energies

Article
Modeling and Simulation of a Hybrid System of Solar
Panels and Wind Turbines for the Supply of
Autonomous Electrical Energy to
Organic Architectures
Daniel Icaza 1, *,† , David Borge-Diez 2 , Santiago Pulla Galindo 1,† and
Carlos Flores-Vázquez 1
1 GIRVyP Group Reserch, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Catholic University of Cuenca,
Cuenca 010111, Ecuador; gpullag@ucacue.edu.ec (S.P.G.); cfloresv@ucacue.edu.ec (C.F.-V.)
2 Department of Electrical, Systems and Automation Engineering, University of Leon, 24007 León, Spain;
david.borge@unileon.es
* Correspondence: dicaza00@estudiantes.unileon.es
† PHD Student at the University of Leon, 24007 León, Spain.




Received: 22 July 2020; Accepted: 25 August 2020; Published: 7 September 2020


Abstract: In this research, the modeling, simulation, and analysis of the energy conversion equations
that describe the behavior of a hybrid photovoltaic and wind turbine system that supplies electrical
energy to an average organic architecture is performed. Organic constructions have a philosophy that
seeks to understand and integrate into the site, taking advantage of the natural potentials and their
resources of the surrounding areas so that they form part of a unified and correlated composition.
The rooms in these buildings are designed similar to a bean, inspired by the uterus of a mother and
her child who are comfortable, at rest, and alive. We are left with the task of spreading this research
to integrate its energy potential from the surroundings and transform it into autonomous electrical
energy. In this article, a numerical model based on the fundamental equations was developed and
coded, and the results compared with experimental data with a real airplane-type system located
in a remote area of Ecuador. The model is intended to be used as an optimization and design tool
for such hybrid systems applied to organic constructions. After an error analysis it was determined
that this model predicted quite interesting results compared to the experimental data under various
conditions. It is important to indicate that this analysis has been carried out so that in the future, these
power generation systems can be exploited and applied more efficiently in areas far from the public
electricity grid.

Keywords: hybrid system; organic constructions; renewable energy; solar panel; wind turbine

1. Introduction
The flight of the birds, the shapes of the plants, the color of the flowers, the sprouting of the waters,
among other prodigies of nature, were the inspiration for the multiple and revolutionary inventions
that have been made so far and that over the years human beings continue to develop for the benefit of
the countries and their continents [1].
Organic architecture is a philosophy of architecture that promotes harmony between the human
habitat and the natural world. Through design, it seeks to understand and integrate the territory,
through real territorial development plans, to small complementary works in public or private spaces [2].
Larger buildings, such as buildings, furniture, housing, and the surroundings, are propitious spaces
for them to become part of a unified and correlated composition [3].

Energies 2020, 13, 4649; doi:10.3390/en13184649 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

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13, xx FOR
FOR PEER
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Explained
Explained in in another
inanother way,
anotherway,
way, each
each environment
environment
each environment seeksseeks to
to make
to make
seeks it
it cozy
make cozy
it and and
and pleasant,
cozypleasant, where where
pleasant, the
the people
where the
people
who who
inhabit inhabit
it really it really
feel at feel
home at home
with with
spaces spaces
specially specially
designed designed
and and
inspired
people who inhabit it really feel at home with spaces specially designed and inspired by mother inspired
by by
mother mother
nature.
nature.
nature. Figures
Figures 1 and 2 11identify
Figures and
and 22 identify
how these
identify how
how these
spaces
thesearespaces are
are perfectly
perfectly
spaces designed
perfectly designed
to welcome
designed to
to welcome the
the family.
welcome family.
the The The
aspects
family. The
aspects
aspects related to natural lighting are essential, it is important that the basic services for living are
related related
to naturalto natural
lighting lighting
are are essential,
essential, it is it
importantis important
that the that
basic the basic
services services
for living for
are living
available,
are
available,
such such
such as
as drinking
available, drinking
aswater, water,
water, sewerage,
sewerage,
drinking electricity, electricity,
sewerage, internet, etc.
electricity, internet,
internet, etc.
etc.

Figure
Figure 1.
1. Internal
Internal structure
structure based
based on
on anti-seismic
anti-seismic rods.
rods.

2. Construction
Figure 2.
Figure Construction that
Construction that harmonizes
harmonizes with
with nature.
nature.

Taking
Taking Figures
Taking Figures 111 and
Figures and 222 as
and as aaa reference,
as reference, it
reference, it was
it was born
was born from
born from the
from the idea
the idea of
idea of creating
of creating aaa space
creating space adapted
space adapted to
adapted to
to
man
man according
according to
to his
his environmental,
environmental, physical
physical and
and psychological
psychological needs,
needs, taking
taking
man according to his environmental, physical and psychological needs, taking into account its origin into
into account
account its
its origin
origin
in
in nature [4].
in nature
nature [4]. As
[4]. Asaaaresult
As resultof
result ofofthese
these
these designs,
designs,
designs, it it inspires
it inspires
inspires to to create
to create
create different
different
different environments
environments
environments according
according
according to to
to the
the
the reality
reality
reality of of
of each each locality.
each locality.
locality.
Our interest
interestisis
Our interest isfocused
focused
focused onon thethe
on supply
the of electrical
supply
supply of energy,
of electrical
electrical a majoraalimitation
energy,
energy, major when making
major limitation
limitation whenlocations
when making
making
in rural
locationsareas
locations in and
in rural far
rural areas from
areas and commercial
and farfar from distribution
from commercial networks.
commercial distribution This
distribution networks. infrastructure
networks. This is full
This infrastructure of
infrastructure is comfort,
is full
full of
of
but when
comfort, we
but carry
when it
we out, we
carry continually
it out, we have
continuallydifficulty
have in supplying
difficulty in electricity.
supplying
comfort, but when we carry it out, we continually have difficulty in supplying electricity. For this For this reason,
electricity. For our
this
study
reason,
reason,seeks
our astudy
our mathematical
study seeks model that is amodel
seeks aa mathematical
mathematical reference
model thatwhen
that is making our
is aa reference
reference when
when developments
making
making our ourindevelopments
the field. Below,
developments in
in
we
the are immensely
field. Below, we interested
are immenselyin reviewing the
interested progress
in reviewing that has
the been
progress made
that
the field. Below, we are immensely interested in reviewing the progress that has been made in related in
has related
been infrastructures
made in related
that are not common
infrastructures
infrastructures that
that are and
are possess
not
not common
common great
and
andgifts of innovation
possess
possess great giftsand
great gifts of are gainingand
of innovation
innovation strength.
and are
are gaining
gaining strength.
strength.
1.1. Review
1.1. Review of the
the Literature
1.1. Review of
of the Literature
Literature
There
There are several developed architectural
architectural designs that that are related
related to nature
nature such as as the one
There are
are several
several developed
developed architectural designs designs that are are related to to nature suchsuch as thethe one
one
presented
presented by Avila et al. [5], which consists of an interesting development of a tree that produces
presented by by Avila
Avila et et al.
al. [5],
[5], which
which consists
consists of of an
an interesting
interesting development
development of of aa tree
tree that
that produces
produces
shadows with
shadows with the intention
intention that thethe people who who are under
under the tree tree are protected
protected against solarsolar radiation
shadows with the the intention that that the people
people who are are under the the tree are
are protected against
against solar radiation
radiation
but at
but at the same
same time take take advantageof of thissolar
solar radiationtototransform
transform itintointo electrical energy.
but at the
the same time
time take advantage
advantage of this this solar radiation
radiation to transform it it into electrical
electrical energy.
energy.
Another article
Another article that refers to designed systems that link natural environments with innovative
Another article that that refers
refers to
to designed
designed systems
systems that that link
link natural
natural environments
environments with with innovative
innovative
architectures
architectures is that of E. Duque et al. [6] where it is supplied with photovoltaic solar energy.
architectures isis that
that of
of E.
E. Duque
Duque et et al.
al. [6]
[6] where
where it it is
is supplied
supplied withwith photovoltaic
photovoltaic solarsolar energy.
energy.
Although there
Although there are small developments such as those indicated above, they do not at
at all address
address
Although there are are small
small developments
developments such such asas those
those indicated
indicated above,
above, they
they do
do not
not at all
all address
organic
organic habitable constructions such as what is intended to be addressed in this article. This type
organic habitable
habitable constructions
constructions such such as as what
what isis intended
intended to to be
be addressed
addressed in in this
this article.
article. This
This type
type of
of
organic
organic construction
construction has has been
been developed
developed by by architects,
architects, but but within
within the
the literature
literature nono developments
developments
Energies 2020, 13, 4649 3 of 27

of organic construction has been developed by architects, but within the literature no developments
related to the supply of electrical energy are identified, even knowing that it is a major limitation when
putting all basic infrastructure and services into operation.
The present investigation has been a motivation of the authors that when seeing the limited
literature, we seek to give a point of reference so that they continue progressively addressing this subject,
there really is much that can be studied. In our case, we take energy supply from renewable energy
sources as a reference, since when considering that these constructions must be located in considerable
spaces and that are related to the environment, there is not always available electrical energy supplied
by the public electricity network by which is a sufficient reason to provide a contribution.
Given that access to commercial electrical distribution networks is not always available, it has
been seen that it is necessary to provide us with a distributed electric power system.
Distributed generation is known as decentralized or on-site generation and has several benefits
including low cost, less complexity, eliminates the interdependencies and inefficiencies associated
with transmission and distribution. There are many reasons to use distributed generation, such as
standby or emergency generation, as well as backup and the great potential of a green energy source
using renewable technology, particularly for the electrification of remote locations disconnected from
the grid such which raised Ayodele [7].
Renewable and unconventional methods of energy generation such as wind, solar, hydro,
biomass, geothermal, thermal storage, and waste heat recovery are the generations that have radically
changed the productive matrix of developed countries and that are currently entering strongly
in developing countries.
The aforementioned power generation technologies also offer power supply solutions for remote
areas, in the case of organic constructions which is the objective of the analysis of this article, it is
a certain possibility for autonomous power supply, not accessible by the supply of energy from
the public electricity grid [8].
Another recommended aspect is to implement hybrid systems for the generation of electricity using
renewable energy sources. There are several experiences in this regard. Maleki A. et al. constructed
a model for the optimal operation of a hybrid system for residential applications [9].
Ming, Mengjun, et al. present in reference [10] an algorithm to optimize the energy of a hybrid
system (wind and PhotovoltaicPV). Oviroh, P. et al. in reference [11] present a gasoline generator
in their hybrid system and analyze the costs that must be paid in comparison with the different
renewable energy sources.
The hybrid renewable energy system is becoming popular in several South American countries
such as Chile [12], Colombia [13], Brazil [14], Peru [15], etc. The big producers of solar panels are
located in Europe and the United States. Today, these technologies to generate energy from renewable
sources are increasingly accessible. What is also important is that these systems can complement each
other, provide higher quality and a more reliable energy supply independent of the grid, and electrify
rural areas. Rural areas that become more productive, in our experience, attract a greater flow of
tourists to the area and nearby communities also grow indirectly [11–15].
In South America, one of the countries that has made the most progress in the last decade is Ecuador,
since that country changed its constitution and modified its productive matrix, as highlighted [16,17]
in its published articles. Among the most important projects carried out are those of Villonaco
in the Province of Loja [18] and the Solar and Wind Park in Galapagos [19,20]. Other implementations
have been attracting interest with collaborative work between countries such as those carried out
by [21,22]. The applications that can be carried out with the intervention of renewable energies
can be varied and according to the needs of the territory within their countries and the energy and
territorial policies that are considered in their laws regarding land use. In this sense, in reference to
organic constructions, we began to study the degree of utility and comfort they provide, according
to references [23,24] presents a design of a telecommunications system that allows monitoring these
architectures as an extension of an existing system. On the other hand, in [24], a solar energy system
Energies 2020, 13, 4649 4 of 27

