Control: The recommended measures of control are as follow:

- Apply limestone one month before planting to achieve a pH of 5.8 - 6.8. Fig 10. Symptoms of
- Maintain watering at a constant level. Too much or too little water at blossom end rot
irregular intervals can create conditions for blossom end rot; and or
- Spray calcium base liquid fertilizer at flowering
and fruiting.
BACTERIAL SOFT ROT (BFR)

The causal agent is Erwina carotovora
Symptoms: The symptoms for Bacterial Soft Rot

are:
- Leaf margins become dehydrated, and leaf blades
wilt with yellowing and drying up (Figure 11);
- In main stem, dark to blackish brown water-soaked lesions are Fig 11. Symptoms for bacterial
formed;
- Discolored parts surround the stem and spread to the pith; and /or soft rot
- When stem is pressed with fingers a juice with rotten smell is obtained.
Disease cycle
The pathogen enters the host through feeding traces of insects and at sites of mechanical injury due to
disbudding
or rain. High temperature and high humidity conditions enhance the severity of the disease.
Control: The recommended measures of control are as follows:

- Avoid continuous cropping;
- Good soil drainage; and/or
- Spray copper compound (fungicide) for effective control. e.g. Benlate, Trimiltox, Kocide DF etc.
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FUSARIUM WILT (F.W.)
The causal agent is Fusarium oxysporum
Symptoms: The symptoms of F.W. are:

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- Initially, lower leaves show wilting and yellowing and droop slightly;
- Later, yellowing develops on upper leaves and the plants are almost dead;
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- Browning appears up to the higher part of the stem vessel (Figure 14);
- Root rot wilt occurs under cool conditions.; and /or
- Browning of stem vessels is restricted to the stems near the soil surface but roots show severe
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browning and decay.
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Disease Cycle
The casual fungus survives in soil within debris of infected leaves
and roots. It produces spores, which can survive under adverse
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environments for a long period of time in soil.
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Control: The control measures recommended for F.W are:
- Continuous cropping should be avoided;
- Plant resistant varieties;
- Graft seedlings on resistant rootstocks;
- Soil fumigation - Treat planted area with Rhizolex; and /or
- Plant on ridges.
Fig 14. Symptoms of
SOUTHERN BLIGHT (S.B) fusarium wilt
The causal agent is Sclerotium rolfsii
Symptoms: The symptoms for S.B are:

- White silky and thread-like mycelia appear on the stems near the soil
surface and around the stem (Figure 15);
- Brown and black rot of the stem, which develops near the stem line;
and /or
- The infected plants show poor growth, wilt and eventually die (Figure
16).
Disease Cycle
The fungus can survive for years as sclerotia in soil and host debris. The
movement of soil or infested plant material can disseminate sclerotia. Fig 15. Infected stem due
The optimum temperatures for disease development are in the range to southern blight
of 25 - 35°C.
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Control: The control measures recommended for Anthracnose are:
- Crop rotation with a non-solanaceous crop;
- Good weed control practices; and /or
- Spray effective fungicide such as Benlate, Trimiltox, Maximo etc.
NUTRITIONAL DISORDERS
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Nitrogen O
- Restriction in growth rate and uniform chlorosis of older leaves;
- Later, chlorosis appears on progressively younger leaves; and /or
- Oldest leaves become yellow and finally drop (Figure 19).
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Phosphorus A
- Restriction in growth rate is followed by dull or light green coloration.
- Purple coloration appears on the leaf undersides, beginning at the veins
and proceeding to interveinal areas.
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Fig 19. Symptoms of
- Plant is dwarfed with stiff often-upright leaves that are light green to
yellow on the upper side and purple on the underside. nitrogen deficiency O
Potassium
- Marginal necrosis of older leaves (Figure 20);
- Necrosis is proceeded by scattered small, chlorotic spots;
- Yield and fruit quality is impaired; and /or
- Defects in fruit quality includes puffiness, ripening quality, softness, ir-
regular shape etc.

