f

DESIGN OF
PROCESS EQUIPMENT
SELECTED TOPICS

KANTI K. MAHAJAN P' E.

SECOND EDITTON

PRESSURE VESSEL HANDBOOK

PUBUSHING, INC.
P.O. Box 35355 Tulsa, OK 74153
 t)tist(iN otr t,tt(x'tiss tiQUt pMtiNT,
Scc() (l Ir.(lilion

ERRATA
PREFACE

Page 27 'fhc design of process equipment such as shell-and-tube heat ex-

Fig. 11 the illegible word should read: Grooves rlrlrrgcrs, pressure vessels and storage tanks requires a familiarity with a
virr icty of sources of design data and procedures. The purpose ofthis book
Page 88 i$ to oonsolidate the scattered literature and present the material in simpli-
reference at the bottom should read; *See note on page lro(l li)rm so that it can be easily applied to design problems. Typical ex-
90
irrrrplcs have been included to illustrate the application of the relationships
Page 113, 1 t5, 117 and 129 rrrrtl procedures presented in the text. Therefore, the designer should find
Equations should read: tlris book to be a convenient and useful rcference.
This book is based upon the author's several years of design exper-
d=te+t p=14/ te+l ic ceand extensive researchinto previously published literature. The topics
l)r'cscnted were selected based upon t}le problems most frequently en-
Page I 19
crountered by the author.
Equation #2 should read:
Every effort has been made to eliminate effors during the develop-
0r0r1t of this book. However, should any euors be noted, the reader is en-
M^".:^sn#-zpt u oouraged to bring them to the attention of the author. In addition any
comments or questions related to the topics within this book are invited
Page 125 l)y the author. Neither the author nor the publisher, however, can assume
Equation should read: tcsponsibility for the results of designers using values or procedures con-
tained in this book since so many variables affect every design.
IMY The author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to Frank R.
V S,; llollig for editorial work and to Eugene F. Megyesy for his help in prepar-
ing this book for publication.
The author also wishes to express his appreciation to the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, Gulf Publishing Company, Chemical En-
gineering, The James F. Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation, Institution of
Mechanical Engineers, The Intemational Conference of Building Officials,
Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, Inc., Eneryy Products
Group, Chemical Engineering Progress, McGraw-Hill Book Company and
to other publishers who generously permitted the author to include mater-
ial from their Dublications.

Kanti K. Mahajan

Printed in the United States of America

 PREFACE
to the Second Edition

ln this second edition several new topics have been incorpo-

fatcd. The additions are as follows:
Solved examples have been included for design of major
components in the chaptet of Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers'
Chapter on Flange Deslgn has been expanded to cover design of
llanges with full face gaskets.
A new chapter, entitled Air Cooled Heat Exchangers has been
irrcluded in three parts. It covers fully the design method of Air
(ixrlers.
At the request of users of the first edition sevenAppendices have
bccn added to Dresent the derivation of various formulas.
Chapter on Deslg n of Tall Stacks has been enlarged and rewrit-
fcn under the title: Mechanical Design of Self-Supported Steel Stacks.
lt covers more detailed design methods of wide variety of stacks.
And finally, two chapters: Vessel Codes of Various Countries
antl Equivalent Materials ofVarious Countries havebeen deleted due
to the lack of information necessary for updating the data of those
( llapters.
The author wishes to acknowledge the assistance of those, who
carefully checked the material of the first edition and called hrs
irttcntion to errors and omissions.

Kanti K. Mahajan
 CONTENTS

l, Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers ... .... .. .. 9

2, Flange Design ....... ....... 59
3, Rotauon of Hub Flhnges . . . ...........133
4. Stress Analysis of Floating Heads . .......t47
5, Fixed Tubeslreet DesUn. . . . .... .......161
6. Flanged and Flued Expansion Joints . . . . . .159
7. Pipe Segment Expansion foints. .... .....185
E, Vertical Vessels Supported bylugs.. . . . . . . . . . . . . .195
9, Vertical Vessel l-eg DeslSn . ..... .......207
10. ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 2 and Its Comparison to
Division 1.. ................ .227
ll. Mechanical Design of Self-supported Steel Stacks . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