is considered as the only source of supply. As a result of these studies, it has been considered that
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 27
organic architectures can be better analyzed considering that there are different developments in this
area, but that they require greater energy guarantees for being special architectural constructions and
developments in this area, but that they require greater energy guarantees for being special
their comfort is one of the prevailing demands.
architectural constructions and their comfort is one of the prevailing demands.
With these experiences, once again it is confirmed that a hybrid system is an excellent option for
With these experiences, once again it is confirmed that a hybrid system is an excellent option for
this type of construction [25–30]. Although in this article we are treating the hybrid system arranged
this type of construction [25–30]. Although in this article we are treating the hybrid system arranged
by solar panels and wind turbines for being the most well-known, it remains open to the fact that they
by solar panels and wind turbines for being the most well-known, it remains open to the fact that
can be made up of the mentioned sources and others such as sources of hydraulic energy, biomass,
they can be made up of the mentioned sources and others such as sources of hydraulic energy,
tidal power, geothermal, etc.
biomass, tidal power, geothermal, etc.
Even developments can go further, that even wind turbines must be designed in such a way
Even developments can go further, that even wind turbines must be designed in such a way that
that it is in harmony with these organic constructions, for example, the shape of the wind turbine
it is in harmony with these organic constructions, for example, the shape of the wind turbine is
is designed and built with flower-like blades and its kinematic chain is related to the stem. Such
designed and built with flower-like blades and its kinematic chain is related to the stem. Such
equipment has not been developed considering that there is no demand, but several families would be
equipment has not been developed considering that there is no demand, but several families would
happy to acquire it given their preferences for this type of architecture. The same relationship can be
be happy to acquire it given their preferences for this type of architecture. The same relationship can
given to solar panels that can take various forms, such as those seen in the Figure 3.
be given to solar panels that can take various forms, such as those seen in the Figure 3.

Figure 3. Cont.
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Figure 3. Organic architectures raised with renewable energy equipment inspired in [4].
Figure 3. Organic architectures raised with renewable energy equipment inspired in [4].
1.2. Control Approach
1.2. Control Approach
Controlling remote power systems remains a challenge, taking into account the variability of
Controlling
the output powerremote power
Renewable systems
Energy remains
System RES a[31].
challenge,
Focus istaking
giveninto account
according to the
[32],variability
where they of are
the
output power
addressed Renewable
quite EnergyinSystem
well. However, order toRES [31]. efficient
design Focus is management
given according to [32], where
of resources and tothey are
allow
addressed quite well. However, in order to design efficient management of resources
optimal operation of each component and the general system [32,33], we seek that from the point and to allow
optimal
of view operation ofiseach
of the load component
consumed withand the general
efficiency, thatsystem [32,33],
is to say, thatwetheseek that from
lighting systemsthe point
occupyof
view of the load is consumed with efficiency, that is to say, that the lighting
LED(light-emitting diode) bulbs, have the appropriate equipment in each designed environment. systems occupy
LED(light-emitting
For diode) bulbs,
this reason, we consider have
that the the appropriate
system equipment
for cooking and heating in eachisdesigned
water independentenvironment.
and, throughFor
this reason, we consider that the system for cooking and heating water is independent and, through
natural gas, it is accessible in our environment. It is also a reason to have a new energy input such as
natural gas, it is accessible in our environment. It is also a reason to have a new energy input such as
wind, which we address in the section below, and thus not only have a single source as we considered
wind, which we address in the section below, and thus not only have a single source as we considered
in our previous research [24]. Still, every application has particular requirements and therefore specific
in our previous research [24]. Still, every application has particular requirements and therefore
control targets as confirmed [34].
specific control targets as confirmed [34].
Our lithium battery charge control module is programmed to start charging and finish charging
Our lithium battery charge control module is programmed to start charging and finish charging
at a voltage of 24 V.
at a voltage of 24 V.
An integrated renewable energy system (IRES) has been proposed by various researchers to
An integrated renewable energy system (IRES) has been proposed by various researchers to
electrify remote areas and above all allows either centralized or decentralized control. All renewable
electrify remote areas and above all allows either centralized or decentralized control. All renewable
energy sources have their own different operating characteristics, and it is necessary to make a standard
energy sources have their own different operating characteristics, and it is necessary to make a
procedure for integrating renewable energy sources in an integrated system. Generally, there are three
standard procedure for integrating renewable energy sources in an integrated system. Generally,
possible configurations to integrate different renewable energy sources: DC-coupled configuration,
there are three possible configurations to integrate different renewable energy sources: DC-coupled
AC-coupled configuration, and hybrid coupled configuration [35]. In our case, it is a 24 V DC
configuration, AC-coupled configuration, and hybrid coupled configuration [35]. In our case, it is a
bus-type-coupled system.
24 V DC bus-type-coupled system.
This configuration has a single DC bus and all two reneable energy sources are connected to
This configuration has a single DC bus and all two reneable energy sources are connected to the
the bus using suitable power electronics interconnect circuits. Power sources that produce DC power
bus using suitable power electronics interconnect circuits. Power sources that produce DC power
connect directly to the DC bus. To supply energy to the load, we use a modern inverter that converts
connect directly to the DC bus. To supply energy to the load, we use a modern inverter that converts
DC/AC.
DC/AC.
In IRES, energy flow management is necessary to promise a continuous power supply for
In IRES, energy flow management is necessary to promise a continuous power supply for the
the load demand. An optimal energy management strategy ensures a highly efficient and integrated
load demand. An optimal energy management strategy ensures a highly efficient and integrated
energy system. Therefore, there is a need to control and monitor the renewable energy-based system.
energy system. Therefore, there is a need to control and monitor the renewable energy-based system.
This implies that energy sources, demand and scheduling of energy sources, and storage devices are
This implies that energy sources, demand and scheduling of energy sources, and storage devices are
optimized to achieve optimal energy flow in the integrated system.
optimized to achieve optimal energy flow in the integrated system.
Generally, the IRES control structure for energy flow management falls into three categories;
Generally, the IRES control structure for energy flow management falls into three categories;
centralized control arrangement, distributed control arrangement, and hybrid centralized and
centralized control arrangement, distributed control arrangement, and hybrid centralized and
distributed control arrangement. In all three categories, each renewable energy resource has its
distributed control arrangement. In all three categories, each renewable energy resource has its own
own local controller (slave controller) that determines the optimal operation of the unit based on
local controller (slave controller) that determines the optimal operation of the unit based on current
current information.
information.
The measurement signals of all energy resources, as seen in Figure 4, are sent to the master
The measurement signals of all energy resources, as seen in Figure 4, are sent to the master
controller. The master controller acts as an energy supervisor and makes decisions about control
controller. The master controller acts as an energy supervisor and makes decisions about control
actions based on all measured signals and a set of predetermined goals and limitations. Based on
actions based on all measured signals and a set of predetermined goals and limitations. Based on
resource generation availability and load demand, it will prioritize and manage the flow of energy
 regime, the wind turbine can enter the bus at a voltage of 24 V DC without problems. Otherwise, if
the wind turbine provided alternating current, an AC/DC converter would be required before
entering the 24 V bus.
IRES have the potential to add benefits such as energy efficiency and energy conservation, as a
result2020,
Energies of the combination of renewable energy sources, which is our case. The integrated 6use
13, 4649 of 27of
different renewable energy resources increases the reliability of the power supply and the quality of
power. For standalone applications, these systems always embedded with storage devices in order
resource generation availability and load demand, it will prioritize and manage the flow of energy
to manage the stochastic behavior of renewable energy sources such as solar and wind. The control
between the various renewable energy resources in the integrated system that also includes the battery
system regulates the production of renewable energy sources and also generates the signals for
bank. The centralized control structure is the most suitable for the energy management of the RES that
storage programming subsystem and load discharge.
converges to global optimal values based on the available information.

Figure 4. A block diagram with the structure of a hybrid Photovoltaic -wind micro grid system.

It isFigure 4. A block
important diagram
to note with1.5
that the thekW
structure
Carbonof i-1500
a hybrid Photovoltaic
wind turbine -wind micro gridand
was available system.
equipped
with a direct drive permanent magnet synchronous generator. A permanent magnet synchronous
2. Hybrid PV-Wind System Structure
generator (PMSG), a diode rectifier, and a 24 V step-down converter (DC/DC) is included. In the DC
regime, the wind
Figure 4 showsturbine can enterdesign
the proposed the bus ofat a voltage
a hybrid of 24 Vrenewable
PV-wind DC without problems.
energy system.Otherwise,
The system
ifisthe wind turbine
represented by provided
a PV thatalternating current, an
can be considered AC/DC converter
according would be required
to the characteristics of the before
organic
entering the 24 in
construction, V bus.
such a way that it can be rectangular, circular, oval, star, etc. Ultimately, it will
IRESon
depend have
the the potential styles
architectural to addthat benefits
can besuch as energy
carried out and efficiency
must be and energy coupled
adequately conservation,
to the
aselectric
a resultpower
of thegeneration
combination of renewable
system. We alsoenergy sources,
represent which
a wind is ourwhich
turbine, case. The
mustintegrated use of
be dimensioned
different
based on renewable energy
the installed loadresources increases
of the organic the reliability
construction and of thesystem
this powermust
supply
be and the quality ofto
complementary
power.
the PV.For standalone
There is also aapplications,
battery bankthese systems
for energy alwaysfor
storage embedded
the hourswith storage
of lack devices
of energy in order
production,
towhich
manage the stochastic
would supply the behavior
load. Itofalso
renewable
consistsenergy sourcescontroller;
of a charge such as solar
the and wind.
energy The enter
inputs controlits
terminals
system and connects
regulates with the
the production batteries. energy
of renewable An inverter
sourcesisand
alsoalso
available, which
generates transforms
the signals direct
for storage
current into alternating
programming subsystem current.
and load discharge.