The average time from transplanting to harvest of large-fruited cultivars
ranges from 60 to 70 days for early cultivars, 70 to 80 days for mid-
season cultivars, and more than 80 days for late cultivars. There are sev- Fig 20. Symptoms of
eral reliable external and internal indices of tomato fruit maturity. The potassium deficiency
external fruit maturity index is based on skin colour, while the internal indices are based on seed devel-
opment and locular gel formation. Also, location of the fruit on the plant and fruit size may be used as
rough guides in determining where to look for mature fruit. However, by themselves they are not reliable
indicators of maturity. The most widely used index of tomato maturity is skin colour. Distinct changes in
external colour occur in tomato fruit which can be used to determine harvest maturity. Skin colour
remains green during fruit development on the plant. As the fruit becomes mature, the blossom end
changes to a light green or whitish colour. One or more distinct white streaks usually form at the blos-
som end, typically in the shape of a star. At this stage, the fruit is mature and ready for harvest and is
referred to as being 'mature-green'. The fruit will continue to change colour, regardless if it is attached or
detached from the plant. Tomato fruit colouration follows a typical sequence with ripening. With
red¬skinned cultivars, after the mature-green stage the tip of the blossom end will change to a pinkish-
yellow colour, which is commonly referred to as the 'breaker stage'. The breaker stage usually occurs
within a day after the mature-green stage. The entire fruit then turns colour to pink, followed by light
red, and finally deep red. The ripening stages of mature tomato fruit are categorized as green, breaker,
turning, pink, light red, and red (Figure 21) and are described in Table 1. For maximal market life,
tomatoes should be picked at the mature-green stage.
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On this basis, mature-green fruit can be harvested according to size. Pickers should be trained on how to
determine harvest maturity in order to avoid picking immature green fruit. The quality and flavor of
immature green harvested fruit will be inferior and picking these fruit should be avoided.
The harvest maturity stage depends on the intended market destination and the time needed to market
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the fruit. Tomatoes for local markets can be harvested at the mature green stage if they will be held for
a week or more, or they can be allowed to develop more colour before picking, according to buyer
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preferences. Tomatoes intended for export should be harvested at the mature-green stage, or the breaker
stage if they will be marketed as 'vine-ripe. Fruits harvested at the breaker stage can be handled and
shipped with less damage than those with more colour. The fruit from new 'long-shelf life' tomato culti-
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vars stay firm for several weeks, even when picked at the breaker stage.
Vine-ripe tomatoes must be harvested every other day to avoid having too many red fruit. Mature-green
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tomatoes are normally harvested only four or five times during the season.
Harvest Methods
Tomatoes should be removed from the plant by gently twisting or rotating them in order to cleanly
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remove the stem from the fruit. The stems in most field-type tomato
cultivars release at the point of attachment to the fruit
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(termed 'jointless'). However in some cultivars, a natural abscission
layer or break point forms at the junction of the stem and the stalk
when the fruit is mature (termed 'jointed'). With these cultivars, pick-
ers should grasp the fruit firmly but gently and pull upward with the
thumb and forefinger pressed against the stem (Figure 22). The stem
should then be carefully removed prior to putting the fruit in the har-
vest container to prevent puncture wounds of adjacent fruit.
Workers should wear cotton gloves during picking to minimize harvest Fig damage and to protect
22. Harvest the skin
procedure for
of the fmgers. If gloves are removing 'jointed' tomato fruit
not worn, all fingernails should be trimmed short to avoid puncturing the from the plant.
skin. Jewelry such as rings and bracelets should also be removed to
reduce mechanical damage to the fruit during harvest. Harvested fruits
should not be thrown or dropped into the picking container, as they
are very susceptible to bruise damage. The picking container should
have smooth inner walls to prevent abrasion of the fruit (Figure 23).
Ideally, picking containers should be wide, shallow, and stackable to
avoid excessive weight and bruising of
tomatoes at the bottom of the container. A well-ventilated plastic crate
is ideal. It is recommended not to fill the container with more than 10
kg of fruit. Tomatoes may suffer compression injury if piled too high
in the picking container. This is especially problematic if the fruit are
picked in the afternoon with a high pulp temperature. Fig 23. A smooth¬lined plastic
Tomatoes should be picked during the coolest part of the day, such as pail is an appropriate tomato
early morning or late afternoon. If they are picked in the morning, harvest container.
harvest should be delayed until the moisture has dried off the fruit surface. Tomatoes should never be
picked in the rain or when they are wet. Harvesting wet fruit encourages the spread of decay.
It is also important to avoid picking the fruit when it has a pulp temperature over 25°e (77°F). Fruit with
higher pulp temperatures is very susceptible to pressure bruising when squeezed too hard during the
picking process.
321
321
The immersion depth of the tomato fruit in the water tank should not exceed 60 cm (2 feet). Pressure
from deeper submersion forces pathogen-containing water through the stem scar into the fruit. In
addition, the length of submergence time should not exceed 2 minutes. At the recommended 150 ppm
concentration of hypochlorous acid and water pH of 6.5, the fruit should be sufficiently sanitized after
T
about 30 seconds (Figure 24).
O
The other method to clean the fruit prior to grading is to move the tomatoes under a series of high
pressure (> 60 psi) spray nozzles as they move over a set of soft brush rolls (Figure 25). The water
remaining on the fruit surface should be removed by air drying, fans, or sponge-rollers prior to pack-
M
ing the fruit.
A
T
O
Fig 24. A properly sanitized Fig 25. Over-head spray

