SURVEY OBSERVATIONS/

MEASUREMENTS
 Direct observations – apply instrument
directly to the unknown quantity and get
readings (distance or angle)
 Indirect observations – unknown
quantity derived from mathematical
relationship to direct observation (distance
or bearings from coordinates)
 How to analyse errors in direct and
indirect observations?
 WAYS OF ANALYSIS OF MEASURED
DATA SET
 Numerical method (mean, median, mode,
standard deviation)
 Graphical representation (scatterplot,
frequency histogram)

Median is the middle value of a data set arranged in ascending or descending

order

Mode is the value that mostly occurs in a data set

 WHAT TO ANALYSE FROM MEASURED DATA SET

Precision
 The degree of closeness between measured values of repeated
measurements
 It is dependent on environmental stability, quality of equipment used and
observer’s skill with equipment and measurement procedures

Accuracy
 The degree of closeness between measured and true values of a quantity
 The true values are based on standardized measurement (i.e equipment &
procedures)
 The difference between measured and true values is termed systematic error in
the measured value
 Table 1 Table 2
A B C A B C
533 547.97 547.573 524 547.42 547.549
540 547.08 547.594 585 547.39 547.567
504 547.43 547.523 515 547.35 547.562
513 547.76 547.568 543 547.76 547.517
572 547.51 547.528 538 547.50 547.513
547.89 547.586
min 504 547.08 547.523 547.24 547.554
max 572 547.97 547.594 547.87 547.588
range 68 0.89 0.071 547.05 547.564
547.94 547.583
547.522
 Range is an indication of 547.567
precision 547.568
547.557
 Which is the highest precision 547.51
in Table 1?
min 515 547.35 547.513
 Comparing the precision in max 585 547.76 547.567
Table 2 is meaningless, why? range 70 0.41 0.054
 Using statistics descriptors
A B C n
533
540
547.97
547.08
547.573
547.594
Mean ∑ Zi
504 547.43 547.523
data set Z= i= 1

513 547.76 547.568

n
572 547.51 547.528
Standard deviation
n 5 5 5 data set n
mean 532 547.55 547.557 ∑ ν i
2

std dev 27 0.34 0.031 S= ± i= 1

n− 1
C v v2
547.573 -0.016 0.0002 Standard deviation
547.594 -0.037 0.0014 of mean
547.523 0.034 0.0012
S
547.568
547.528
-0.011
0.029
0.0001
0.0009
Sx = ±
sum 0.0037
n
n 5 v = residual = mean - obs
mean 547.557
std dev 0.031 n = no of observation
n – 1 = degree of freedom (redundancy)
S2 = variance of obs (precision)
 EFFECT OF SYSTEMATIC ERRORS ON
ACCURACY OF DATA SET

mean calibrated
547.557 547.500

Observed value corrected for systematic error

error
C (systematic) corr obs v v2
547.573 0.057 547.516 -0.016 0.0002
547.594 0.057 547.537 -0.037 0.0014
547.523 0.057 547.466 0.034 0.0012
547.568 0.057 547.511 -0.011 0.0001
547.528 0.057 547.471 0.029 0.0009
sum 0.000 0.0037
n 5
mean 547.500
std dev 0.031
 C v v2
Removing systematic 547.573 -0.016 0.0002
error makes 547.594 -0.037 0.0014
observation more 547.523 0.034 0.0012
547.568 -0.011 0.0001
ACCURATE and does 547.528 0.029 0.0009
not change the size of sum 0.0037
random errors in the n 5
observations mean 547.557
std dev 0.031

error
C (systematic) corr obs v v2
547.573 0.057 547.516 -0.016 0.0002
547.594 0.057 547.537 -0.037 0.0014
547.523 0.057 547.466 0.034 0.0012
547.568 0.057 547.511 -0.011 0.0001
547.528 0.057 547.471 0.029 0.0009
sum 0.000 0.0037
n 5
mean 547.500
std dev 0.031
 The lower the systematic errors, the higher is the accuracy
 The lower the random errors, the higher is the precision (i.e
through adjustment process)
COMPARISON BETWEEN ACCURACY & PRECISION
 STANDARD DEVIATION

Standard deviation explains the precision of sample data set. In theory,

68% of all observations in a sample lie within one-standard deviation
about the mean value (most probable value or MPV)
The larger the standard deviation the more dispersed the values in the
data set, and less precise is the data set

