Research Proposal

(Sample 1)

Implementation of Integrated Renewable Energy Systems in Rural Areas of Arctic and

China

Introduction

Environmental damage is caused not only by wars and terrorism, but by some technologies that
are developed for the only purpose of mutual profit without any regard to their environmental
impacts and the effects they may have on human health. Intensive and uncontrollable
development of human civilization, urbanization and industrialization, have been major causes of
environmental pollution. In order to prevent further depletion of natural resources and pollution
and degradation of our environment, future technologies must include sustainable development
principles and relevant indicators and criteria implementation in technical processing, operations
and products.

More than two billion people worldwide have currently no access to grid electricity or other
efficient energy supply. This is one third of humanity and the majority live in rural areas. The
productivity and health of these people are reduced by dependence on traditional fuels and
technologies, with women and children suffering most. Energy is the key element to empower
people and ensure water, food and fodder supply as well as rural development. Therefore access
to energy should be treated as the fundamental right to everybody.

Renewable energy has the potential to bring power, not only in the literal sense, to communities
by transforming their prospects. Risks of development and use of pathological technologies and a
consequent need for recovery and remediation have to be reduced by the appropriate knowledge
distribution and implementation of environmental technologies: control, monitoring and
avoidance. In order to facilitate sustainable development, it is necessary to further improve and
increase energy efficiency and the use of renewable energy and material resources and related
technologies (biomass, solar, hydrogen, geothermal, wind, and mini-hydraulic energy sources,
waste recycling). There is urgent need for searching economic possibilities, appropriate policies
and market incentives, for sustainable management of natural resources.

Background and Problem formulation

The rural economy and the improvement of people‟s living standards are fundamental to
development of sustainable energy in the rural areas of China. Over 860 million people live in
rural China, of whom 72 million have no electricity (Battelle Memorial Institute,1998) and
according to China Government, (2000a) around 70 million live in poverty.

Although rural China possesses plentiful energy resources and it has achieved significant progress
in the development of renewable energy, but still the current energy structure of these areas is
primarily based on non-renewable fossil fuels. This inevitably leads to the continuous depletion
of these energy resources and to emission of pollutants and greenhouse gases like CO. This
absolute volume causes serious local environmental problems, such as acid rain, despite the fact
that the CO2 emission per capita in China is only 1/10 that of the United States. About one
thousand square kilometers of cultivating land has been swallowed by expanding of desert, over
the last 50 years. The forest coverage rate only stands at 13 %, lower than the world average rate
of 22%, due to overcutting for fuels (FAO, 1992).

1
In rural community of Arctic, fully a third of energy usage is transportation fuels (ATVs, snow
machines, boats). High costs of these fuels are significantly impacting the rural subsistence
lifestyles and the viability of these communities. There are large tidal resources in the Arctic.
Technology is becoming more available to take advantage of this resource in lower latitudes.

China has abundant renewable energy potential and the resources are mainly distributed within
rural areas. The hydropower potential is 378 million kilowatts, of which 5.8 per cent has been
developed to date. Biomass energy, including firewood stalks and other kinds of organic wastes,
equals 260 Mtce. There are about 6 million square kilometres of land on which the total yearly
radiant quantity exceeds 600,000 Joules per square centimeters, offering considerable scope for
solar energy. The potential of wind energy is 1.6 billion kilowatts, of which about 10 per cent can
be developed. Geothermal resources need further exploration; so far, the reserves of geothermal
energy resources explored equal the equivalent of about 462.6 billion tons of standard coal
(China Government, 2000b).

Objectives

How the use of renewable energy resources in rural areas of Arctic and China can be
implemented is the core question in this research. Different constraints at technological, financial,
social and political level will be analyzed to answer this question. Based on this analysis,
recommendations will be developed for stakeholders to increase the application of renewable
technologies. The recommendations will also be compatible with the conventional technologies
and existing energy supply system of the arctic and china regions. The lack of human and
financial capital is the most important obstacles in reaching an increase in renewable energy in the
region. This research will focus on the social, financial and environmental barriers and how these
can be reduced to successfully develop and exploit renewable energy in specific areas. This will
further ensure the quality of life now and for coming generations. Following aims are focused
throughout the reseach

 To evaluate the socio-economic-ecological potential to implement the renewable energy

technologies.

 Based on above mentioned evaluation, to identify the most energy efficient, most cost
effective and least polluting technologies option from a system perspective.

 To identify the different actors, their role and participation in policy and decision making
process in renewable energy sector.