2. Hybrid PV-Wind System Structure

Figure 4 shows the proposed design of a hybrid PV-wind renewable energy system. The system
is represented by a PV that can be considered according to the characteristics of the organic
construction, in such a way that it can be rectangular, circular, oval, star, etc. Ultimately, it will
depend on the architectural styles that can be carried out and must be adequately coupled to the electric
power generation system. We also represent a wind turbine, which must be dimensioned based
on the installed load of the organic construction and this system must be complementary to the PV.
There is also a battery bank for energy storage for the hours of lack of energy production, which
would supply the load. It also consists of a charge controller; the energy inputs enter its terminals
and connects with the batteries. An inverter is also available, which transforms direct current into
alternating current.
Energies 2020, 13, 4649 7 of 27
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 27

If the power, generated by renewable sources (wind and solar), is insufficient according to the
If the power, generated by renewable sources (wind and solar), is insufficient according to
current and voltage measurements for the demand power on the load side (PL), this causes a drop in
the current and voltage measurements for the demand power on the load side (PL ), this causes a drop
DC link voltage VDC. The positive mistake (V * DC-VDC) produces a positive reference current, in buck
in DC link voltage VDC . The positive mistake (V * DC -VDC ) produces a positive reference current,
mode to transfer power from the power bank batteries to charge (discharge) if their State of Charge
in buck mode to transfer power from the power bank batteries to charge (discharge) if their State of
(SOC) is greater than the minimum value; otherwise, load shedding is required that keeps the power
Charge (SOC) is greater than the minimum value; otherwise, load shedding is required that keeps
balance as the power supply is less than demand and the battery is at minimum (SOCmin). In case of
the power balance as the power supply is less than demand and the battery is at minimum (SOCmin ).
power generation exceeding load power, DC link voltage VDC increases, causing a reference current
In case of power generation exceeding load power, DC link voltage VDC increases, causing a reference
to control the battery bank power in boost mode, in which the power flows from the main DC link to
current to control the battery bank power in boost mode, in which the power flows from the main DC
the battery with the extra generated power. However, if the battery’s SOC exceeds its maximum
link to the battery with the extra generated power. However, if the battery’s SOC exceeds its maximum
(SOCmax), the battery charging mode stops, and the PV system operates in Maximum Power Point
(SOCmax ), the battery charging mode stops, and the PV system operates in Maximum Power Point
Tracking (MPPT) off mode to reduce the energy generated to balance energy.
Tracking (MPPT) off mode to reduce the energy generated to balance energy.
In our study, we consider the basic load 18 lighting points based on 25 W led bulbs, 12 outlets to
In our study, we consider the basic load 18 lighting points based on 25 W led bulbs, 12 outlets to
which basic electronic equipment is connected, and 2 special 150 W outdoor reflectors.
which basic electronic equipment is connected, and 2 special 150 W outdoor reflectors.
To analyze the proposed system, the equivalent circuit with two diode models for the
To analyze the proposed system, the equivalent circuit with two diode models for the photovoltaic
photovoltaic generator has been used due to its better power extraction capacity compared to the
generator has been used due to its better power extraction capacity compared to the single diode
single diode model. The rotor of the wind turbine is mechanically tied to a generator to produce
model. The rotor of the wind turbine is mechanically tied to a generator to produce electrical energy.
electrical energy. A wind turbine is a complex system, but a reasonably simple representation is
A wind turbine is a complex system, but a reasonably simple representation is possible by modeling
possible by modeling the aerodynamic torque or power based on the characteristics of the turbine. A
the aerodynamic torque or power based on the characteristics of the turbine. A battery solution is also
battery solution is also required to balance the stochastic fluctuations of photovoltaic (PV) energy and
required to balance the stochastic fluctuations of photovoltaic (PV) energy and wind energy injected
wind energy injected into the load. Below in this section, a brief description is presented on how these
into the load. Below in this section, a brief description is presented on how these main components
main components that go into the organic architecture that is used have been modeled.
that go into the organic architecture that is used have been modeled.

2.1. PV
2.1. PV Mathematical
Mathematical Model
Model
The solar
The solarcell,
cell,the
thebuilding
building block
block of the
of the solarsolar
array,array, is basically
is basically a P-N junction
a P-N junction semiconductor
semiconductor capable
capable of producing electricity due to the photovoltaic effect as stated by Hong S.
of producing electricity due to the photovoltaic effect as stated by Hong S. et al. [25]. The photovoltaic et al. [25]. The
photovoltaic cells are interconnected in such a series-parallel configuration
cells are interconnected in such a series-parallel configuration to form a photovoltaic matrix asto form a photovoltaic
matrix as manifested
manifested by Kanellos, by F.
Kanellos,
[26]. ForF.the
[26]. For the
effect, it is effect,
modeled it iswith
modeled withsingle
the ideal the ideal
diode single diode as
as expressed
expressed
in in 5.
the Figure theInFigure
addition 5. In addition
to the to the[24–26],
references references [24–26], the
the Equations Equations
(1)–(3) (1)–(3)
referring to thereferring to the
mathematical
mathematical model
model of Figure 5 appear. of Figure 5 appear.

Figure
Figure 5. Single diode
5. Single diode PV
PV model.
model.

The current IIpv

The current we can calculate by [27,28]:
pv we can calculate by [27,28]:

q𝑞(V𝑉pv ((𝑡) 𝐼 (t(𝑡)𝐼

t) ++Ipv )Irs )
" ! #
(𝑡)
𝐼 Ipv (t)==𝐼 Iph(𝑡)
(t)−− 𝐼Irs (𝑡) exp
(t) exp − 1− 1 (1)
(1)
A𝐴c KT
𝐾𝑇(𝑡)
(t)
ph is the current generated under a given insolation. Irs is the saturation current, Iph is the current
IIph is the current generated under a given insolation. Irs is the saturation current, Iph is the current
generated under
generated under aa given
giveninsolation
insolationononthethesurface
surfaceofofthe
thepanel
panellocated
located ononthethe
organic construction.
organic Irs
construction.
Iisrs the
is thecellular reverse
cellular reversesaturation
saturationcurrent.
current.VV PV is the voltage level at the array terminals photovoltaic
PV is the voltage level at the array terminals photovoltaic
panel. Q is the charge of an electron. R s is the intrinsic resistance cell. Ac is the cell deviation from the
panel. Q is the charge of an electron. Rs is the intrinsic resistance cell. Ac is the cell deviation from
ideal
the P-NP-N
ideal binding characteristic.
binding K is Kthe
characteristic. is Boltzmann
the Boltzmann constant. T is T
constant. the
is cell temperature.
the cell temperature.
The reverse saturation current and the photocurrent depend on the solar energy, irradiation, and
temperature according to the following mathematical expressions:
Energies 2020, 13, 4649 8 of 27

The
Energies reverse
2020, saturation
13, x FOR current and the photocurrent depend on the solar energy, irradiation,
PEER REVIEW 8 of 27
and temperature according to the following mathematical expressions:

𝑇(𝑡)
T (t) 3
!
q(E (1/𝑇
𝑞 g0𝐸(1/T ) − 1/𝑇 (𝑡)
r ) − 1/T (t))
!
𝐼 Irs(𝑡)
(t)==𝐼Ior 𝑒𝑥𝑝
exp (2)
(2)
𝑇re f
T KT𝐾𝑇(𝑡)
(t)

I (t) = (Isc + Kl T (t) − Tr ) ∗ λ(t)/1000 (3)

(𝑡) = (𝐼 + 𝐾 𝑇(𝑡) − 𝑇 ) ∗ 𝜆(𝑡)/1000 (3)
𝐼 ph (3)
where Ior is the inverse saturation current at the reference temperature Tref , Eg0 is the band gap energy
where Ior is the inverse saturation current at the reference temperature Tref, Eg0 is the band gap energy
of the semiconductor used in the cell, ISC is the short-circuit cellular current at the reference and solar
of the semiconductor used in the cell, ISC is the short-circuit cellular current at the reference and solar
temperature irradiation, K is the temperature short-circuit current, and λ is the insolation in mW/cm22.
temperature irradiation, K is the temperature short-circuit current, and λ is the insolation in mW/cm .
The values of these constants are given in Table 1.
The values of these constants are given in Table 1.
Table 1. Parameters used in the solar system.
Table 1. Parameters used in the solar system.
Alt Description Parameter Value
Alt Description Parameter Value
−19
11 Chargeofofan
Charge anelectron.
electron. qq 1.6 ×
1.6 ×10
10 CC
22 Cell Cell deviation
deviation from
from thetheideal
idealp-n
p-n junction
junction characteristic.
characteristic. AcAc 1.6
1.6
33 Boltzmann
Boltzmannconstant.
constant. KK 1.3805 ×10
1.3805 × 10 Nmk
−23 Nmk −1

4 Short-circuit cell
Short-circuit cell current
current at reference
at the the reference temperature
temperature and
and solar solar
irradiation. Kl
◦
0.0017 A C −1
4 Kl 0.0017 A °C
5 irradiation.
Reverse saturation current at the reference temperature Tref. Ior 2.0793 × 10−6 A
5 Reverse saturation current at the reference temperature Tref. Ior 2.0793 × 10 A
6 Reference temperature. Tref 301.18 K
6 Reference temperature. Tref 301.18 K
7 Bandgap energy of the semiconductor used in the cell. Ego 1.10 V
7 Bandgap energy of the semiconductor used in the cell. Ego 1.10 V

Solar cells
Solar cells are
are generally
generally modeled
modeled as as single
singlediode
diodeininFigure
Figure55and
anddouble
doublediode
diodecircuit model
circuit in
model
Figure
in Figure6.6.Single
Single diode modeluses
diode model usesanan additional
additional shunt
shunt resistance
resistance in parallel
in parallel to shunt
to ideal ideal diode
shuntmodel.
diode
model. I-V characteristics of PV cell can be derived using single diode model. From here,
I-V characteristics of PV cell can be derived using single diode model. From here, Equations (4)–(8) Equations
(4)–(8)from
follow followthefrom the references
references [27–30].[27–30].

Figure 6. Double diode PV model.