wash tank is essential to of high pressure water
minimize postharvest for cleaning mature
decay. green tomato fruit.
Waxing
A thin water-wax emulsion spray coating can also be applied to the fruit as the final step in the cleaning
process.
Waxing the fruit will enhance its appearance and make it more glossy. Waxing can reduce fruit shriveling
and increase market life. Waxing also provides lubrication to the fruit surface which reduces rubbing
injury during transit. Care should be taken to prevent heavy waxing of the stem scar because ripening
will be adversely affected. Tomato waxes must be food-grade and are often made from plant extracts
(i.e. candellila) or insect extracts (i.e. shellac, beeswax).
Grading
All tomatoes must be sorted and graded before packing for market. The main fruit characteristics used to
grade tomatoes are size, colour, shape, appearance, and firmness.
Tomatoes should be separated into small, medium, and large sizes. If it is a round-type cultivar, this is
typically based on fruit diameter. Size generally does not influence flavor, but does affect market de-
mand and price. This holds true whether the fruit are sold domestically or exported. An example of the
size classification used for tomatoes exported to North America is shown below in Table 2.
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When marketing ripe fruit in the domestic market, the fruit should
be as free of yellow shoulder as possible.This is a quality defect
characteristic of certain cultivars and accentuated by low potas-
sium fertility that negatively affects external appearance as well as
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internal eating quality (Figure 29).
O
The fruit should also have a well-formed uniform shape typical of
the cultivar. Deformed or catfaced fruit should be culled out and
not be packed for market, particularly if the fruit are intended for
M
export (Figure 30). The fruit should have a smooth, shiny external
appearance, with small blossom-end and stem-end scars. The fruit A
should be void of cracks, bruises, open wounds, sunscald, insect injury, Fig
and 29. Yellow shoulder is a
decay. Finally, the fruit should be firm enough to withstand transport common ripening disorder of
and distribution to market. Soft and over-ripe fruits should not be certain cultivars. T
packed
for market, as they will bruise easily and not tolerate transport and O
handling without suffering high amounts of postharvest losses. High
quality fruit are firm, shiny, uniformly coloured, and free of mechani-
cal injury, shriveling, and decay.
Packing
The fruit surface must be free of moisture before packing in order to
reduce storage rots. The type of container used for packing tomatoes
depends on the market destination. Tomatoes sold in the domestic
market are packed in a diversity of container types. However, they
should be well-ventilated, strong, and capable of being stacked with- Fig 30. Irregular shaped
out damaging the fruit. They should not be over-stuffed. Improper catfaced fruit sold in
packaging can be a major source of postharvest loss (Figure 31). Parika market, below
export quality.
Sized and graded mature-green tomatoes destined for ex-
port are typically packed loose in strong well-ventilated fi-
berboard cartons containing a net weight of 11 kg (25 lb).
Carton dimensions are usually 30 x 40 x 24 em (12 x 16 x
9.5 in) (W x L x H) The cartons should have a minimum test
strength of 275 psi (Figure 32).
Fig 31. Over-filled, inadequately