 To develop life cycle assessment for different renewable energy technologies and options
in terms of energy recovery, the environmental impacts and economy.

2
Research Question

The above mentioned objectives and aims will be achieved when we have an overview of energy
requirements for rural communities of China and Arctic region. And we also have to calculate
energy and food production potential and requirements. Following main and further sub-
questions are made to achieve the set objectives and aims of the study.

What are the implementation possibilities of renewable energy in the rural areas of Arctic and
China?

To answer this research question the following sub questions are formulated.

1. Which regions in Arctic and China countryside can be distinguished that are not
connected to the national grid and thus are in need of and offer opportunities for the
development of renewable energy?

2. What are the technological and economical and environmental possibilities for renewable
energy technologies per region type?

3. What are the different ground realities (e.g. conflicting interests of different actors)
important to be considered in finding of the most feasible renewable energy option?

4. What policies or strategies are necessary to develop or improve to make integrated

renewable energy technology system?

Significance

This research will be a milestone for different stakeholders, policy makers and decision makers at
national and international levels who are or will be interested to develop different renewable
energy technologies in the rural areas of Arctic and China because, this will provide them a
complete feasibility assessment of different technologies and options with respect to energy
recovery, the environmental impacts and economy and will also tell what is possible to
implement in the presence of different conflicting interests.

In the long run, this research will be helpful for rural municipalities if the energy recovery and
resource conservation principle would consider in this system and also because of

 Significant contributions to sustainable development

 Reduction in poverty
 Better environmental conservation
 Improved health and social services
 Creation of jobs
 Provisions of economic opportunities
 Preparation of environmental assessment reports on the „state of environment‟

3
Research plan
The methods used will be a combination of empirically based environmental assessments, studies
of institutions and systems modelling. Social-environmental science will constitute the main
approach but will be well framed within technical considerations derived from the actual energy
devices. The consideration of possible environmental impacts will be essential as a successful
energy extraction must not be degrading fisheries or other ecosystem services. Hydro-
geographical conditions will also be of importance as they set the possibilities for the use of
energy sources like water, tide and waves. In practice, empirical data will be gathered in field
(sampling and interviews) and theoretical data through literature (synthesis analyses). Derived
data and technical considerations will then be transferred into suitable modelling works. The
outcome will be evaluated and carefully extrapolated to larger spatial scales, so that we have

Requirements of energy quality and production scale for a successful implementation of

renewable energies in remote areas of Arctic and China;

Social-ecological risk assessment of renewable energies in comparison to proven

hydropower (in developing areas);

Evaluating the potential of implementing renewable energies in the rural areas of Arctic and
China; an applied use of Systems Modelling.

The rural areas of Arctic and China have been chosen as the project study site due to several
beneficial characteristics such as (1) its developing state, with poverty in remote areas alongside
with political stability and promising economical growth, (2) the long and heterogeneous
coastline with suitable conditions for tide, wave and water energy,

Tentative Project Time Plan

Following proposed time plan is made

2008: Application and approval of proposal, planning study in rural areas of Arctic and China,
contact with local collaborators
2009: Project start, comprehensive literature reviews, and field work
2010: Fieldwork, analyses of data, and writings, integration and, scientific reporting

Outline of thesis of PhD

The thesis of this PhD work as proposed will be in the form of a series of papers. The thesis is
expected to have the following format:

Chapter 1 Introduction
Chapter 2 Literature Review
Chapter 3 Methodology

4
Chapter 4 Paper 1: Technical/economic/environmental analysis of renewable energy
technologies per region type?

Chapter 5 Paper 2: The implementation strategies for the successful development and
exploitation of renewable energy system?

Chapter 6 Paper 3: How the application of renewable technologies can be increased

in rural areas of Arctic and China?

Chapter 7 Paper 4: A full life cycle assessment for different renewable energy
technologies and options in country side of Arctic and China

Chapter 8 General Discussion

Chapter 9 Recommendations

References

The Arctic Energy Summit. 2006. Action Team. Purpose. Available from:
https://www.confmanager.com/main.cfm?cid=680&nid=5585

Battelle Memorial Institute, Beijing Energy Efficiency Center and Energy Research Institute of
China, Advanced International Studies Unit (1998) China‟s Electric Power Options: An Analysis
of Economic and Environmental Costs, Final Draft.

China Government, (2000a) China‟s Agenda 21.

http://www.cei.gov.cn /cnenvir/baipishu/chnwp11.html.

China Government (2000b) The Development of New and Renewable Energies in China.
http://www.newenergy.org.cn/english/pol&plan/index.htm.

FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization. 1992. Environmental issues‟ in Energy environment
and agriculture in China. Originated by: Natural Resources Management and Environment
Department. Available from:
http://www.fao.org/docrep/T4470E/t4470e0q.htm

5
(Sample 2)

Socio-technical-ecological evaluations of the potential to implement renewable energy

sources in coastal areas of tropical developing countries – an East African case study

Background and objective

For the improvement of wealth and economic growth, developing countries generally require an
increased access to energy (Nhete 2005; World Energy Council 2005). Simultaneously, the World
suffers from a persistent energy crisis reinforced by high oil prices and the effects of global
climate change (Giles 2007). Consequently, renewable energy sources have gained an important
position in the ambition for sustainable development, both in the industrialised world and in
many developing regions, e.g. Latin America (Zuluaga & Dyner 2006) and Africa (World Energy
Council 2005). Both types of energy sources, like biomass, hydropower, or fossil fuels, and the types of
energy use, which might be small or larger scale industry, household or tourism, are determining the
kind of energy system and the associated institutional arrangements that will both be a
prerequisite for and a consequence of development. Likewise is the geographical location and
social distribution of energy sources and use important aspects.

Due to its versatility electricity is an attractive form of energy. However, the classical solution to
developing countries demand for electricity – large scale hydropower projects – has been found
to bring some less attractive consequences and rural and remote areas are often the last to gain
access to electricity. This pattern is particularly expressed in poor regions such as most of sub-
Saharan Africa. In 2001, the electrification rate in developing countries averaged 51% in rural
areas and 86% in urban areas. In sub-Saharan Africa the electrification rate was below 8% in rural
areas. (World Energy Council 2005)

The East African country Mozambique exemplifies a country with a substantial potential of
energy (mainly hydropower) but with little access to poor and remote regions resulting in an
electrification rate below 2% in rural areas (Nhete 2005). The recent Electricity Sector Reform,
which is being undertaken by the Government of Mozambique to increase the efficiency of the
electricity distribution, benefits the poor people in urban areas but does not reach rural parts of
the country (Nhete 2005). This reform, together with a population growth that shadows any
minor improvements of energy distribution (Nhete 2005), leaves remote and rural areas far from
reaching the benefits that electricity can bring in terms of energy for small scale industry, energy
for cooking, lightning and refrigeration to households and services like hospitals and schools.

Today, nearly all rural households in Eastern Africa use biomass (i.e. firewood) to fuel cooking
(World Energy Council 2005). This indoor combustion of biomass causes severe air pollution
(Nhete 2005). Moreover, the use of firewood in densely populated areas often promotes
deforestation. The benefits of electricity in these areas would impact both health and
environmental issues, in addition to productivity gains. As electricity can be used for industry and
household purposes as well as public education and health care institutions, its availability is
strictly important for economic growth. An extended electrification grid in rural areas has been
set as a key factor for increased production (Nhete 2005; World Energy Council 2005).
With the aim of regular access to electricity, local energy sources could be preferable prior to
large scale investments on a single energy source in combination with a larger distribution grid
(WGA 2004; UN-Energy 2006). In this context, and with the intentions of reducing global
climate change, the use of renewable energy sources has been suggested as a complement in

6
developing countries and in rural areas in particular (World Energy Council 2003; World Energy
Council 2005; Kaijuka 2005). In Bolivia, Paraguay and Panama, small-scale renewable energy
sources have been successfully implemented in isolated rural areas. Additionally, research based
on modelling has recently examined the incentives for renewable energy on the reformed
electricity market in Latin America (Zuluaga & Dyner 2006).

Renewable energy from weather-dependent sources (wind-power, sun, or wave power) in general
is a somewhat less reliable source than conventionally fuelled power plants because it often
depends on unpredictable weather phenomena. This complication is most pronounced in regions
where weather-dependent energy devices contribute largely to the national grid and variations in
electricity flow could cause technical problems. Despite this concern, small-scale renewable
energy devices can be very suitable for remote areas where single villages, farm production and
local factories could benefit also from varying electricity flows. To increase continuity in the
electricity flow, energy is often stored as water reserves or in other energy storage systems.
Another way of ensuring a continuous energy flow is by using more predictable sources such as
tidal power (and to some extent solar power). Further, a new prospering way of optimising an
irregular energy flow is to connect it to desalination processes, where overproduction is used to
gain fresh water from salt water, as has been shown by Koroneos et al. (2005).