Figure 6. Double diode PV model.
The PV cell output current is expressed mathematically as:
The PV cell output current is expressed mathematically as:
VN + IN RSE
IN = IPhoton − IDiode1 − IDiode2 − ( ) (4)
𝐼 =𝐼 −𝐼 −𝐼 −R(Parallel ) (4)
Photon
Photoncurrent
currentisisexpressed
expressedmathematically
mathematicallyas:
as:
G𝐺
𝐼
IPhoton = =[IPhoton_STC
[𝐼 +S𝐾
_ +K (T(𝑇
C −− 𝑇 )])]××
TSTC (5)
(5)
𝐺
GSTC
Diode saturation current can be expressed as:
𝐼 _ + 𝐾 (𝑇 − 𝑇 )
𝐼 =𝐼 =
[𝑉 ( (6)
𝑒𝑥𝑝 −1
𝑉
The thermal energy absorbed by the PV solar collector is [29];
P =η A G (7)
Energies 2020, 13, 4649 9 of 27

Diode saturation current can be expressed as:

IShort_STC + KS (TC − TSTC )

IDiode1 = IDiode2 = (6)
[Vopen ]
STC +KVL (TC −TSTC )
exp VThermal −1

The thermal energy absorbed by the PV solar collector is [29];

Ppv = ηpvg Apvg Gt (7)

where ηpvg is PV generation efficiency, Apvg is PV generator area (m2), and Gt is solar irradiation
in tilted module plane (W/m2 ). ηpvg is further defined as:

ηpvg = ηr ηpc [1 − β(Tc − Tc re f )] (8)

where ηpc is power conditioning efficiency which is equal to one when MPPT is used, β is temperature
coefficient ((0.004–0.006) per 0 C), ηr is the reference module efficiency, Tc ref is reference cell temperature
in ◦ C, and Tc ref is the collector reference temperature.
The determination of the area of the solar panel Apvg will depend on its shape with respect to
the reference plane, whether it is rectangular, circular, oval, star type, etc. as can be seen in Figure 6.
In organic construction, one or more panels can be installed that contrast with its architecture and will
depend on special manufacturing.
The area A bounded by the region formed by f and g, with x = a and x = b can be calculated by
subtracting the area under g. For this purpose, we use the line integral (9).
Z b Z b Z b
A= f (x)dx − g(x)dx = [ f (x) − g(x)]dx (9)
a a a

According to the photovoltaic matrix grouped into several photovoltaic modules that are connected
in series-parallel, this connection is allowed to have the current and voltage value of the PV matrix and
therefore we can obtain its power [36,37] according to the Equations (10) and (11):

q(Vpv (t) + Ipv (t)Rs )

Pav
pv (t) = np Iph (t) − np Irs (t)[exp ( ) − 1] (10)
ns Ac KT (t)

where np represents the number of modules connected in parallel, and ns is the number of cells
connected in series. On the other hand, the obtainable generation of energy from a PV matrix is
finally obtained:
Pav av
pv (t) = Vpv (t) ∗ Ipv (t) (11)

2.2. Wind Turbine Model

The wind turbine is a machine that allows the kinetic energy of the wind to be converted
into mechanical energy by colliding with its blades, allowing the main axis of the turbine to rotate
and then transforming into electrical energy by receiving sufficient speed from the generator shaft.
The generation of electrical energy by the wind turbine depends mainly on how much wind speed
exists in the area where the turbine is located and at the same time, in which the rotors are mechanically
coupled to an electric generator. It can be modeled in a simple way using the power coefficient
expressed by its acronym Cp , which is closely related to the speed of the end and the angle of inclination
of the blade as we can identify it in Figure 7.
then transforming into electrical energy by receiving sufficient speed from the generator shaft. The
generation of electrical energy by the wind turbine depends mainly on how much wind speed exists
in the area where the turbine is located and at the same time, in which the rotors are mechanically
coupled to an electric generator. It can be modeled in a simple way using the power coefficient
expressed by its acronym Cp, which is closely related to the speed of the end and the angle of
Energies 2020, 13, 4649 10 of 27
inclination of the blade as we can identify it in Figure 7.

Figure 7.
Figure Cp vs.
7. Cp vs. tip
tipspeed
speed(λ).
(λ).Curve
Curveisisplotted
plottedfor differentββ..
fordifferent
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 27
Figure 7 involves analyzing the efficiency of the turbine and allows expressing the mathematical
radiusFigure
of the7 (12)
involves
wind analyzing
turbine the efficiency of the turbine andspeed.
allowsTheexpressing the mathematical
relationship that will and
also ωm
be aisfunction
the angle ofof turbine
the shaft
relationship λ defined ratio
as λ C=p.,rωm/v,
depending
whereonr λis
relationship
and the angle (12)
of that will also
inclination of be
the a function
blade β of the
[29,30], relationship
can be λ
expresseddefined
(12) as
and λ = rωm/v,
(13) as: where r is the
the radius of the wind turbine and ωm is the angle of turbine shaft speed. The ratio Cp ., depending on
λ and the angle of inclination of the blade 1 β𝑟𝐶[29,30], can be expressed (12) and (13) as:
𝐶 (𝜆, 𝛽) = ( − 0.022 𝛽 − 2)𝑒 . (12)
2 𝜆 rCr
1 rCr β
Generated mechanical power Cp (λ,output
β) = from
( − 0.022 β − 2)e−0.255 (12)
2 λ the wind turbine can be written using (13) which is
depending on wind velocity (VWT) = v, R is the turbine radius, 𝜌 air density, and Cp is performance
Generated mechanical power output from the wind turbine can be written using (13) which
coefficient.
is depending on wind velocity (VWT ) = v, R is the turbine radius, ρa air density, and Cp is
1
performance coefficient. 𝑃 (𝑡) = 𝐶 (𝜆, 𝛽)𝜌 𝐴𝑣 (13)
21
3
PWT (t) = Cp (λ, β)ρa Av (13)
For a better understanding of this aspect, Figure
2 8 is represented to its aspects that transcend for
the input-output transformation,ofrelating
For a better understanding windFigure
this aspect, power8and electrical power.
is represented to its aspects that transcend for
the input-output transformation, relating wind power and electrical power.

Figure 8. Generic scheme of energy conversion.

Figure 8. Generic scheme of energy conversion.
This power is possible to obtain for a certain range of wind speed.
This power is possible
The operating range oftothe
obtain
windfor a certain
turbine can range of wind in
be considered speed.
two regions.
The operating range of the wind turbine can be considered in two regions.
(a) Above a nominal wind speed v (full load).
(a) Above a nominal wind speed v (full load).
(b) Wind speed lower than nominal (partial load).
(b) Wind speed lower than nominal (partial load).
Whenthe
When theload
loadisisbelow
belowthe therated
rated power𝑃 P, rwthe
power , the turbine
turbine runs
runs at variable
at variable rotor
rotor speed,
speed, setting
setting the
the angle of inclination of the blade. For wind speeds above the rate value, the turbine
angle of inclination of the blade. For wind speeds above the rate value, the turbine operates at operates at aa
constant output
constant output power,
power, varying
varying the
the blade
blade pitch
pitch angle.
angle.
On the other hand, the operation of the wind
On the other hand, the operation of the wind turbine turbine is stopped
is stopped for for
windwind speeds
speeds less less
thanthan
the
the nominal speed v <
nominal speed 𝑣 < 𝑣 [m/s] vi [m/s] and an upper limit v > v
and an upper limit v > 𝑣 c [m/s]. [m/s].
The output power of the wind turbine is a function of the wind speed and is considered
according to the limits expressed by (14), according to reference [7]:
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑣 < 𝑣
⎧1
⎪ 𝐶 (𝜆, 𝛽)𝜌 𝐴𝑣 (𝑡) 𝑖𝑓 𝑣 ≤ 𝑣 ≤ 𝑣
𝑃 (𝑡) = 2 (14)
⎨ 𝑃 𝑖𝑓 𝑣 < 𝑣 < 𝑣
⎪
⎩ 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑣 > 𝑣
Energies 2020, 13, 4649 11 of 27

The output power of the wind turbine is a function of the wind speed and is considered according
to the limits expressed by (14), according to reference [7]:

0 i f v < vi




2 Cp (λ, β)ρa Av3 (t) i f vi ≤ v ≤ vr

 1
av

Pw (t) =  (14)

Prw i f vr < v < vc



0 i f v > vc




The blade angle control is linked to the mechanical aspect when speeds are too high, it is designed
to regulate the speed of the generator and mitigate the loads of the components under a turbulent
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 27
wind field. The pitch of the mechanical subassembly related to the blades is also mitigated somewhat.

2.3.
2.3.Battery
BatteryStorage
StorageModel
Model
The
Thebattery
batteryisisan
animportant
importantpiece
pieceof
ofequipment
equipmentwithin
withinaahybrid
hybridsystem,
system,itsitsnumber
numberwill
willdepend
depend
on
onhow
howmuchmuchenergy
energyisisavailable
availableininhours
hourswhen
whenthe
theload
loadisisnot
notactive,
active,ititprovides
providesususwith
withthe
thesolution
solution
under
underthe thefluctuating
fluctuatingaction
actionofofrenewable
renewablePV-wind
PV-windenergy
energysources.
sources.The equivalent
The battery
equivalent model
battery is
model
represented by an electrical circuit, which provides a better analysis of the
is represented by an electrical circuit, which provides a better analysis of the generation-powergeneration-power
consumption
consumptiondynamics
dynamicsfor foraastate-of-charge
state-of-chargemode
mode ofof operation.
operation.
ItItcomprises
comprises an idealized voltage source with an internalseries
an idealized voltage source with an internal seriesresistance
resistanceasasshown
shownininFigure
Figure9.9.
Equations (15)–(18) are provided by references
Equations (15)–(18) are provided by references [28–30].[28–30].

Figure 9. Equivalent battery circuit.