*,y 12. Vibration Analysis of Tbll Tbwers . . . . . . . . . . .......259

.' > [3. Design of Rectangular 'Ibnks - . : . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .267

14. Air Cooled Heat Exchangers

Part A Co4structional Details.. .... ..,281 .
-
Part B Header Box Design.... ,....,...290
-
Fdrt C Coverplate and Flange Design For Header 3s1 . . . . . .302
-

Appendix I- Derivation of ASME code formulas for shell and head

thicknesses of cylindrical vessels for intemal pressure 313
Appendix 2 Derivation of fornulas for checking thicloess€s at vari-
- ous levels of vertical vessels. . . . . . . . . , . . . .317
Appcndix 3 Dcriv$tion of formulas for anchor boh chair dcsign for
- larSe ve ical vessels .. . .. . . . . .321
Appendix 4 Derivation of TEMA equation for non-fixed tubesheet
- thickness or ASME equation for flat unstayed circular
heads in bending ......327
Appendix 5 Derivation of TEMA equation for pressure due to differ-
-
Appendix 6
-
ential thermal expansion for lixed tubesheets . .. .. .333
Derivation of TEMA equation for flat channel cover I
thickness . ...............337
Appendix 7 Derivation of formulas for calculating allowable buckling
- stress in tall cylindrical towers... ......341 SHELL-AND.TUBf, HEAT EXCHANGERS

lntroduction

A heat exchanger is a device used to transfer heat from one fluid

to another. This type of equipment is mostly used in petroehemical
plants and petroleum refineries. Proper selection of such equipment
cannot only minimize the initial plant cost but can also reduce the daily
operating and maintenance costs' The project or process engineer
does not have to be familiar with the complete design aspects since
these exchangers are generally designed by the manufacturer'
The project or process engineer, however, must understand the
methods ol designing and labricating heat exchangers in order to obtain
the best suited unit liom the manulacturer. By knowing these methods,
he can cooperate more closely with the manulacturer and this can save
them both time and money in exchanger applications.
Several types ol heat exchangers are available but only lhe major
types along with their design leatures will be discussed in this chapter.

Applications of Heat Exchangers

Heat exchangers are used in a wide variety of applications ln

petrochemicai plants and petroleum relineries. The functions of the
major types are:'

Chiller
The chiller cools a process stream by evaporating a rel'rigerant. lt ls
tusually employed where required process temperatures are lower than
those attainable with cooling waler.
 .s'

I)tist(;N ()tr t,tr,(x:liss li(?tI ,MLiN I' SHELL-AND.TUBE HTJAT IjXCHANCERS

(irudcnscr Sterm Generator

l'hc condenser condenses vapors by rcmoving heat to cooling water, The steam generator generates st€am lbr use elsewhere in th€ plant by
atmospheric air or other media. using high level heat from any available Iuel.
Superheatel
Partial Condenser
The superheater heats a vapor above the saturation or condensation
The partial condenser condenses vapors at a point high enough to
provide a temperature dillerence great enough to preheat a cold stream temPerature.
oi process Uuid. lt saves heat and eliminates the need lbr providing a !hporizer
separate preheater using a Iurnace or steam.
The vaporizer is a heater which vaporizes part of the liquid led to it'
Final Condenser Wast€ Heat Boilel

The linal condenser condenses vapors to a linal storage temperature ol
around l00oF. It generally uses water cooling which means that the
translerred heat is lost to the process.
Cooler
The cooler cools process streams by removing heat to cooling water,
atmospheric air or other media.
Exchanger
The exchanger exchanges heat from a hot to a cold process stream.
The waste heat boiler produces steam and is similar to a steam
generator'
except that the heating medium is a hot waste gas or hot liquid by-
product produced within the plant.
To perform these applications, many types of heat exchangers are
available. However, their design and materials of construction must be
suitable for the desired operating conditions. The selection of mat€rials
of construction is mainly influenced by the operating temPerature, and
the corrosive nature of the fluid being handled. In each case seleclion
must be both economical and practical.