ventilated wooden crates.
Fig 32. Well-ventilated fiberboard cartons

used for exporting mature-green tomatoes.
325
325
327
327
Table 1: Insect pests of watermelon
Scientific Name Common Name Damage Control
Aphis gossypii Melon or Cotton
aphid
Sucks sap and
weakens plant.
Biological – use of
ladybird beetle W
Leaves curl, shrivel Chemical – Fastac,
and may
brown and die.
turn Decis, karate (1.5
ml/ L water) or
A
Secretion of ‘honey
dew’ causes sooty
Sevin 85 wp (1.5g/
L) T
mould to develop.
Diaphania Pickleworm or Caterpillars feed on Use of appropriate E
hyalinata melon worm leaves and flowers. contact insecticide
Sometimes
bore into
they
the
such as malathion
(2 ml/l of water)
R
Diabrotica seporata Leaf cutting beetle
developing.
Developing Use of appropriate
M
seedlings are
affected by adults.
contact insecticide
such as malathion E
Leaves become (2 ml/l of water)
skeletonized. L
Thrips palni Thrips Sucks sap of leaves 1. Crop rotation
which
scorched.
become 2. Chemical –
Regent (10- 30
O
Infestation or most
severe during
ml/L water),
Vydate L (2.5 ml/ N
sunny weather. L water) or Admire
Bemisia tabaci White fly Sucks palnt sap, Cultural – keep
leaves become farm free of weeds
chlorotic and are Chemical – Use
shedded soap based
prematurely products or other
chemicals such as
Pegasus or Vydate l
at the
recommended rates
Liriomyza sp. Leaf miner Larva feeds Chemical control –
between leaf using Trigaul,
surfaces resulting Admire, Pilarking,
in ‘chinese writing” Vertimex,
Abamectin and
Newmectin at the
recommended
rates.
329
329
Disease Cycle
The bacterial fruit blotch pathogen is seedborne. Internal and external contamination of the seed coat
may occur; however, there is no evidence of infection within the seed. Contaminated seed results in
infected seedlings, which serve as important sources of secondary inoculum, especially in transplant
production facilities, where warm, humid conditions, overhead irrigation, and a canopy of susceptible
plant tissue favor pathogen dispersal and disease increase. Secondary infections occur after bacteria gain
W
entrance into plant tissues via natural openings, such as stomates. In the field, the bacteria produced on
lesion surfaces are rain-splashed onto newly developed leaves and neighboring plants.
A
Although a very high proportion of leaves on a plant may exhibit symptoms of bacterial fruit blotch, the
severity of symptom expression on individual leaves is very slight. Infection does not result in wilt,
defoliation, vine blight, or vine collapse. There is no evidence of systemic infection; attempts to isolate
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the bacterium from surface-sterilized vines or peduncles of infected fruit have been unsuccessful. Leaf
lesions are most important as a primary source of bacteria for fruit infection. Lesions on mature fruit are
E
an additional source of secondary inoculum in the field. Bacteria associated with fruit infections filter
down through the flesh of the watermelon, where they become associated with the seed.
In addition to overwintering contaminated seed, the pathogen may overwinter in infested rind. Infested
R
crop residue, volunteer watermelon plants from contaminated seed, and infected wild cucurbits, especially
wild citron, are important potential sources of primary inoculum in a subsequent crop season. Seed
M
transmission has also been demonstrated in citron.