Figure 9. Equivalent battery circuit.
When the total output of the WT and the PV units are greater than the load [31–36], the capacity
When the total output of the WT and the PV units are greater than the load [31–36], the capacity
of the available battery bank at time t can be obtained by:
of the available battery bank at time t can be obtained by:
" #
𝐸
El (𝑦)
( y)
SOC(𝑡)
𝑆𝑂𝐶 (t)==𝑆𝑂𝐶 ( 𝑡(− 1)∗∗(1
t −1) ( 1− σ) +
− 𝜎) + 𝐸E g(𝑡)
(t) −
ninv 𝑛bc
SOC − n (15)
(15)
𝑛
where
whereSOCSOC(t)(t)and
andSOCSOC(t(t− −
1)1)
are
arethethe
battery bank
battery charge
bank levels
charge at times
levels t and
at times t − 1t in
t and − 1kWh, σ is
σ is the
in kWh,
self-discharge rate per hour.
the self-discharge rate per hour.
Since
Since the maximum energy
the maximum energystored
storedininthethe battery
battery bank
bank cannot
cannot exceedexceed the maximum
the maximum state
state of of
charge
charge
(SOCmax ), there),isthere
(𝑆𝑂𝐶 is the following
the following restriction.
restriction.
𝑆𝑂𝐶 (𝑡) ≤ 𝑆𝑂𝐶 (16)
SOC (t) ≤ SOCmax (16)
The discharge capacity of the battery bank at time t can be obtained by:
The discharge capacity of the battery bank at time t can be(𝑡) obtained by:
𝐸
𝑛 − 𝐸 (𝑡)
𝑆𝑂𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝑆𝑂𝐶(𝑡 − 1) ∗ (1 − 𝜎) + El (t) (17)
ninv 𝑛
− E g ( t )
SOC (t) = SOC(t − 1) ∗ (1 − σ) + (17)
where ηbf is the charging efficiency of the battery bank. ηbf is the n discharge
bf efficiency of the battery
bank during the discharge process.
where ηbf is the charging efficiency of the battery bank. ηbf is the discharge efficiency of the battery
The efficiency was set equal to 1 and during charging, the efficiency is 0.65–0.85 depending on
bank during the discharge process.
the charging current, and ηinv is the efficiency of the inverter [37–41]. To supply the charge, SOC must
satisfy the minimum state of charge (𝑆𝑂𝐶 ), so the following restriction applies during discharge:

𝑆𝑂𝐶 (𝑡) ≥ 𝑆𝑂𝐶

The loss of power in the supply LPS is obtained:
𝐸 (𝑡)
𝐿𝑃𝑆 (𝑡) = − 𝐸 (𝑡) − [𝑆𝑂𝐶(𝑡 − 1) ∗ (1 − 𝜎) − 𝑆𝑂𝐶 ]/𝑛 (18)
𝑛
Energies 2020, 13, 4649 12 of 27

The efficiency was set equal to 1 and during charging, the efficiency is 0.65–0.85 depending
on the charging current, and ηinv is the efficiency of the inverter [37–41]. To supply the charge, SOC must
satisfy the minimum state of charge (SOCmin ), so the following restriction applies during discharge:

SOC (t) ≥ SOCmin (18)

The loss of power in the supply LPS is obtained:

El (t)
LPS (t) = − E g (t) − [SOC(t − 1) ∗ (1 − σ) − SOCmin ]/nb f (19)
ninv

Bhattacharjee AK et al. in reference [42] consider analyzing the restrictions in the power ramp;
however, in this research, we welcome the literature of Anoune K. et al. according to reference [41]
analyzing the loading and unloading points of the battery bank.

2.4. Inverter Performance Model

The characteristics of the inverter are given by the ratio of the input power to the inverter Pinv−ip
and inverter output power Pinv−op . The inverter will incur conversion losses and to account for
the inverter efficiency losses, ηinv are used by the references [24,30] and below, Equations (20) and (21)
are expressed;
Pinv−ip .ηinv = Pinv−op (20)

Load may not be served with the desired amount of energy. This situation is described as loss of
load probability (LLP) and can be calculated using the following equation and also, LLP can represent
the system reliability [30,43];
Energy_Demand
LLP = (21)
Energy_Served

3. Modeling and Simulation

In Figure 10, the flow diagram of the hybrid PV-wind turbine system is presented, where
the informative referring data is entered that will ultimately allow the energy conversion and
a simulation of the energy conversion equations described in the literature of this section. The battery
bank is also considered in this process, so the discharge limits are analyzed [44].
Equations (1)–(20) have been solved according to the flow diagram shown in Figure 10, where
the independent input parameters are defined and other dependent parameters are calculated and
integrated into the system of equations. Iterations were performed until a solution was reached
with an acceptable iteration error. The tests determined that the model is significant at the 95%
confidence level.
A small amount is always necessary for auxiliary consumptions, such as emergency lighting and
fire alarms. We consider supplying from the battery bank.
The research by Diaf et al. [45] focuses on estimating the appropriate dimensions of an autonomous
PV-wind hybrid system (PWHS) based on the meteorological conditions of the place, giving us some
guidelines so that energy autonomy is guaranteed from a typical remote consumer with the lowest
levelized energy cost (LCE), giving a high reliability of hybrid systems. Yang et al. [46] recommended
an optimal design model to design hybrid solar-wind systems employing battery banks to calculate
the system with optimal configurations and ensuring that the cost of the systems is minimized.
Although real-time data analysis over a good number of months create greater confidence for the sizing
of hybrid systems, H. X. Yang, Lu, and Burnett et al. [46] rely heavily on analyzing local weather data
patterns where solar energy and wind power can compensate well for each other and can provide
a good utilization factor for renewable energy applications. For the loss of power supply probability
analysis (LPSP), the calculation objective functions and restrictions are established for the design of
hybrid systems and to assess its reliability.
Energies 2020, 13, 4649 13 of 27
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 27

Figure 10.Flow
Figure10. Flowdiagram
diagramofofthe
theprocess
processfor
forsupplying
supplyingenergy
energytotoorganic
organicconstruction.
construction.

The
Thehourly data used in for
data considered the model are the solar
the simulation wereradiation
those in
of horizontal
Figures 11surface,
and 12.ambient temperature,
However, we must
wind speed, and load energy consumption. The output power of the photovoltaic
recognize the averaged data will serve as a reference under normal conditions without system is determined
extreme
according to the system model, also using the specifications of the photovoltaic module as the
disturbances. In fact, several authors consider averaged data such as Sami S. [48]. However, it should solar
radiation data. The performance calculations of the wind turbine take
be recognized that real-time data may be more useful for studying the system. into account the effects of
the installation height which is at 10 m. The battery bank, with total nominal capacity Cbat (Ah),
downloading is allowed up to a limit defined by the maximum discharge depth, which is specified by
3.1. PV Simulation
the system designer at the beginning of the optimal sizing process (j = 1). Then, the system configuration
The photovoltaic solar system used for this purpose is carried out at the simulation level, it is
will be optimized according to a dynamic search for the optimal system configuration [47].
analyzed with a matrix of ten panels with an output of 240 watts estimated at an irradiance of 1000
For each system configuration, the system LPSP will be examined to see if the load requirement
W/m2 with an direct current intensity Idc of 15.14 A and an open circuit voltage Voc of 21.7 V. Module
(LPSP target) can be satisfied. Then, the configurations satisfied with the lower cost load requirement,
efficiency and cell temperature are 13.3% and 27 °C. Each panel is 156 × 156 mm polycrystalline type.
will be subject to the simultaneous operation of the two systems (PV-wind) to produce the next
Each solar panel has 36 cells and the module size is 1.482 ∗ 0.67 ∗ .035 m. The inverter output is at a
generation, up to a preset number of generations, when a criterion that determines convergence
constant 24 volts, so the batteries are constantly charged with 24 volts. With the help of the inverter,
is satisfied. So, for the desired LPSP value, the optimal setting can be identified both technically
the output AC voltage is 120 volts. Figure 10 presents typical solar insulation at the site during a
and economically.
calendar year at different times of the day (July 2018–June 2019). It is quite evident that the peak of
solar irradiation occurs at noon. However, the average solar irradiance was used in the simulation of
the photovoltaic panels. We consider the ranges of highest solar radiation and average ambient
Energies 2020, 13,
Energies 2020, xx FOR
FOR PEER
13, 4649 PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 14
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27

temperature that is around noon as shown in Figures 11 and 12. The predicted results of the
The power
photovoltaic input to the
simulation storage system
at different is controlled
irradiations by the
are shown Figures C
inequation 13(t)and
= P14.
(t) The
− L(tset
) inoutput
which
P ( t ) = P
voltage solarw ( t ) + P ( t
in parallel
pv ) . It is evident that the power generated by the hybrid
and the amount of energy generated by the photovoltaic system
h
and the amount
solariarray are of
energy stored
variable, are time-dependent.
and depend For the charging
mainly on insolation process ofItthe
and temperatures. battery. Pto
is important w (consider ) >voltage-
t) + Ppv (tthe Lb (t).
current relationship, as well as the non-linear power-voltage relationship as shown in Figures 11must
The data considered for the simulation were those of Figures 11 and 12. However, we and
recognize
12. the averaged
It is quite clear that data will serve
increased as a reference
irradiation under
will result normalenergy
in higher conditions without
conversion extreme
efficiency.
disturbances.
Therefore, solar In panels
fact, several authors
will be consider to
more efficient averaged
operatedata suchwith
in sites as Sami S. [48].
higher However,
irradiation, suchit should
as this
be recognized
Ecuadorian case that real-time
applied data may
to organic be more useful for studying the system.
constructions.

Figure
Figure 11.
11. Ambient
Ambient temperature
temperature profile (July 2018–June
profile (July 2018–June 2019).
2019).

Figure 12. Solar irradiances profile (July 2018–June 2019).

Figure 12.

3.1. PV Simulation
The photovoltaic solar system used for this purpose is carried out at the simulation level, it is
analyzed with a matrix of ten panels with an output of 240 watts estimated at an irradiance of 1000 W/m2
with an direct current intensity Idc of 15.14 A and an open circuit voltage Voc of 21.7 V. Module efficiency
and cell temperature are 13.3% and 27 ◦ C. Each panel is 156 × 156 mm polycrystalline type. Each solar
panel has 36 cells and the module size is 1.482 ∗ 0.67 ∗ 0.035 m. The inverter output is at a constant
Energies 2020, 13, 4649 15 of 27

24 volts, so the batteries are constantly charged with 24 volts. With the help of the inverter, the output
AC voltage is 120 volts. Figure 10 presents typical solar insulation at the site during a calendar year
at different times of the day (July 2018–June 2019). It is quite evident that the peak of solar irradiation
occurs at noon. However, the average solar irradiance was used in the simulation of the photovoltaic
panels. We consider the ranges of highest solar radiation and average ambient temperature that is
around noon as shown in Figures 11 and 12. The predicted results of the photovoltaic simulation
at different irradiations are shown in Figures 13 and 14. The set output voltage solar in parallel and
the amount of energy generated by the photovoltaic solar array are variable, and depend mainly
on insolation and temperatures. It is important to consider the voltage-current relationship, as well
as the non-linear power-voltage relationship as shown in Figures 11 and 12. It is quite clear that
increased irradiation will result in higher energy conversion efficiency. Therefore, solar panels will
be more efficient to operate in sites with higher irradiation, such as this Ecuadorian case applied to
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 27
organic constructions.
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 27

Figure 13. Voltage photovoltaic Vpv-Current photovoltaic Ipv curves at different values of irradiance-
Figure
W/m 2. 13. Voltage photovoltaic Vpv-Current photovoltaic Ipv curves at different values of irradiance-
Figure 13. Voltage photovoltaic Vpv -Current photovoltaic Ipv curves at different values of irradiance-W/m2 .
W/m .2

