Science of Materials

MTK 3A11

Steelmaking
Fabrication & Steel Products
Budinski Chapter 12
Study Unit 1

Dr JJ Pretorius
Feb 2011
Study division goals

The aim of this study division is to develop

• Insight into South Africa's role in global metal
production
• An understanding of how steels are made
• A knowledge of the steel products that are
commercially available
• An understanding of steel terminology and steel
specification procedures

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Study unit goals

Having completed study unit 1 you should be

able to
• Describe the process of fabricating steel and the
workings of a typical steel mill
• Discuss the processes involved in steel refining
• List the steel products that are commercially
available
• Define certain steel terminology and specifications

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SA mineral production

SA has the world largest turnover resources of platinum-group- metals

(87,7 % of world total), manganese (80 %), chromium (72,4 %), gold
(40 %) and alumina-silicates.

SA accounts for over 40 % of the global production of :

– ferrochromium,
– PGMs
– vanadium

SA is the world’s leading producer of chrome ore, gold, vermiculite and

alumino-silicates, and among the top three producers of manganese
ore, titanium minerals and fluorspar.

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Chromium

- Corrosion and oxidation

resistance
- Mild hardenability agent
- Improves wear resistance
- Promotes the retention of useful
strength levels at elevated
temperatures
-Chromium is an irreplaceable
constituent in all stainless steels
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Manganese

- Desulfuriser and deoxidiser

- Most prevalent alloying agent in steels, after
carbon
- Flat rolled carbon and HSLA steels contain
up to 2% Mn for microstructural refinement
- Manganese may be substituted for part of
the nickel content in austenitic SS
- Tool and die steels rely on manganese for
deep hardening
- Farm equipment – Plough

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Vanadium

Approximately 80% of
vanadium produced is
used as ferrovanadium
or as a steel additive
- specialty stainless
steel, e.g. for use in
surgical instruments and
tools
- rust resistant and high
speed tool steels
- mixed with aluminium in
titanium alloys used in jet
engines and high-speed
airframes
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 Fluorspar (Fluorite)

fluorspar Metallurgical grade

- flux to lower melting point of
raw materials in steel
production
- aid the removal of impurities
- aluminium production
Ceramic grade fluorite
- manufacture of opalescent
glass, enamels and cooking
utensils.
Acid grade fluorite
- hydrofluoric acid by
decomposing the fluorite with
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sulphuric acid.
8
Vermiculite

High-temperature insulation
Refractory insulation
Fireproofing

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MTK 3A 11 Steel Making Budinski Ch9 10
SOUTH AFRICA’S MINERAL PRODUCTION
AND SALES

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SA mineral production

• Witwatersrand Basin - 98 % of South Africa’s gold output ( as well as

uranium, silver, pyrite)
• Bushveld Complex – PGM’s; copper, nickel and cobalt mineralisation;
chromium and vanadium bearing titanium iron ore formations
• Transvaal Supergroup - manganese and iron ore
• Karoo Basin (extending through Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, Free
State and Limpopo) - bituminous coal and anthracite resources
• Phalaborwa Complex - copper, phosphate, titanium, vermiculite,
feldspar and zirconium ores
• Kimberlite pipes - diamonds
• Northern Cape - lead-zinc ores associated with copper and silver
• Heavy mineral sands - ilmenite, rutile and zircon;
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Pyrite – Fools gold

Pyrite is used
commercially for the
production of sulfur
dioxide, for use in
such applications as
the paper industry,
and in the
manufacture of
sulphuric acid, though
such applications are
declining in
importance. It is also
used for costume
jewellery.
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Bushveld Igneous Complex

The Bushveld Igneous Complex (or BIC) is a large igneous

intrusion within the Earth's crust which has been tilted and
eroded and now outcrops around what appears to be the edge
of a great geological basin. Located in South Africa, the BIC
contains some of the richest ore deposits on Earth
The BIC extends over 66 000 km2
The largest known deposit of platinum group metals (PGMs)
platinum, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium, osmium and iridium
are recovered, as well as small amounts of gold, nickel, copper
and cobalt.
Largest resources of chromium and vanadium in the world

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Bushveld Igneous Complex

Layering in the
Main Zone, eastern
Bushveld Complex.