The dominating renewable source in developing countries has so far been micro-hydropower, but
also wind, biomass, solar, and geothermal energy have their use (Zuluaga & Dyner 2006). On the
issue of renewable energy sources in developing areas, the output scale (installed effect given in
Watts (W)) is important. The use of “micro-scale” energy devices such as home solar systems (<
10 kW) may power household services like cooking or television, but can hardly be used to
encourage even small-scale industrial production. Energy devices of larger “small-scale”, such as
single turbines of wind, tidal or wave power, contribute to larger amounts of energy (10-500 kW)
that could be used for small-scale projects such as milling grain, pumping water and operating
minor industries.

A different kind of renewable energy is conventional hydropower. The potential of hydropower

in Africa is immense, still only about 7% is being harnessed (World Energy Council 2005). This
renewable source does not use fuel or release pollutants but often exploits vast areas of nature
and cause large-scale negative environmental and social impacts. In Mozambique the installation
of hydropower is pronounced, but poor infrastructure has left most rural areas beyond the limits
of availability (Nhete 2006).

With the potential negative impacts of hydropower along with the restricted electricity
distribution, it can be concluded that small-scale, locally adopted, renewable energy sources
would be a possible source and driver for electrification in many remote regions of the world. As
the majority of the world population live in coastal areas, and since the sea itself contains a
tremendous load of energy, offshore and coastal energy extraction is expected to contribute
substantially to the global power supply in the near future (Clément et al 2002).

7
In Europe and other IEA (International Energy Agency) countries offshore renewable energy
sources are developing and rapidly growing in use (Clément et al 2002; IEA 2007). So far,
offshore wind power has taken the lead. However, the development and assessment of small-
scale offshore or coastal renewable sources such as tidal, stream, and wave energy devices are
increasing. In its latest worldwide renewable energy forecast for the next 20 years, IEA expect a
46-folded increase of tide- and wave power production (IEA 2007). With the frequent experience
of environmental degradation in association to new or uncontrolled energy extraction, these
offshore renewable power plants has early been followed-up by environmental impact
assessments (Sorensen et al 2003; PMSS 2005; ABPmer 2006). As an example, the conventional
tidal barrages that enclose and exploit whole bays or lagoons are now giving way for
uncomplicated small-scale tidal pools and turbines able to operate with no or limited
environmental impacts (ABPmer 2006). It has not yet been assessed how such sea-based
renewable energy sources could be utilized to fit the demands of self-contained and clean energy
distribution in remote coastal developing regions. With an environmentally and socially successful
implementation of recent technology the powers of the sea could come to important local use,
contributing to local and regional development in a way not contributing to global warming.

Overall aim of the research project

The subsequent project aims at evaluating the potential for a successful implementation of
renewable energy sources in the coastal zone of tropical developing countries integrating results
from different scientific disciplines (ecology, social science and technology) into a useful support
for development policy. Its emphasis will be on remote areas where poor infrastructures raise the
demand for independent electricity supplies. Moreover, the project intends to identify key-issues
and socio-technical pathways for a future integration of suitable renewable energy sources in such
areas.

The research will be based on analyses of the relationships between technical, ecological and
social systems and focus on applying adequate technology in a socially and ecologically feasible
way. The energy sources considered will be selected from local natural flowing resources, i.e.
mainly tidal, stream, and wave energies. To a lesser extent local small-scale solar power can be
evaluated as an alternative technical solution. An adequate energy output, low-maintenance,
social-economical benefits, and low environmental impact will constitute the main guidelines
when evaluating the potential for introduction of suitable energy systems.

The development of appropriate systems modelling tools will together with environmental
assessment methods at different scales (ecological risk assessment and strategic environmental
assessment) and social science methods for studying institutional aspects and innovation systems
contribute to reaching the target of assessing the feasibility of a successful implementation.

The current application for a Sida planning grant intends to finance a field visit to East Africa
including Tanzania and Mozambique with the purpose to examine the possibilities of having
these countries as a study site for the project. The field visit includes contacts with potential
collaboration partners, along with a reconnoitre trip to rural coastal areas of Tanzania (e.g.

8
Zanzibar) and northern Mozambique where the demand for independent energy meets the
suitable natural conditions for sea-based power production.

Relation to other research

The suggested project will be a step-wise effort to combine methods from different scientific
fields, in general combining ecological, technical and social science perspectives. The
methods include:

Ecological risk assessment (see e.g. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 1998)
Strategic environmental assessment (see e.g. Therivél 2004)
Institutional description and analysis (see citations below)

With the main study being limited to implementation of renewable energy in coastal remote
areas, the development of new analysis methods will come to wider use in further social-
ecological sciences. Related works has been done on e.g. the assimilation of bio-ethanol in
Canada (Chan et al 2004), incentives for renewable energies in Latin-America (Zuluaga & Dyner
2006), and electricity planning in Uganda (Kaijuka 2005).