Figure14.
Figure 14.Voltage
VoltageVVpv pPower
pvp Power P pvcurves
Ppv curvesat
atdifferent
differentvalues
valuesof
of irradiance-W/m
irradiance-W/m22. .
Figure 14. Voltage VpvpPower Ppv curves at different values of irradiance-W/m2.
3.2. Wind Turbine
3.2. Wind Turbine Simulation
Simulation
3.2. Wind
The Turbine
wind turbine Simulation
turbine consideredfor forthis
thisstudy
studyhas hasthethecapacity
capacitytotogenerate
generate energy
The wind considered energy upupto to a speed
a speed of
of up to
up toThe 20 m/s
wind
20 m/s to reach
to turbine
reach the the maximum
considered
maximumfor allowed
this study
allowed power,power,
has since since
the capacity exceeding
exceeding to generate this
this speed speed
energy it is possible
up to a speed
it is possible to reach to
of
reach
up to
the them/s
20
runawayrunaway reachspeed
tospeed thethe
of ofgenerator
the generator
maximum allowed
and endand endbeing
power,
up up being
since destroyed
exceeding
destroyed this their
theirspeed internal windings
it is possible
internal windings toorreachor
the
the mechanical
runaway
mechanical parts parts
speed subjected
of the to
subjected atorotary
a rotary
generator andmovement.
end upIfbeing
movement. If the
the wind wind
destroyed
speedspeed is less
istheir
less than
internal
than 2.52.5 m/s,
nono
windings
m/s, energy
or the
energy is
is produced.
mechanicalTo
produced. To
parts analyze
subjected
analyze in which speed
to a rotary
in which range
speedmovement. the turbine
range the Ifturbine
the wind is exposed
speed is less
is exposed to operate,
than 2.5the
to operate, the speed
m/s,speed profile
no energy
profile is
obtained
produced.by
obtained byToaa meteorological
meteorological
analyze in which station installed
speed
station rangeon
installed thethe
on the site
turbine is available,
site is available,
is exposed thetosame
the same meteorological
operate, station
the speed station
meteorological profile
from
from which
obtained
whichby the solar
solar irradiation
a meteorological
the irradiation profile
station was
was obtained
installed
profile in
on the site
obtained in the case
case of
is available,
the of thethe
the solar
same
solar system. The
The wind
meteorological
system. speed
windstation
speed
profile
profile of
from which the
of thetheplace where
solar
place the
irradiation
where organic construction
profile
the organic was obtained
construction is located
in the case
is located is presented
of the solar
is presented in Figure
in system.
Figure 15.15.
The wind speed
profile ofdiameter
The the placeof where the organic
the turbine rotor construction
is 3.0 m threeisblades;
locateditisispresented in Figure that
a type of generator 15. has given us
very The
gooddiameter
results inofcases
the turbine
previouslyrotorexperienced
is 3.0 m three in blades; it is a typearea.
our geographical of generator
The nominal that has
powergiven us
is 1.5
very The
kW. goodnominal
results inspeed
cases atpreviously
which the experienced
wind turbine in our geographical
operates is 9 m/s. area.The Thevoltage
nominalispower
24 dc.isThe 1.5
kW. The nominal
predicted results ofspeedthe windat which
turbine the windare
model turbine operates
presented is 9 m/s.
in Figure The voltage
16, where variousiswind24 dc.
speedsThe
predicted
are results
considered andof various
the windpower turbine model
values areare presented
obtained, thatin is,
Figure 16, where
its power variousincreases
production wind speeds as a
Energies 2020, 13, 4649 16 of 27
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 27

Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 27

Figure 15. Wind speed profile (July 2018–June 2019).

The diameter of the turbine rotor is 3.0 m three blades; it is a type of generator that has given
us very good results in cases previously experienced in our geographical area. The nominal power
is 1.5 kW. The nominal speed at which the wind turbine operates is 9 m/s. The voltage is 24 dc.
The predicted results of the wind turbine model are presented in Figure 16, where various wind
speeds are considered and various power values are obtained, that is, its power production increases
as a function of the rotor speed and when it reaches the speed of 9 m/s is reached its maximum power
output whatever its speed. The power that governs the wind turbine is given by Equations (12) to (14).
The maximum theoretical power has a Betz coefficient of 0.59 which is often expressed in terms of
the speed of the rotor tip toFigure
the wind speed
15. Wind ratio.
speed profile (July 2018–June 2019).

Figure 16. Wind speed vs. power at different values of Betz coefficient.

4. Description of the Case Study and Discussion

To carry out this analysis, we went to Ecuador, a small country and very privileged to have the
four geographical areas, coast, mountains, amazon and the Galapagos Islands, which are not too far
from each other. Figure 17 shows the position of the Equator on the globe.
Ecuador is one of the countries that crosses the equator; it was chosen by international scientists
as the base to carry out geodetic research back in the 17th century, there they defined this line with
the name of “equator” and it was one of the main reasons why the country has its name.
About 13 km from Quito is the place where these meetings were held, and it is called “Half of
the World.” Figure 16.
Figure 16. Wind
Wind speed vs. power
speed vs. power at
at different values of
different values of Betz
Betz coefficient.
coefficient.

4. Description of
4. Description of the
the Case
Case Study
Study and
and Discussion
Discussion
To
To carry out this
carry out this analysis,
analysis,we
wewent
wenttotoEcuador,
Ecuador,a small
a small country
country and
and veryvery privileged
privileged to have
to have the
the
four geographical areas, coast, mountains, amazon and the Galapagos Islands, which are notnot
four geographical areas, coast, mountains, amazon and the Galapagos Islands, which are too too
far
far
fromfrom
eacheach other.
other. Figure
Figure 17 shows
17 shows thethe position
position of the
of the Equator
Equator on on
thethe globe.
globe.
Ecuador is one of the countries that crosses the equator; it was chosen by international scientists
as the base to carry out geodetic research back in the 17th century, there they defined this line with
the name of “equator” and it was one of the main reasons why the country has its name.
About 13 km from Quito is the place where these meetings were held, and it is called “Half of
the World.”
Energies 2020, 13, 4649 17 of 27
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 27

Figure17.
Figure 17.Referential
Referentialdiagram
diagramafter
afterenergy
energyconversion
conversionby
byhybrid
hybridsystems
systemsininorganic
organicconstruction.
construction.

Ecuador
The most is important
one of the countries that case
thing for our crosses theisequator;
study it was chosen
that Ecuador, by international
has a latitude of 00°00′00″,scientists
which
asimplies
the base to carry
some outand
benefits geodetic research
privileges that back
cannotin easily
the 17th century,
occur there
in other they defined
countries this linesuch
of the world, withas
the name of “equator” and it was one of the main reasons why the country has its
radiation. The sun is perpendicular and therefore its radiation levels are considered one of the name.
About
highest. Of13 km from
course, Quitoaspects
in many is the place
it can where these such
be harmful, meetings
as thewere
needheld, and
to use it is called
sunscreen for“Half of
the skin,
the
butWorld.”
also opportunities for energy generation, as is our purpose in this article.
The mostisimportant ◦ 000 00”, which
Nature so wise inthing
which for our case study
everything is that and
is balanced Ecuador,
in thehas
citya of
latitude
Quito of
you 00can see unusual
implies some
situations in benefits and privileges
its art centers: that cannot
Clear examples easily
are how anoccur
egg canin other countries
be balanced of the
on the tipworld, such
of a nail, as
water
when passing through a funnel does not rotate but falls, and at various points you tend to walk in a
Energies 2020, 13, 4649 18 of 27

radiation. The sun is perpendicular and therefore its radiation levels are considered one of the highest.
Of course, in many aspects it can be harmful, such as the need to use sunscreen for the skin, but also
opportunities for energy generation, as is our purpose in this article.
Nature
Energies isxso
2020, 13, wise
FOR PEERinREVIEW
which everything is balanced and in the city of Quito you can see unusual 18 of 27
situations in its art centers: Clear examples are how an egg can be balanced on the tip of a nail, water
when
straightpassing through a funnel
line. Information on manydoesof not rotate
these but falls,
features can beand at various
found in the points
variousyou tend toofwalk
pavilions this
in a straight
museum line. Information on many of these features can be found in the various pavilions of this
city.
museum city.
As indicated, it makes some points of Ecuador the closest to the sun on the planet, and the
As indicated,
furthest from the coreit makes
of thesome points
earth. This of Ecuador
also causesthe closest tothat
conditions theproduce
sun on the planet,
quite and theendemic
interesting furthest
from
faunatheandcore of the
flora. earth.
In our This
case, also causes
where we seek conditions that produce
to tackle organic quite interesting
constructions, endemic
it can be fauna and
really interesting
flora. In our case, where we seek to tackle organic constructions, it can be really interesting research.
research.

4.1. Construccion Site

4.1. Construccion Site
To
To carry
carry out
out this
this project,
project, it
it was
was important
important toto decide
decide onon aa place
place where
where they
they have
have enough
enough area
area to
to
carry
carry out
out organic
organic construction,
construction, join
join the
the decision
decision to
to carry
carry out
out aa site
site of
of this
this type
type and
and that
that the place meets
the place meets
some
some minimum
minimum conditions
conditions soso that
that its
its environment
environment is is not
not altered.
altered. A A great
great opportunity
opportunity and
and decision
decision
was found to
was found to carry
carryoutoutthe
thelocation
locationininthethe town
town of of
El El Valle
Valle corresponding
corresponding to the
to the Canton
Canton Cuenca,
Cuenca, See
See Figure 18. It has a land area of 2 hectares, here a site for an airplane-type hotel was
Figure 18. It has a land area of 2 hectares, here a site for an airplane-type hotel was decided as shown decided as
shown in Figure 17, and can even be viewed using
in Figure 17, and can even be viewed using Google Earth. Google Earth.

Figure 18. Preliminary outline of the organic construction type airplane.