E
Several different maturity indicators can be used to determine when to harvest watermelon fruit.
L
Watermelons should be harvested at full maturity to ensure that good quality fruit are delivered to the
market. The fruit do not develop internal color or increase in sugar content after being removed from the
vine. Commonly used non-destructive maturity indicators include fruit size, skin color, the amount of
O
surface shine or waxiness, the color of the ground spot, the sound of the fruit when tapped, and the
condition of the tendril at the first node above the fruit. Each of these individual indicators by themselves
N
is not a foolproof determinant of fruit ripeness.
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331
Black Rot
Black rot, also known as gummy stem blight, is caused by the fungus Didymella bryoniae. Fruit lesions
appear as small water-soaked areas and are nearly circular in shape. They rapidly enlarge to an indefinite
size, up to 10 cm to 15 cm (4-6 inches) in diameter. Mature lesions are sunken, may show a pattern of
W
concentric rings, and turn black. Lesions in stems and fruit may ooze or bleed an amber plant fluid, hence
the name gummy stem blight. A brown streak may also appear at the blossom end of the fruit. A
The pathogen is transmitted from contaminated seed and is spread from plant to plant by splashing rain
or wind. Inoculum is also found on old plant debris. The disease is controlled by planting clean seed in
T
soils free of watermelon crop debris.
E
Anthracnose
Anthracnose, caused by the fungus Colletotrichum orbiculare, is
a common postharvest watermelon disease. Dormant infections
R
may exist at the time of harvest, with no external evidence of the
disease. During storage, the latent infections may become active M
at high temperatures or after exposure to chilling injury inducing
conditions. Disease development is rapid at temperatures between
20°C to 30°C (68°F to 86°F). The fungus can penetrate the fruit
E
surface and wounding is not necessary for infection. Symptoms
of anthracnose include sunken spots on the rind, which eventual L
become black (Figure 5). Red or orange colored spores may appear
in the decayed
areas.
Fig 5. Anthracnose decay of
watermelon fruit. O
Anthracnose spores are spread by water, insects, or pickers’ hands. Infection is particularly severe after N
prolonged wet periods. A combination of seed treatment, crop rotation, removal of infected debris, and
fungicide applications are necessary for controlling this disease. Protective spray applications of the
fungicide chlorothalonil
should be made when vines start to run and should be continued at 7 to
10 day intervalsduring periods of humid or rainy weather. Also, storage
of the fruit at 10°C (50°F ) will retard the growth of this fungus.
Phytophthora Fruit Rot