Heat€r CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT EXCHANGERS

The heater heats a process stream by condensing steam.
Reboiler
The reboiler connects to the bottom of a distillation column to boil
bottoms liquids and supply heat to the column. The heating media can
be steam, hot water or hot process stream.
Thermosiphon Reboiler
With the thermosiphon r€boiler the natural circulation ol the boiling
medium is obtained by maintaining sufficient liquid head to provide lbr
circulation of the fluid material.
Forced Circulation Reboiler
The lbrced circulation reboiler uses a pump to lorcc liquid through thc
reboiler ol a distillation column.
The classification oI heat exchangers is primarily defined by their
type of construction of which the most common is the shell-and-tube
type. Shell-and-tube heat exchangers are built of round tubes mounted
in cylindrical shells with their axis parallel to that ofthe shell. These have
extreme versatility in thermal design, and can be built in practically any
size or length. Tbe majority ofliquid-toJiquid heat exchangers fall in this
typ€ of construction. These are employed as heaters or coolers for a
vaiiety of applications that include oil coolers in power plants and the
process heat exchangers in the petroleum refining and chemical
industries. This type of construction is also well suited to special
applications in which the heat exchanger must be made ofglass toresist
the attack of highly corrosive liquid, to avoid alfecting the flavor offood
products, or the like. Figure I shows some of the various kinds of most
iommonly used shell-and+ube heat exchangers.2
The general construction features of common shell-and-tube type
exchangers as well as the nomenclature involved is illustrated in Figure
.r2

t0
tl
 w,

l)lisl(;N ( )l; Pl..(x:liss IIQLJIPMUN't SHELL.AND.TUEE HI]AI' TJXCHANCERS

F igurc 2 shows sections ol typical exchangers. The tube bundle is STIELL TYPES
made up of tubes, tub€sh€ets and cross baflles. The channel at the front
ti
end of the exchanger serves as a header to feed the fluid into the tubes.
The tloating head at the back end ofthe tube bundle is the return header.
It moves freely with the thermal expansion of the tubes in the bundle.
The shell unit is essentially a cylinder with a bolting flange at each
end. The channel bolts to th€ front flange, and the shell cover bolts to the ONE PASS SHELL SPLIT FLOW
rear flange. Figure 2 also shows some ofthe variations available in shell-
H
and-tub€ designs. Each variation has certain advantages, and also has
some disadvantages. The major types of shell-and-tube heat exchang€rs
depending on their mechanical conliguration are discussed below.r

FRONT END STATIONARY HEAD TYPES TWO PASS SHELL

WITH LONGITUDINAL BAFFLE DOUBLE SPLIT FLOW
N
m K
nr--l----n
LfLr_____ilJ
DIVIDED FLOW

X
CHANNEL
AND REMOVABLE COVER
KETTLE TYPE REBOILER
cRoss FLow
CHANNEL INTEGRAL WTTH TUBE-
SHEET AND REMOVABLE COVER REAR END HEAD TYPES

BONNET (INTEGRAL COVER)

I
FIXED TUBESHEET FLOATING HEAD
LIKE "A'' STATIONARY HEAD WTTH BACKING DEVICE

M T

FIXED TUBESHEET
SPECIAL HIGH PRESSURE CLOSURE PULL THROUGH FLOATING HEAD
CHANNEL INTEGRAL WITH TUBE_ LtKE "B" STATIONARY HEAD
SHEET AND REMOVABLE COVER
FIG.r. SHELL-AND-TUBE HEAT EXcHANGERS (Continued)
FIG.T. SHELL.AND-TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS
(Courtesy of Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Asociation.)
(Courresy of Tubular Exchanger Manlfacturers A$ociation-)

t2 IJ
 l)l1Sl(;N ()lr Pl{()(:liSS l;(.1(,IPMtiN I' SHELL.AND.TUBI] HI.IA'I' IIX(IIIAN(iIJRS

N U

FIXED TUBESHEET
LIKE "N" STATIONARY HEAD U_iUBE BUNDLE

EXTERNALLY SEALED
OUTSIDE PACKED FLOATING HEAD
FLOATING TUBESHEET
FIG.I. SHELL-AND.TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS (CONtiNUEd)