The topography
topographyofofthetheplace allows
place internally
allows to build
internally the environments
to build as comfortable
the environments as possible,
as comfortable as
with natural
possible, light
with ducts during
natural the day
light ducts and the
during thenecessary
day and lighting at nightlighting
the necessary using theatrenewable
night usingenergy
the
system.
renewable With the support
energy system. of thethe
With walls, focused
support light
of the bounces
walls, are light
focused caused in certain
bounces places as
are caused in shown
certain
in Figure
places 19. It isinimportant
as shown Figure 19.to It indicate that to
is important guests of this
indicate thatorganic
guests ofconstruction
this organiccan easily change
construction can
environments with a pleasant panoramic view, fresh air, and services.
easily change environments with a pleasant panoramic view, fresh air, and services.
The importance
importance of ofthese
theseorganic
organicconstructions
constructionsinspired
inspiredbyby[25]
[25]not only
not onlyuses
usesthethe
interior space
interior of
space
the plane’s
of the frame,
plane’s frame,butbut
alsoalso
allows the the
allows construction
constructionof aofsubway, including
a subway, its access
including through
its access the tail,
through the
as shown in the prototype of Figure 20 and also for the laterals.
tail, as shown in the prototype of Figure 20 and also for the laterals.
Figure 21 presents the comparative results between the prediction model and the experimental
curve of the wind turbine.
Energies 2020, 13, 4649 19 of 27
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 27
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 27

Figure 19. General

Figure scheme
19. General schemeofoforganic
organicairplane-type construction
airplane-type construction supplied
supplied by by a hybrid
a hybrid renewable
renewable
Figure
energy 19. General scheme of organic airplane-type construction supplied by a hybrid renewable
system.
energy system.
energy system.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 20. (a) Model where you can see the accesses and rest places at the bottom of the tail. (b) Frame
Figure (a) of
20. tail
of the Model where
the plane youcarrying
before can see out
the the
accesses and rest places
high decoration at the bottom of the tail. (b) Frame
of environments.
Figure 20. (a) Model where you can see the accesses and rest places at the bottom of the tail. (b) Frame
of the tail of the plane before carrying out the high decoration of environments.
of the tail of the plane before carrying out the high decoration of environments.
Figure
Energies 21xpresents
2020, 13, FOR PEERthe comparative results between the prediction model and the experimental
REVIEW 20 of 27
curve of the wind turbine.
Figure 21 presents the comparative results between the prediction model and the experimental
In order to validate the prediction of our model and given that the data of temperature, irradiance,
curve of the wind turbine.
and wind speeds at the site where the location of the organic airplane-type construction is being carried
In order to validate the prediction of our model and given that the data of temperature, irradiance,
out must be evaluated and compared with the experimental curves, we have chosen to use the data of
and wind speedsand
solar radiation at the site where
average windthe location
speeds that of the organic
would turn outairplane-type
to be the most construction is being
characteristic of the carried
site.
outFigure
must 22a,b
be evaluated and compared with the experimental curves, we have chosen
shows the prediction of the model referring to the solar PV and wind turbine in terms to use the data of of
solar
voltage-amperage and Power-speed respectively. It is quite evident from the data presented in thesite.
radiation and average wind speeds that would turn out to be the most characteristic of the
Figure 22a,bfigures
following showsthat the the
prediction
numericalof model
the model referring
predicted to the data
the output solarveryPV and
well.wind turbine in terms of
voltage-amperage
Comparisonand Power-speed
between experimentalrespectively. It isofquite
data and that evident
prediction from
of the the data presented
mathematical model of the in the
following figures
solar panel at 600that the2numerical
W/m modelin
has been shown predicted
Figure 22. theOf output
course,data veryproject
in this well. 10 solar panels are
Comparison
considered between
for their high experimental datairradiation
potential for solar and that ofand prediction
a single of the mathematical
turbine; model of
however, it remains tothe
be panel
solar analyzedat 600with the2 increase
W/m has beeninshown
more in wind turbines
Figure 22. Ofhow the in
course, system can increase
this project 10 solar in panels
energyare
production.
considered forDespite the fact
their high that this
potential fortype of irradiation
solar constructionand is exclusive
a single and the potential
turbine; however, beneficiaries
it remains to
be analyzed with the increase in more wind turbines how the system can increasethat
have sufficient economic resources to make their projects a reality, it must be considered in their
energy
energy production systems are not excessively high. It is important to note that
production. Despite the fact that this type of construction is exclusive and the potential beneficiariesuntil now what exists
of the
have construction
sufficient progress
economic on the to
resources sitemake
theretheir
is an projects
advantage with which
a reality, people
it must lived in the field
be considered is
that their
that at an underground level the noise produced by the turbine is null, included
energy production systems are not excessively high. It is important to note that until now what exists at night, it really
means that this type of technology they give samples that go very well with organic constructions
of the construction progress on the site there is an advantage with which people lived in the field is
and that according to the designs we can achieve luxurious final environments.
that at an underground level the noise produced by the turbine is null, included at night, it really
means that this type of technology they give samples that go very well with organic constructions
and that
Figure according
Figure to the designs
21. Representative
21. Representative curves ofwe
curves ofcan
the the achieve
mathematicalluxurious
mathematical
model andfinal
model and environments.
the the experimental
experimental curve
curve in ainwind
a wind
turbine.
turbine.
Energies 2020, 13, 4649 20 of 27

In order to validate the prediction of our model and given that the data of temperature, irradiance,
and wind speeds at the site where the location of the organic airplane-type construction is being
carried out must be evaluated and compared with the experimental curves, we have chosen to use
the data of solar radiation and average wind speeds that would turn out to be the most characteristic
of the site. Figure 22a,b shows the prediction of the model referring to the solar PV and wind turbine
in terms of voltage-amperage and Power-speed respectively. It is quite evident from the data presented
Figure 21. Representative curves of the mathematical model and the experimental curve in a wind
in the following
turbine.
figures that the numerical model predicted the output data very well.

(a) (b)

Figure
Figure22.22.(a)
(a)Comparison
Comparison of
of voltage—current
voltage—current experimental data and
experimental data and mathematical
mathematicalmodel
modelatat600
600
W/m 2 2
W/m. 2.(b)
(b)Comparison
Comparisonof
ofvoltage—power
voltage—power experimental data and
experimental data and mathematical
mathematicalmodel
modelatat600
600W/m
W/m 2. .

4.2.Comparison
Battery Bank between experimental data and that of prediction of the mathematical model of
the solar panel at 600 W/m2 has been shown in Figure 22. Of course, in this project 10 solar panels are
Afterfor
considered several
theiracquired experiences
high potential carried
for solar out in remote
irradiation places,turbine;
and a single it is important
however,to itberemains
clear about
to be
the model used in Figure 9 and the respective literature, a fairly simple model that has given us very
analyzed with the increase in more wind turbines how the system can increase in energy production.
good results, especially in the application made according to reference [37]. Based on this adopted
Despite the fact that this type of construction is exclusive and the potential beneficiaries have sufficient
model, we must be careful when sizing the battery bank so that the SOC does not exceed the
economic resources to make their projects a reality, it must be considered that their energy production
maximum state of charge (𝑆𝑂𝐶 ), and in turn is not minimized during discharge (𝑆𝑂𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 ). With
systems are not excessively high.𝑚𝑎𝑥 It is important to note that until now what exists of the construction
these restrictions that logically depend on the lifestyle of people and the type of charge, we use
progress on the site there is an advantage with which people lived in the field is that at an underground
Equations (15) and (17) considering that there is an average chargeability of 8 h and 8 h of discharge,
level the noise produced by the turbine is null, included at night, it really means that this type of
it implies that we need 8 batteries of 300 Ah at 24 V in parallel connection, also considering that there
technology they give samples that go very well with organic constructions and that according to
is a deterioration factor that would be progressing even if there are the best environmental and
the designs we can achieve luxurious final environments.

4.2. Battery Bank

After several acquired experiences carried out in remote places, it is important to be clear about
the model used in Figure 9 and the respective literature, a fairly simple model that has given us
very good results, especially in the application made according to reference [37]. Based on this
adopted model, we must be careful when sizing the battery bank so that the SOC does not exceed
the maximum state of charge (SOCmax ), and in turn is not minimized during discharge (SOCmin ).
With these restrictions that logically depend on the lifestyle of people and the type of charge, we use
Equations (15) and (17) considering that there is an average chargeability of 8 h and 8 h of discharge,
it implies that we need 8 batteries of 300 Ah at 24 V in parallel connection, also considering that
there is a deterioration factor that would be progressing even if there are the best environmental and
ventilation conditions. The system is specifically designed for the worst case that reaches its maximum
utilization power of 3.9 kW. In the extreme scenario that the load is maximum (coincidence factor equal
Energies 2020, 13, 4649 21 of 27

to 1), 8 h can be used and approximately 15% of charge will be maintained in the battery bank. Not so
likely scenario but we must assume the most unfavorable condition.

4.3. Precision Degree of the Model

We are aware that the mathematical model we build will differ from the experimental curve
both in relation to the production of energy by the wind and solar sources. To determine the degree
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 27
of precision, we use the iterative method proposed by the reference [38], there are really various
methods to estimate the error, then in Tables 2 and 3 we can obtain the
ventilation conditions. The system is specifically designed for the worst case that reaches
percentages of e a % as stated
its
in themaximum
Figures 23 and 24 depending
utilization power of 3.9on kW. the
Incase of eachscenario
the extreme energy thatsource. As we
the load observed,(coincidence
is maximum in no case does
it exceed
factor5%,
equalwhich
to 1),speaks
8 h can bevolumes
used and forapproximately
the model used.15% ofItcharge
is verywill
important that the
be maintained data
in the obtained
battery
in thebank.
fieldNot
is using
so likelywell-calibrated
scenario but we and
mustcertified
assumeequipment, so we cancondition.
the most unfavorable greatly guarantee current and
voltage measurements.
4.3. Precision
The measurementsDegree of the
thatModel
are carried out are always tedious and above all, they must coincide
with the simulated irradiation, which in thismodelcase iswe
600 W/m 2 , only in this way will we be comparing
We are aware that the mathematical build will differ from the experimental curve
both inand
the values relation to the production
obtaining the level ofofvariation
energy bybetween
the windthe
andsimulated
solar sources.
andTo determine
the measured. the degree
of the
In precision,
case ofwe theuse the iterative
turbine method
it is much moreproposed
practicalbytothe reference
obtain [38], there are really
the measurements with avarious
tachometer
methods to estimate the error, then in Tables 2 and 3 we can obtain the percentages
giving different speed values. At different speed values, the respective power is obtained moment by of e a% as stated

in the Figures 23 and 24 depending on the case of each energy source. As we observed, in no case
moment and the respective curve is obtained. In fact, wind turbine construction companies in the final
does it exceed 5%, which speaks volumes for the model used. It is very important that the data
tests do it carefully in a similar way.
obtained in the field is using well-calibrated and certified equipment, so we can greatly guarantee
The determination
current of errors can be obtained through different methods; in our case we use
and voltage measurements.
the relation (21) widely
The measurements thatused in reference
are carried[38]
outtoare
even use tedious
always much more accurate
and above all, methods
they mustfor calculating
coincide
errors. We can determine that the error in neither case exceeds 5%.
with the simulated irradiation, which in this case is 600 W/m , only in this way will we be comparing
2

Here is theand
the values relationship
obtaining the forlevel
calculating errors:
of variation between the simulated and the measured.
In the case of the turbine it is much more practical to obtain the measurements with a tachometer
Valor actual
giving different speed values. At different − Valorthe
speed values, medido
respective power is obtained moment by
εa = 100% (22)
moment and the respective curve is obtained. Valor
In actual
fact, wind turbine construction companies in the
final tests do it carefully in a similar way.