In recent years the social-ecological research field has enlightened the functionality of
systems modelling as a tool to evaluate energy and resource management issues in the perspective
of sustainable development (e.g. Stöglehner 2003; Chan et al 2004; Koroneos et al 2005; Janssen
& Ostrom 2006; Gurung et al 2006). In the context of Global Change, Folke & Gunderson
(2006) further address the importance of a deeper understanding in how changing social-
ecological systems play out across different temporal and spatial scales.

Also studies of technological change (Hughes 1983; Bijker et al. 1987; Law and Hassard
1999) and of the possibility to intervene into the actor-networks of technological change
(Jacobsson and Bergek 2004; Bergek et al. 2006) forms important input to the project.

Research plan
The methods used will be a combination of empirically based environmental assessments, studies
of institutions and systems modelling. Social-ecological science will constitute the main approach
but will be well framed within technical considerations derived from the actual energy devices.
The consideration of possible environmental impacts will be essential as a successful energy
extraction must not be degrading fisheries or other ecosystem services. Hydro-geographical
conditions will also be of importance as they set the possibilities for the use of energy sources like
tide and waves. In practice, empirical data will be gathered in field (sampling and interviews) and
theoretical data through literature (synthesis analyses). Derived data and technical considerations
will then be transferred into suitable modelling works. The outcome will be evaluated and
carefully extrapolated to larger spatial scales.

The suggested objectives include (with the last title as the key-outcome):

9
 Requirements of energy quality and production scale for a successful implementation of
renewable energies in remote coastal areas of East Africa;
Social-ecological risk assessment of small-scale coastal renewable energies in comparison to
proven hydropower (in developing areas);
Evaluating the potential of implementing renewable energies in the coastal zone of tropical
developing countries; an applied use of Systems Modelling.

East Africa has so far been chosen as the project study site due to several beneficial
characteristics such as (1) its developing state, with poverty in remote areas alongside with
political stability and promising economical growth, (2) the long and heterogeneous coastline
with suitable conditions for tide and wave energy, (3) the long-term Swedish bilateral presence in
the countries and Sida‟s current aim of electrification of remote areas, and (4) the project
participant‟s experience of working with research in coastal Eastern Africa.
We foresee the involvement of two doctoral students (natural/technical and social science) and
three senior researchers, with a step-wise build up of the research team beginning with this
planning application.

Tentative project time plan

With a project start in 2009, the applied scientific results will become available for Sida and other
institutions by 2011-2013, which would be at a time when the issue will, by all means, be of
immediate attention.
Feb 2007: Application for Sida planning grant
Oct 2007: Planning study in East Africa, contact with local collaborators
2008: Application for Sida Project
2009: Project start, comprehensive literature reviews, start of first doctoral student
and field work
2010: Start of second doctoral student, fieldwork, initial analyses of data,
and writings
2011: Analyses of data, writings
2012: Integration, scientific reporting
Project budget (only indicative at this stage)
2009 1 150 000 (one doctoral student)
2010 1 800 000 (two doctoral students)
2011 1 900 000 (two doctoral students)
2012 1 600 000 (two doctoral students)

Budget
Travel expenditures for 3 persons (Mozambique and Tanzania), given in SEK:

Flights (Gothenburg - Maputo return + Maputo – Dar return): 47 500

Visa (Mozambique and Tanzania): 3 000
Car hire (1 week in Mozambique, including gas and insurance): 8 000

10
Accommodation (16 d): 9 000
Expenses (vaccines, insurance etc): 6 000
Local transport (Tanzania): 1 500
Total 75 000

Time plan for planning study

May-Sep 2007: Preparations, contacts and planning
Oct 2007: 4 days of visiting collaborators in Maputo and/or Dar es Salaam
12 days field trip visiting remote areas of East Africa
Nov 2007: Compiling gathered information and preparing report to Sida