Phytophthora fruit rot is caused by the soilborne fungus, Phytophthora
capsici. The fruit rot will appear as greasy blotches on the outer rind.
A whitish mold is likely to be present on the greasy tissue (Figure 6).
This disease is most likely to occur during or after periods of excessive
rains where water remained in the field. Control of Phytophthora may
be obtained by avoiding planting in low areas. In addition, foliar sprays
Fig 6. Greasy spot and associated
of the systemic fungicide Ridomil provide some protection whitish mold growth of Phytophthora
against this disease. infected fruit.
333
333
335
335
Knowing the problem: Before taking action to control pests and diseases it is very important
to make sure that the problem is correctly identified. Only then can you hope to succeed.
Knowledge of pests and diseases will help you to decide whether the problem is caused by a
pest, a disease, a mineral deficiency in the soil or an environmental factor. A good identification
N
book may help with this.
Proper identification should be the first step in controlling the problem and, more importantly,
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in preventing it from happening again.
The following pages describe a general approach to natural pest and disease control and
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give some specific examples. U
A healthy soil: A soil managed using organic methods will give plants a balanced food supply.
Plants which are fed well, like people, will be much more resistant to pest and disease. So
R
caring for the soil is important. It should be managed in ways that develop and protect its
structure, its fertility and also the millions of creatures for which it is a home. Caring for the
A
soil involves providing a regular input of organic residues in the form of animal manures and
plant remains. The aim is to:
L
• Maintain levels of humus (organic material) that give structure to the soil
• Feed organisms which live in the soil
• Provide nutrients for crops P
Whilst chemical fertilisers appear to improve plant growth, their use can also have
negative effects. A plant may look healthy but because of the high content of nitrogen given
by the chemical fertiliser, causing fast sappy growth, it becomes attractive to pests. It has
E
been observed that aphids lay double the number of eggs on a plant grown with chemical
fertilizers compared to organically grown
S
plants. T
A healthy crop: By giving plants the right growing conditions they will be more able to resist
pests and diseases. Also, the right choice of crop will help to deter pests and disease. A crop
growing in an area where it is not suited is more likely to be attacked. You should take into
account of the soil type, climate, altitude, available nutrients and the amount of water needed
&
when selecting your crops. Plants will only yield well and resist pests and diseases if they are
grown under the most suitable conditions for that particular plant.
To help ensure a healthy crop, weeding should be done early and regularly to stop weeds
from taking nutrients which should be going to the crop.
D
Resistant varieties and genetic diversity: Within a single crop there can be many differences
I
between plants. Some may be tall and some may be able to resist particular diseases. There
is more variety in the traditional crops grown by farmers. These have been grown and selected
S
over many centuries to meet the requirements of the farmer. Although many of these are
being replaced by modern varieties, seeds are often saved locally.
E
Crops which have been bred by modern breeding methods tend to be very similar and if one
plant is susceptible to a disease, all the other plants are susceptible as well. Although some
A
new modern varieties may be very resistant to specific pests and diseases they are often less
suited to the local climate and soil conditions than traditional varieties. It can therefore be
S
dangerous to rely too much on any one of them.
E
337
337
Companion planting: Companion planting means growing certain plants to protect other
plants from pests or diseases. This may be because the pest is deterred by the companion
plant, or because it is attracted to the companion plant rather than the crop.
For example onions planted either side of a row of carrots help to deter carrot flies. You need
N
to sow 4 rows of onions for 1 row of carrots. This effect will only last as long as the onions are
growing leaves. Many pests avoid garlic, so this can be used very effectively for companion
A
planting with most crops.
In a similar way farmers in Zimbabwe have found that placing mint leaves near spinach
T
plants will deter insect pests. By planting milkweed among vegetables, some African farmers
have effectively reduced the number of aphids on their crops. This is because aphids are
U
more attracted to the milkweed than to the vegetables.
Companion planting can also mean that one plant acts as a barrier for another. In Columbia,
R
jassid infestation in beans is reduced when beans are sown 20 to 30 days after maize. The
maize acts as a shelter for the beans.
A
Plants to attract predators and parasites: Similarly to companion planting, which seeks to
L
deter pests from the main crop, attractant plants can be grown to attract predatory insects.
Areas of natural habitat: Bushes and trees are a home for many useful insects and birds.
They provide resting areas, shelter and food. Areas of natural habitat can be left around the
P
edges of fields where crops are grown. If these areas are destroyed then there is likely to be
an imbalance between the populations of predator and pest.
E
Specific plants to attract beneficial insects: There are many plants that can be grown to
S
attract natural predators and parasites which will help to keep down pests and diseases.
Flowers such as marigolds (Tagetes), mint (Mentha), sunflower (Helianthus annus), sunhemp
T
(Crotalaria juncea) as well as local legumes are useful attractant plants. Hoverflies, whose
larvae feed on greenfly are attracted to the flowers of herbs and vegetables such as fennel,
celery, dill, carrots and parsnips (Umbelliferae family). The nectar and pollen that these flowers
provide will help to increase the number of eggs that these insects lay. Umbellifers will also