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Steelmaking

Video clip
Steelmaking Introduction

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Steelmaking

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Sishen iron ore mine

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Hematite (Fe2O3)

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Steelmaking

Video clip
Iron making

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Iron ore

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Blast furnace

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Steelmaking

Video clip
Blast furnace

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Blast furnace diagram

1. Hot blast
2. Melting zone (bosh)
3. Reduction zone of ferrous
oxide (barrel)
4. Reduction zone of ferric
oxide (stack)
5. Pre-heating zone (throat)
6. Feed of ore, limestone,
and coke
7. Exhaust gases
8. Column of ore, coke and
limestone
9. Removal of slag
10. Tapping of molten pig
iron
11. Collection of waste gases

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Blast furnace process

• Coke → Volatile constituents of coal are driven off

by baking in an airless oven at 2000 °C
• Charge → iron-bearing materials, coke, and flux
• The charge is introduced into the furnace at the
top
• Blasts of heated air are injected into the furnace
through openings at the bottom of the shaft

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Blast furnace process

• As the hot air encounters the coke, the coke is burned

along with the injected fuels, producing the necessary heat
and reducing gas to remove oxygen from the ore in the
reduction process
• Carbon in the gas combines with oxygen in the ore
• As the iron melts, it descends and accumulates in the
crucible
• → Molten pig iron (±5%C) and slag are drained from the
crucible through different tapping holes
• The gas that exits from the top of the furnace goes through
a cleaning process
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Direct reduction process

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Direct reduction process

Iron ore, coal and oxygen are reacted in a single

melting vessel → steel
Steel → an alloy of iron and a restricted amount of
carbon
C < 0.005% is considered pure iron
C > 0.06% lower limit commercial steel
C > 2.00% cast iron
More C → brittle
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Direct reduction process

Fig 9-1
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Steel refining

Turning pig iron into steel

• Basic oxygen furnace (BOF)
• Electric arc furnace (EAF)
Integrated steel mill
• At least one blast furnace
• A coke plant
• Various steel-refining processes
• A number of product lines
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MTK 3A 11 Steel Making Budinski Ch9 34
Basic oxygen furnace (BOF)

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Basic oxygen steelmaking

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Basic oxygen steelmaking

• The oxygen steelmaking process converts the molten iron

from the blast furnace - with up to 30% steel scrap - into
refined steel
• High purity oxygen lance is brought in/blown in
• lower carbon, silicon, manganese, and phosphorous
content of the iron, while various fluxes are used to reduce
the sulphur and phosphorous levels.
• The impurities and a small amount of oxidized iron are
carried off in the molten slag that floats on the surface of
the hot metal

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Electric arc furnace (EAF)

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Electric arc furnace (EAF)

• Used to reduce iron from iron ore

• Heat is generated from an electric arc between the melt
and electrodes (graphite)
• Oxygen is blown into the furnace, and lime and other
materials are added to combine with the impurities and
form slag
• Molten iron is extracted and poured out via a tapping spout
• Can then be processed again in an electric arc furnace to
make steel (special quality steel)

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Secondary Steelmaking

Speciality steels → alter chemical composition

→ reduce non-metallic inclusions

• Vacuum degassing
• Ladle stirring injection
• Ladle furnace heating

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Special refining processes

VAR – Super alloys

VIM – Specialty Alloys
EBR – To purify specialty alloys
ESR – Tool steel and special purpose steels

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Steelmaking

Video clip
BOS

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Concast

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Continuous casting (concast)

Refinement of the casting process for the continuous, high-

volume production of metal sections with a constant cross-
section
• Molten metal is poured through a graphite mould/cast
• Cooled
• The withdrawing rollers draw the solidified rod from the
mould at a continuous rate and pass it through additional
cooling and finally cross cutting
• Improved mechanical properties of parts produced
• Lower cost of operation for larger runs
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Concast

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Stand casting process and shapes
produced

Fig 9-10
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Steelmaking

Video clip
ConCast

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Processing of refined steel into
products

Fig 9-12
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Converting steel into shapes

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Standard shapes

W-Shape Rail C-Shape

S-Shape T-Shape

L-Shape Square & rectangular

tubing

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Steelmaking

Video clip
Hot Rolling

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Steelmaking

Video clip
Cold Rolling

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Hot and cold finishing

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On your own

Steel terminology
• Familiarise yourself with the terms used to
describe mill processing operations
Steel specifications
• Regardless of the identification system used,
essential items need to be addressed in
purchasing a steel. Discuss these characteristics

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Next: Failure Analysis
Fracture mechanics