References
ABPmer (2006) The Potential Nature Conservation Impacts of Wave and Tidal Energy
Extraction by Marine Renewable Developments. Report No. 06/7, ABPmer, Southampton
Bergek A, Jacobsson S, Carlsson B, Lindmark S and Rickne A (2006). Analyzing the dynamics
and functionality of technological innovation systems: a scheme of analysis, Department of
Management and Economics, Linköping University.
Bijker WE, Hughes TP and Pinch TJ (1987). The social construction of technological systems:
new directions in the sociology and history of technology. Cambridge, Mass., MIT Press.
Chan AW, Hoffman R, McInnis B (2004) The role of Systems Modeling for Sustainable
Development Policy Analysis: the Case of Bio-Ethanol. Ecology and Society 9:6 (online)
Clément A, McCullen P, Falacao A, Fiorentino A, Gardner F, Hammarlund K, Lemonis G,
Lewis T, Nielsen K, Petroncini S, Pontes MT, Schild P, Sjöström B-O, Soerensen HC, Thorpe
T (2002) Wave Energy in Europe: current status and perspectives. Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews 6:405-431
de Boer WF, Rydberg L, Saide V (2000) Tides, tidal currents and their effects on the intertidal
ecosystem of the southern bay, Inhaca Island, Mozambique. Hydrobiologia 428:187-196
Folke C, Gunderson L (2006) Facing Global Change through Social-Ecological Research.
Ecology and Society 11:43 (online)
Giles J (2007) From words to action. Special report on climate change. Nature 445:578-579
Gurung TR, Bousquet F, Trébuil G (2006) Companion Modeling, Conflict Resolution, and
Institution Building: Sharing Irregation Water in the Lingmuteychu Watershed, Bhutan.
Ecology and Society 11:36 (online)
Hughes TP (1983). Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society 1880-1930. Baltimore,
John Hopkins University Press.
IEA (2007) Renewables in Global Energy Supply, an IEA fact sheet, International Energy
Agency, Paris
Jacobsson S and Bergek A (2004). Transforming the energy sector: the evolution of technological
systems in renewable energy technology. Industrial and corporate change 13(5): 815-849.
Janssen MA, Ostrom E (2006) Empirically Based, Agent-based models. Ecology and Society
11:37 (online)
Kaijuka E (2005) GIS and rural electricity planning in Uganda. Journal of Cleaner Production
15:203-217
Koroneos C, Dompros A, Roumbas G (2005) Renewable energy driven desalination systems
modelling. Journal of Cleaner Production 15:449-464
Law J and Hassard J (1999). Actor Network Theory and After. Oxford, UK, Blackwell
Publishers/The Sociological Review.

11
Nhete TD (2006) Electricity sector reform in Mozambique: a projection into the poverty and
social impacts. Journal of Cleaner Production 15:190-202
PMSS (2005) Wave Dragon Pre-Commercial Demonstrator - Environmental Impact Assessment
Scoping Report, Project Management Support Services Ltd, Southampton
Soerensen HC, Hansen LK, Hansen R (2003) Environmental Impact Final Report. Report No.
NNE5-1999-00438, European Thematic Network on Wave Energy, Copenhagen
Stöglehner G (2003) Ecological footprint - a tool for assessing sustainable energy supplies.
Journal of Cleaner Production 11:267-277
Therivél R (2004). Strategic Environmental Assessment in Action. UK, EarthScan.
UN-Energy (2006) Energy in the United Nations: An Overview of UN-Energy Activities, United
Nations, UN-Energy, http://esa.un.org/un-energy/Publications.htm
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1998). Guidelines for Ecological Risk Assessment.
Forum RA, US EPA: 124 + apps.
WEC (2003) Renewable energy targets - WEC Statement, World Energy Council, London
WEC (2005) Regional Energy Integration In Africa, World Energy Council, London
WGA (2004) Clean and Diversified Energy Initiative for the West. Report No. 04-14, Western
Goveners Association, Santa Fe
Zuluaga MM, Dyner I (2006) Incentives for renewable energy in reformed Latin-American
electricity markets: the Colombian case. Journal of Cleaner Production 15:153-162

12
(Sample 3)

LCA of Energy Recovery Technologies of Solid Waste Management System in Pakistan

Introduction

Waste is generated as a result of most of our daily activities (Moberg et al., 2005). Through the
20th century, solid waste management has evolved very significantly (Diaz and Warith, 2006).
Today, the debate on waste management has become paramount due to overload of human
needs and activities than the assimilative capacity of the biosphere (Marchettini et al., 2007). The
question of concern is how to take care of this waste in the most efficient way and with the least
negative impacts especially in the rapid urbanizing cities of the developing world, where the
problems and issues of solid waste management are becoming a serious threat to the human
health and environment (Zurbrugg, 2003).