&
provide food to various parasitic wasps whose young live on aphids and some caterpillars.
Red hot pokers (Kniphofia uvaria) are used in parts of Africa to attract birds that eat aphids.
Barriers: Barriers are physical structures put in place to prevent a pest from reaching a plant.
D
They keep pests away from a plant but do not kill them. Here are some examples that you can
adapt, depending on the resources available to you:
I
Crawling insects: Cut the top off a transparent plastic bottle and place it firmly into the
S
ground, over a young plant. This stops pests such as slugs from reaching the plant. E
Climbing insects: To help protect trees from attack by insects, grease bands can be used.
Wrap a piece of plastic or a long leaf around the trunk of the tree. Spread any kind of thick
A
grease on top of this. Fold over the top of the foil or plastic to form an overhang to protect the
grease from being washed away by rain. Check the grease every week to ensure that the
S
grease is intact. This prevents crawling insects such as ants, fruit fly larvae, slugs, snails,
beetles or caterpillars from damaging trees, especially fruit trees, or grain stores. E
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Fly trap: Fly traps are large boards measuring about 30cm by 30cm which are painted bright
yellow/orange and covered with an adhesive such as oil or glue. Different pests are attracted
to different colours so you need to experiment. The flies are attracted to the bright colour of
N
the board and fly onto it. They get stuck in the oil or glue and die. For example, leaf minors
are attracted to yellow, so place several yellow boards 60cm off the ground (on a table or
A
hung from a tree). The board will attract a huge number of insects, which means a considerable
reduction of pests.
T
Pheromone traps: Pheromone is the sexual attractant produced by some female insects. If
U
a trap is baited with this it will attract the male insects into the trap from which they cannot
escape. Pheromone traps alone can reduce pest damage. Alternatively they give an indication
R
of pest populations and therefore the best time to apply control methods. Pheromones traps
are usually prepared by commercial companies and may be costly to the farmer. However, if
A
you have a particularly severe pest problem it may be worth investing in one rather than
using chemical pesticides.
L
Hand picking and squashing: In some cases it may be possible to pick pests directly off the
crops. This can be done especially with caterpillars and other large insects in small plots of
land. Smaller pests such as aphids can be squashed on the plant. Parts of plants that are
P
diseased can be cut or broken off the plants to prevent the spread of the disease. E
Biological control: Biological control means using one creature or organism to control a
pest. This often involves introducing a creature or organism, which is known to be predatory,
S
to an area with the aim that it will control the population of the pest.
Some widespread pest and disease problems have been dealt with in this way by government
T
projects. For example, a variety of creatures have been introduced to control the cassava
mealy bug in Kenya. Here are other examples of creatures or organisms which are known to
control certain pests:
• Control of Cabbage caterpillars: Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a bacteria which kills
&
many types of caterpillar, but only when they eat it. This bacteria (which can be bought
as a commercial product called “Bactospeine”) is applied to brassicas (cauliflowers,
cabbages) as a spray. A similar product called Dipel is available in Guyana.
• Control of Vine weevils: Nemasys H is a preparation containing parasitic nematodes
D
which seek out and destroy vine weevil larvae. It is watered onto the soil. I
Biological control does not have to involve buying commercial products. S
It can be achieved on a small-scale by encouraging natural predators to live and breed in the area where
pests are a problem. This can be achieved by having trees and hedges around the farm to provide a home
E
for them. There are many insects and animals which should be encouraged because they feed on pests.
Here are some examples: frogs, toads, hedgehogs, mice, moles, bats, birds, chamelions, lizards,spiders,
A
ants, assasin bugs, black-kneed capsids, bees, branchid wasps, parasitic wasps, dung beetles, ground
beetles, earthworms, hawk moths, dragon flies, hoverflies, lacewings and stick insects.
S
E
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Method 2:
Aqueous neem leaf extract. 1 kg of leaves are bruised and crushed. Place these in a bowl of hot water
for 15 minutes or overnight in cold water. After this time water is added to make the total volume up to
N
8 litres. This is then filtered and half a handful of soap powder added. Neem powder can also be applied
to crops. Again there are two methods of preparation:
A
Neem seed powder: The dry seeds should be cracked and the inner seed or kernel separated from the
T
husk. The kernel should then be partially crushed, dried (out of the sun), and then further pounded to
produce the powder. This powder has mostly been used for the protection of stored products. It can also
U
be used in the field, in a suspension with water or as a dust incorporated directly into the soil. In the soil
it will protect seedlings from ground pests. In some cases it has shown systemic properties.
R
Neem leaf powder: The leaves are picked and dried in the shade. When the leaves have dried they are
A
crushed with a mortar and pestle to produce the dust. The powder is used in protecting stored products.
Reapplication of neem in the field is usually necessary; after 7 days of sunlight neem loses 50% of its
L
effectiveness. In areas of vegetable cultivation, with large pest problems, weekly applications may be
necessary.
MARIGOLD:
P
A solution can be made from marigold using soap and water. The liquid acts as a crop strengthener to
help beans, tomatoes, etc. resist blight, mildew and other fungal diseases. It also repels aphids, caterpillars
E
and flies. S
T
&
D
I
S
E
A
S
E
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Acoushi ant bait control and avocado cultivation