68% probability (area

under normal curve)
Random errors in a measurement have certain number of possibilities to
occur
Say, a single random error in a measurement = 1, then there are two
possibilities for the value of the resultant error (i.e +1 or -1) to occur in a
single measurement
The probability of +1 error is ½ and of -1 error is ½
(P)
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
-1 1

If the measurement is carried out in two parts, then there would be four
possibilities of resultant error (+1+1=+2), (+1-1=0), (-1+1=0) and (-1-1=-2)
The probability of +2 error is ¼, of 0 error is 2/4 and of -2 is ¼
(P)
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
-2 0 2
The plot of error sizes against its probabilities would approach a smooth
curve (bell shaped) as the number of combining measurement increases
The curve is known as NORMAL DISTRIBUTION CURVE of the random
error
Probability of the standard error (or standard deviation) can be derived from
the STANDARD NORMAL DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION as follows;

P(-s < z < +s) = Nz(+s) – Nz(-s)

For +/- 1s, the value of z = +1 and z = -1 are obtained from std normal
distribution t-table, where t = 1 is 0.84134. Thus t = -1 is (1 – 0.084134 =
0.15866)

Hence P(-s < z < +s) = 0.68268 = 68.3%

More exact percent probable error –
checking for blunders
E68% = 1*(sigma)
E95% = 1.960 * (sigma)
E99.7% = 2.965 * (sigma)
 GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS OF DIRECT REPEATED OBSERVATIONS
(FREQUENCY HISTOGRAM)

- Compute range = max – min observed values

- Set number of class (odd)
- Compute class width = range/no class
- Estimate class interval
- Compute and arrange the following:
class interval/ class frequency/ relative frequency
- plot frequency histogram
ordinate axis – relative frequency
abscissa axis – class interval
 TYPES OF DATA DISTRIBUTIONS
(HISTOGRAMS)

Skewness (measure of
normality of distribution)

∑ (Y − Y )
3
(a) Normal distribution (b) more precise i
histogram (zero than (a) (zero skew =
skewness) skewness) nS 3

(c) Positively (d) Negatively

skewed distribution skewed distribution
(negative (positive skewness)
skewness)
 error (random)

0.040

0.030

0.020

0.010

0.000
error

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

-0.010

-0.020

-0.030

-0.040

-0.050
Obs no

Obs No C v
1 547.573 -0.016
2 547.594 -0.037
3 547.523 0.034
4 547.568 -0.011
5 547.528 0.029
How to analyse errors in both types of observations?
- Direct repeated observations (central tendency and spreadness)
- Indirect observation (Law Of Propagation Of Variance – LOPOV)

LOPOV

z ± σ z = ( x1 ± σ x1 ) + ( x2 ± σ x2 )

2 2 2
 ∂Z   ∂Z   ∂Z 
σ 2
Z =  σ X1
 +  σ X2
 + ......... +  σ Xp

 ∂ X1   ∂ X2   ∂XP 
 Analysis of errors in indirect observations - LOPOV

10.560m ± 0.012m
120.370m ± 0.015m

A B C

Find length AC and its errors

2 2 2
 ∂X   ∂X   ∂X 
σ 2
X

=   
σ Y1  +  σ Y 2  + ...... + 
 σ 
Yn 
∂
 1 Y  ∂
 2 Y  ∂
 n Y 

LengthAC = 10.560 + 120.370 = 130.93m

ErrorAC = σ AC = [ (1)(0.012)] 2 + [ (1)(0.015)] 2 = 0.019

 Analysis of errors in indirect observations - LOPOV

10.560m ± 0.012m
120.370m ± 0.015m

A B C

Find length AC and its errors

∑ X = A∑ y AT
σ 2
σ 
A = [1 1]
 1
A =  
T
∑ AC = σ 2
AC = 
 σ
AB

σ
AB , BC
2 
 1 BC , AB BC 

ErrorAC = σ AC = [ (1)(0.012)] 2 + [ (1)(0.015)] 2 = 0.019

LengthAC = 10.560 + 120.370 = 130.93m

 R= 37.163m ± 0.021m

Find the area of circle and its error

2 2 2
 ∂X   ∂X   ∂X 
σ 2
X =  σ 
Y1  +  σ 
Y2  + ...... +  σ 
Yn 
 ∂ Y1   ∂ Y2   ∂ Yn 

Area − of − circle = A = π R 2 = π (37.163) 2 = 4338.818m 2

∂A
= 2π R = 2π (37.163) = 233.502
∂R

Error − in − area = σ A = [ (233.502)(0.021)] 2 = 4.904m 2