To make solid waste management system sustainable, energy and resource conservation and
reduced environmental impacts are necessary to be considered (Liamsanguan and Gheewala,
2007). The European Union guidelines mentioned the reduction of the present levels of waste
generation and the increase in energy and materials recovery as important steps for the
environmentally-sound waste management system (Marchettini et al., 2007).

Nowadays, refuse is considered as a potential source through which something must be

recovered or re-used so, it is no longer considered as a „waste‟ (Dijkema et al., 2000 and
Korhonen et al., 2004). Landfill is also no longer the first choice for disposal among others
methods such as recycling, composting, incineration but a last step in waste management after all
possible material and energy recovery . Electricity and heat is produced from the recovered
biogas from landfill. To reduce waste mass, incinerators were used initially but nowadays energy
is recovered from incinerators. From a mass view point of material recycling, composting
represents the most important system (Marchettini et al., 2007).

The environmental and sanitary conditions of developing countries are becoming serious year by
year and people are forced to live in such conditions due to poverty. Regardless of the size of the
city the collection, transportation and disposal or dumping is insufficient and improper.
Regarding solid waste management, the scope of problems is very wide and it involves others
aspects to be considered directly or indirectly. These include, rate of urbanization, pattern and
density of urban areas, physical planning and control of development, physical composition of
waste etc.

To identify the overall environmental burdens and to assess the potential environmental impacts,
the life cycle assessment (LCA) is successfully applied to solid waste management systems
(Harrison et al., 2000). This remained also helpful for comparing the environmental performance
of different scenarios for the management of mixed solid waste (Denison, 1996; Finnveden et a.,
2000; Arena et al., Chaya and Gheewala, 2006; wanichpongan and Gheewala, 2006). With the
help of this tool, the solid waste management system is evaluated based on a system wide or life
cycle perspective, so this provides a system that recovers energy from incineration, landfill and
composting (Liamsanguan and Gheewala, 2007).

13
Background

In Pakistan, it is estimated that 54,888 tons of solid waste is generated per day (EPA, 2007), while
it is 0.6 to 0.8 kg /capita/ day. The growth rate of waste-generation is 2.4% (WWF, 2001). There
is a big difference between solid waste generation and the amounts reaching at final disposal sites.
Only 51-69% waste is collected of the total waste generated (EPA, 2007) and around 40% of the
generated waste remains in streets or collection points (WWF, 2001). Much of the collected waste
finds its way in dumping grounds, open pits, ponds, rivers and agricultural land because of the
lack of adequate disposal sites. As the urbanization and industrialization increase, the
environmental degradation also advances which is causing economic losses (EPA, 2005).

No weighing facilities are currently present at disposal sites. There is no waste sampling and
analysis practice carrying out. At various steps of existing solid waste management, the
scavengers play an important role as they separate recyclables (EPA, 2007). Presently, food waste
represents 8.4 % to 21% of the total collected waste. 10.2% to 15.6% waste is composed of
leaves, grass, straw, fodder while, recyclables materials represent 13.6% to 23% of the total
fraction of waste.

Industrial and hospital waste is treated as an ordinary waste. Air is polluting due to open burning
of waste especially non-degradable components like plastic bags (EPA, 2007). The public health
is being degraded due to clogging of drains, formation of stagnant ponds, which provide breeding
ground for mosquitoes and flies with consequent risks of malaria and cholera (EPA, 2005).

The problem

The handling of solid waste in Pakistan lacks „energy recovery‟ principle. The energy potential of
generated waste is being distributing and circulating in the environment in an un-useful way. The
problem is the non-recovery of energy in the form of electricity, bio-gas and fertilizers from
waste. So, these energy contents are releasing into the air (toxic gases) due to open dumping and
open burning and into the ground water (water contamination) due to non-sanitary landfill.

Socio-economic and environmental impacts are resulting due to current practices of treating solid
waste. The economic development and the health and well-being of Pakistan‟s population are
closely linked with improved environmental management and protection. According to recent
study by Batool et al (2006) in Lahore (city of Pakistan) have found that if the recycling practices
are adopted as an industry, they can generate a revenue of Rs. 530 million (US$ 8.8) million per
year with the saving of enormous amounts of energy and natural resources. Resource
conservation, creation of jobs, provisions of economic opportunities and reduction in the
impacts of waste disposal are the various benefits that can be created if energy recovery and
resource conservation are considered.