Figure
Figure 23. 23. Referentialgraph
Referential graph for
for the
theestimation
estimationof of
errors between
errors the mathematical
between model and
the mathematical the and
model
experimental curve of the PV system.
the experimental curve of the PV system.
 Table 2. Summary table of quantification of maximum percentage errors regarding the PV system.

Terms Reference Curve 1 Reference Curve 2 Ea (%)

1 29.3 28.3 3.41296928
Energies 2020, 13, 4649 22 of 27
2 28.4 27.7 2.46478873
3 27.3 26.8 1.83150183
4 table of quantification
Table 2. Summary 1.6 1.6
of maximum percentage 0
errors regarding the PV system.
5 2.27 2.27 0
Terms
6 Reference
2 Curve 1 Reference Curve 2
2.28 E a (%)
0.21881838
71 29.3
2.3 28.3
2.28 3.41296928
0.86956522
8 2 28.4
2.36 27.7
2.28 2.46478873
3.38983051
3 27.3 26.8 1.83150183
94 2.38
1.6 2.3
1.6 3.36134454
0
The determination of errors can be obtained through different methods;0 in our case we use the
5 2.27 2.27
6 2 2.28 0.21881838
relation (21) widely used in reference [38] to even use much more accurate methods for calculating
7 2.3 2.28 0.86956522
errors. We can determine
8 that the error
2.36 in neither case exceeds
2.28 5%. 3.38983051
Here is the relationship
9 for calculating
2.38 errors: 2.3 3.36134454
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 − 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑑𝑜
𝜀𝑎 = 100% (22)
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟
It is important to indicate that the model 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
referring to the wind turbine predicts quite well at low
It is
speeds, as important
observed in to indicate
Figure thatTable
24 and the model referring
3; however, fortohigh
the wind turbine
speeds, predictsofquite
the margin errorwell
willatincrease
low
speeds, as so
considerably observed
the modelin Figure
cannot24 be
andused.
TableThe3; however,
analysis for high out
carried speeds, the margin
is based on theofaverage
error will
wind
increase considerably so the model cannot be used. The analysis carried out is based
characteristics in Ecuador according to the reference [39] presented by the Ecuadorian Ministry of on the average
wind characteristics
Renewable Energy. In inthe Ecuador according
wind map, to the reference
it is identified [39] winds
that the presented by the Ecuadorian
in Ecuador Ministry
in the inter-Andean
of Renewable Energy. In the wind map, it is identified that the winds in Ecuador in the inter-Andean
mountain range are at an average annual speed of 8 m/s at a height of 30 m. There are other points that
mountain range are at an average annual speed of 8 m/s at a height of 30 m. There are other points
exceed this speed especially in Bolivar, Azuay, and Loja where the located wind farms are located and
that exceed this speed especially in Bolivar, Azuay, and Loja where the located wind farms are located
others in projection, places destined for energy production on a larger scale, which is not the case to
and others in projection, places destined for energy production on a larger scale, which is not the case
analyze these these
to analyze sites and
sites our
and study doesdoes
our study not not
have thatthat
have purpose.
purpose.

Figure 24. Referential graph for the estimation of errors between the mathematical model and the
Figure 24. Referential graph for the estimation of errors between the mathematical model and
experimental curve of the wind turbine.
the experimental curve of the wind turbine.

Table 3. Summary table of quantification of maximum percentage errors regarding of the wind turbine.

Terms Reference Curve 1 Reference Curve 2 Ea (%)

1 200 192 4
2 360 345 4.16666667
3 580 555 4.31034483
4 875 835 4.57142857
 Terms Reference Curve 1 Reference Curve 2 Ea (%)
1 200 192 4
2 360 345 4.16666667
3 580 555 4.31034483
Energies 2020, 13, 4649 4 875 835 4.57142857 23 of 27

4.4. Complementary Aspects

4.4. Complementary Aspects
Next in Figure 25, the environments projected in the underground part of the organic airplane-
Next in Figure 25,
type construction arethe environments
presented. projected
Reference [4] in the underground
indicates that these part of the organicshould
environments airplane-type
be as
construction are presented. Reference [4] indicates that these environments should
conformable as possible. As we noticed these designs hold that deep inspiration of what a mother’s be as conformable as
possible.
womb is, As we noticed
making theseand
it a warm designs hold that
welcoming deepThe
home. inspiration of whatused
lighting system a mother’s
plays an womb is, making
important role
it a warm and welcoming home. The lighting system used plays an important role
in the environments, direct light is avoided, as it may not make coexistence so pleasant. It is sought in the environments,
direct lightbe
that there isaavoided,
diversityasofitelectrical
may not make
circuitscoexistence
that supply so the
pleasant. It systems
lighting is soughtwith that the
there be a diversity
intention of not
of electrical100%
depending circuits that of
of one supply
them.the lighting
Natural systems
lighting with
is also the intention
a source of life, of
sonot
it isdepending
considerable 100%
thatofthere
one
of them. Natural lighting is also a source of life, so it is considerable that there are
are external and lateral ducts that allow its entry. Of course, in this organic construction there are two external and lateral
ducts
floors,that
oneallow
on theitssurface
entry. Of course,
(own in this
plane), andorganic construction where
one underground there arethetwo
guestfloors, one on the
is provided surface
with rest
(own plane), and one underground
and has all the basic services. where the guest is provided with rest and has all the basic services.

Figure 25. Main views of the interior lighting system.

Figure 26 26 shows
shows thetheprogress
progressthatthatorganic
organicconstruction
construction has,
has, it aisproject
it is a projectthatthat
aimsaims to break
to break the
the general
general paradigms
paradigms of theofsectors
the sectors in Cuenca
in Cuenca of Ecuador
of Ecuador based on based on the planning.
the general general planning. It is
It is important
important
to indicateto indicate
that thatthe
although although the raised construction
raised construction must be wellmust be well
carried carried
out, it shouldout,not
it should not be
be neglected
neglected that the
that the entire entire environment
environment must be considered
must be considered in the That
in the project. project. That
is to say,isall
to the
say,landscape
all the landscape
aspect
aspect
that is that
aroundis around is studied
is studied so thatsoitthat it is cozy.
is cozy. PlantsPlants
to betoplanted
be planted in their
in their surroundings
surroundings should
should be
be medium in size. High-growth plants can be an obstacle for the wind to
medium in size. High-growth plants can be an obstacle for the wind to reach the wind turbine at the reach the wind turbine
at the current
current speed,speed, likewise
likewise if there
if there are plants
are plants thatlarge,
that are are large,
they they can create
can create shadows
shadows on theonpanels
the panels
and
and
not not
have
Energies have the expected
the13,expected
2020, x FOR PEERenergyenergy
REVIEW production.
production. 24 of 27

Figure 26. General

General views of the environment regarding organic construction.

5. Conclusions
The organic architectures are awakening interest in certain countries, they are exclusive and give
rise to making different designs and models that contrast with the environment depending on the
area in which it will be located. Renewable energies in this type of construction begin to play an
Energies 2020, 13, 4649 24 of 27

5. Conclusions
The organic architectures are awakening interest in certain countries, they are exclusive and
give rise to making different designs and models that contrast with the environment depending
on the area in which it will be located. Renewable energies in this type of construction begin to play
an important role due to the fact that the vast majority of commercial distribution networks are distant.
Generally, where these architectures are located, it is recommended that the entire environment contrast
in a natural and ecological way, making it more welcoming. Depending on the energy available, it is
also possible to extend the lighting circuits to the outdoors, especially to walkways or parking lots.
The shapes and sizes, especially of panels and wind turbines, are recommended to be exclusive and
to contrast with the respective organic architectures. It surely implies an increase in your costs but
in the end, it will be worth it.
Focusing on the two main sources of renewable energy discussed in this article, we have presented
a summary of mathematical modeling. The non-linear characteristics of the wind energy system and
the photovoltaic system, such as power, voltage, and current, are summarized in the quest to achieve
greater power depending on the resource available on the site. The energy conversion equations that
describe the total power generated by a hybrid solar energy system photovoltaic and wind turbine,
introduced and integrated simultaneously.
To validate this simulation model, the aforementioned equations were coded with MATLAB
2020 and can be used as optimization and a design tool. Comparison between model predictions and
on-site data according to the airplane-type organic construction being built and adapting its green
environment in the Cuenca of Ecuador, as shown in Figure 26.
It was shown that the model predicted data well under various conditions. According to field
tests, it is possible to supply enough cargo to all the organic construction detailed in Figures 18 and 19;
these are 8 bedrooms, 3 rooms, 3 entrance halls, 1 restaurant, and 1 restroom with a view of the river.
Particularly they are lighting circuits and outlets that feed these comfortable environments such as
those considered in Figure 25. It is important to indicate that for cooking and heating water in this case
liquefied petroleum gas, very accessible in our environment, has been considered. However, it is also
possible to join the renewable energy system in an urgent situation or, in turn, expand coverage with
these or other renewable energy systems that may be hot water tanks.
According to the functional tests, the battery bank provides us with 8 h of backup with 100%
charge, that is to say at 3.2 kW between lighting, outlets, and two special charges. It implies that
the supply of energy to all environments and the continuity of services are guaranteed with complete
safety, including a remainder for 0.7 kW situations for extreme situations of cloudiness and an increase
in the future load as an increase in lighting in some specific sector or reduction of the quality of
the batteries.
These constructions in Ecuador have created novelty and above all the upper and upper middle
class are building this type of average buildings, taking advantage of the benefits that solar energy
offers in its simple transformation into electrical energy.
In this research where organic constructions are presented, the nature of the study is different but
we seek to focus its approach in a similar direction to the regularly published literature in the field
of renewable energy. Although the topic lends itself to present a significant novelty, our interest on
this occasion is that the reader finds the relationship with the established literature and in the new
editions disseminate specific aspects that have greater innovation. In this way, the research is open to
researchers in the area to experience new experiences and give different approaches.

Author Contributions: Data curation, D.I., C.F.-V. and S.P.G.; Formal analysis, D.I. and D.B.-D.; Writing—original
draft, D.I. and S.P.G. and D.B.-D.; Writing—review and editing, D.B.-D. All authors have read and agreed to
the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The University of León supported the contributions of David Borge-Diez from the Department of
Electrical, Systems and Automation Engineering and Daniel Icaza, PhD student. Santiago Pulla Galindo and
Energies 2020, 13, 4649 25 of 27

Carlos Flores-Vázquez members of the GIRVyP Group who received the support of the Catholic University of
Cuenca in Ecuador.
Acknowledgments: Both the University of León of Spain and the Catholic University of Cuenca are thanked for
promoting this research, pleasantly promoting the internationalization processes. To David Borge-Diez, researcher
at UNILEON, for his contribution of the highest value so that this research has had the expected success.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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