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1

BAITING FOR ACOUSHI ANT CONTROL

Baiting is the recommended method of control for acoushi ants. It

Bait consists of a toxicant or poison and a carrier which is usually

Avocado is not commonly self-pollinated, therefore it is important to encourage crosspollination by

• Avocado root rot (Phytophthora spp.)

Fig 2. Symptoms of Avocado root rot.

Fig 5. Scab on fruit

(a) Clay soil

• Good field sanitation- rid the field of weeds and plant

Fig 6. Thrips and damage

Cultural Control Fig 9. Bean beetle

TARGET SPOT (Corynespora cassiicola)

Cultural Control Fig 13. symptoms of target spot

• Use an integrated crop management approach.

ROOT ROT (Rhizoctonia solani)

ROOT KNOT DISEASE (Meloidogyne javanica)

FUSARIUM WILT (Fusarium oxysporium)

• Pesticides can be used to control the vectors of the various viruses. R

The pods should be well-formed and straight, uniform in

Figure 30. Bora wrapped in small bunches

TSP - 108 kg/ha - All at transplanting (5.8g/plant)

MoP - 136kg/ha - 50% at transplanting (3.7g/plant)

In severe infestations, leaf surfaces are destroyed causing leaves

Fig 16. Symptoms of

Fig 26. Brown calyx and shriveled

4. Soft Rot (Erwinia carotovora)

A simple field packing station can be constructed from wooden

Fig 17. Harvested cabbage

Deterioration of cabbage is accelerated under non-refrigerated temperatures and is associated with

Stems: witches broom; stunting or rosetting; dieback; distortion.

Roots: reduced root system.

Growing points: dieback; distortion.

N.B. Sprays should be directed to underside/surfaces of leaves. When Sevin or Malathion is

Fig 8. Larva & adult gall midge

Acoushi ants display various major feeding strategies. Leaves

Fig 11. Leaf cutting in progress

Managment of Common Cassava Diseases in Guyana

1. Cassava Mosaic Disease (African Mosaic Virus)

Fig 17. A short section of

Post Harvest Handling

Insect Pests and Their Control

1. Leafminer, Liriomyza sp.

The pest can also be controlled by any of the following:

Diazinon (Contact) 1-2 tbsp/4.5 L (1-2 tbsp/gal)

Fig 2. Symptoms of the presence of citrus leaf miner

Fig 5. Symptoms of Citrus Scab

3. Viral Diseases of citrus

Fig 6. Symptoms of CTV

Fig 12. Various styles of Fig 13. Strong wooden field

Fig 14. Different stages of

Diplodia Stem-end Rot

Planting seed nuts

FIELD ESTABLISHMENT AND TRANSPLANTING

Sandy Soils (sand reefs) C

Urea – 700 g (1/1/2 lb)

Insect Pests of Coconut (Cocos nucifera L)

i) Coconut Caterpillar Brassolis sophorea (Lepidoptera; Nymphalidae)

Fig. 1 Coconut Caterpillar Fig. 2 Cocoon

The caterpillars are creamy-white in colour and approximately 10 – 12 cm long

Fig. 8 Adult Moth

Fig. 7 Damage caused by the Coconut