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Aims

The aim of this research is to make a detailed assessment and evaluation study of different solid
waste management technologies such as recycling, composting, incineration etc with respect to
their potential of energy recovery, the environmental impacts and economy. This will help to
develop an integrated solid waste management system of Pakistan that will be environmentally
effective, economic affordable and social acceptable. This will further ensure the quality of life
now and for coming generations. This can be achieved by doing the following things

 To evaluate the socio-economic-ecological potential to implement the energy recovery

principle in different solid waste management technologies.
 Based on above mentioned evaluation, to identify the most energy efficient, most cost
effective and least polluting waste management option from a system perspective
 To identify the different actors, their role and participation in policy and decision making
process in solid waste sector.
 To develop life cycle assessment for different waste management methods and
procedures in terms of energy recovery, the environmental impacts and economy

Research questions

Following questions are made to meet up the above mentioned aims.

 What are the findings of already conducted studies by the developed world societies
about the physical and chemical properties of different kinds of generated and collected
waste and their energy potential in terms of caloric values against the reality of big cities
of Pakistan like, Karachi and Lahore?

 What are socio-economic and environmental problems associated with solid waste system
and their link with the presence and absence of energy recovery and resource
conservation principle?

 What are the different ground realities (e.g. conflicting interests of different actors)
important to be considered in finding of the most feasible waste management option?

 What policies or strategies are necessary to develop or improve to make integrated solid
waste management system?

 What are the different sustainability indicators necessary for consideration to make this
sector sustainable?

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Significance

This research will be a milestone for different stakeholders, policy makers and decision makers at
national and international levels who are or will be interested to develop different waste
management technologies in Pakistan because, this will provide them a complete feasibility
assessment of different waste management options with respect to energy recovery, the
environmental impacts and economy and will also tell what is possible to implement in the
presence of different conflicting interests.

In the long run, this research will be helpful for municipalities if the energy recovery and resource
conservation principle would consider in solid waste management system because;

 Waste management practices will be optimized.

 Disposal options with new recovery for managing particular material and material streams
will be examined.
 As a result of integrated and optimized waste management, the benefits such as resource
conservation, creation of jobs, provisions of economic opportunities and reduction in the
impacts of waste disposal will be realized.
 Environmental assessment reports on the „state of environment‟ will be prepared.

Relation to other research

Following research is being carried out in the sector of solid waste management system of
Pakistan for different purposes.

 Integrated solid waste management project (ISWM) is being carried out by WWF. The
purpose of this project is to build the capacity of relevant stakeholders regarding the
ecologically safe management of domestic and hospital waste. This research will help to
understand about the involvement of different stakeholders in waste management and
their role and attitude towards the ecologically safe management of this sector.

 Technical cooperation for capacity building for solid waste management agreement is
signed by Japan and Pakistan on 18th August, 2006. The purpose of this is to strengthen
the local government in formulation of community based solid waste management action
plans; their implementation and evaluation according to the guidelines. A (Draft)
Guideline for Solid Waste Management is published by the joint venture of PEPA, JICA
and UNDP in June 2005. This research and the published draft will assist in formulation
of policies or strategies that are for integrated solid waste management system. This will
also help to identify different sustainability indicators for this sector.

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Approach and Methodology

Empirical based environmental assessments, studies of institutions and system modelling will be
carried out as methods. The main approach will be constituted by the socio-economic-ecological
science. Through sampling and interviews, empirical data will be gathered and compared with the
already available data and information, while the synthesis analysis (literature) will be carried out
to get the theoretical data. The technical considerations and derived data with the help of LCA
will be transferred into suitable modelling works.

LCA will a major helping tool to achieve the aims of this research. It is used to evaluate the
performance of different MSW management systems. According to UNEP (2003), to document
the environmental considerations those are needed for decision making process towards
sustainability, LCA is an important tool.

Different solid waste management system scenarios will be developed and compared by using the
life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology. The processes such as collection of wastes, source
reduction, material recovery facility (MRF), transfer stations (TS), incineration, anaerobic
digestion and land filling will be considered in these scenarios.

The environmental impacts will be quantified with the weighing factors of each category to
develop the environmental profiles of each scenario. The source reduction scenario will be
preferred. They will be evaluated on the basis of their water emission, air emission, final solid
waste produced, energy consumption and economics.

By the assessment of scenarios, the comparison of different technologies of the waste

management system of Pakistan will be carried out, so that the most energy efficient, cost
effective and least polluting waste management option could be achieved.

According to ISO (1997), four different phases of LCA will be performed in an iterative manner.
They are 1) goal and scope definition, life cycle inventory analysis, life cycle impact assessment
are finally the interpretation using results from all three previous steps. In impact assessment
phase, the contents necessary for consideration are selection of impacts categories, indicators and
models, classification, characterization and weighting.

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