NOMENCLATURE OF HEAT EXCHANCER COMPONENTS

l. Stationary Head-Channel 20. Slip-on Backing Flange

2. Stationary Head-Bonnet 21. Floating Head Cover-External
3. Stationary Head Flange-Channel or 22. Floatine Tubesheet Skirt
Bonnet 23. Packing Box
4. Channel Cover 24. Packrr'g
5. Stationary Head Nozzle 25. Packing Gland
6. Stationary Tubesheet 26. kntern Ring
7. Tubes 27. Tierods and Spacers
8. Shell 28. Transverse Baffles or Suppod Plates
9. Shell Cover 29. Impingement Plate
10. Shell Flange-Stationary Head End 30. Longitudinal Baffle
11. Shell Flange-Rear Head End 31. Pass Partition
12. Shell Nozzle 32. Vent Connection
13. Shell Cover Flange 33. Drain Connection
14. Expansion Joint 34. Instrument Connection
15. Floating Tubesheet 35. Support Saddle
16. Floating Head Cover 36. Lifting Lug
17. Floating Head Flange 37. Support Bracket
18. Floating Head Backing Device 38. Weir AJW
19. Split Shear Ring 39. Liquid I-evel Connection

FIG.2. HEAT EXCHANCER CONSTRUCTION TYPES

(Courtesy of Tubular Exchanaer Manufacturers Association.)
(Courtesy of Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association.)

14 t5
 I)l1lil(;N ()lr l'R(X:liSS li(.ltllPMliN f s Iil,t.-ANl) t.u$ti I.:A,f |]X( t tAN(il,RS

l.'ixed-'l'ubeshcca l.loul llxchangeni

F ixcd-tubcshecl oxcbatrgcrs ilrc [scd n]()rc (ttcn thatr r)y otllcf lyltc.
-fhcy have stlaight tubes sccured at botlt
onds in tubcshccts wcldcd to
the shell. Usually, the tubesheets extend beyond the shell and scrve ers
llanges lbr bolting tubeside headers. This construction requires t hat shcll
and tubesheet materials must be weldable to each other.
_ Because are no gasketed joints on the shellside, fixed_
-there
lgbesheet exchangers provide maxrmum protection against leakage of
5Sellside fluid to the outside. Since clearance betwe; th; oui..rn.r,
lgbes and the shell is only the minimum required for fabrication, tubes
may completely fill the exchanger shell. However, this type has
CFU lirnitations such as: (a) the shell side cannor be mechanically cleaned or
inspected, and (bl t hereis no provision for dillerential therrnut
ot rne ruDes and the shell. An expansionjoint may be installed in "iounrron
ihe shell
1e provide lbr difl'erential thermal expansion, but this req;ir;;;;retul
design and high quality fabrication, which for large sizes."rufi.,n o
substantial cost increase. Tubeside headers, channel covers, gaskets erc.,
are accessible lbr maintenance and replacement, and tu-bes can be
replaced.and cleaned internally. The shellside can be cleaned onll oy
6sckwashing or circulating a cleaning fluid.
Fixed-tubesheet exchangers tjnd use primarily in
_. services where the
56ellside fluids are nonfouling, such as steam, refrigerants, gases, certain
heat transfer nuids, some cooling waters and clean process streams.

g-Tube Heat Exchangers

In this type, both ends of U-shaped tubes are fastened to a single

stationary tube-sheet, thus eliminating the problem ot aifiereitiat
llermal expansion because the tubes are free to expand unJ
The tube bundle can be removed from the heat ixchanger "o"i.u",.
shell foi
inspectron and cleaning or replacement.
The U-tube bundles provide aboul the same minimum
clearance
between the outermost tubes and the inside ofthe shell as fixed_tubesheet
exchangers. The number of tube holes in the tubesheet for anv sivcn
5hell, however, is less than for the fixed_tubesheet kind becau,ie of
lirnitations on bending tubes. The number of tubeside passes must
always be an even number, the maximum is limited only by ft" nu.U".
of return bends.
. Tubeside headers, channels, gaskets etc., are accessible lbr
maintenance and replacement. BundG tube replacement i" ifr"
AKT rows presents no problems. Tlrc others can be replaced only when "r,rt"
sDeclal
FIG.2. HEAT EXCHANCER CONSTRUCTION TYPES tube supports are used, which allow the U _ tu bes to be spread apart so
as
(Courtesy of Tubular Exchanger Manufactuiers Association,)
16 l'1
 l)llsl(;N olr Pl{(x)liss [(lulPMtiN'l'
to gain acccss to tubcs insi<lc thc bundlc The insidc of thc tubcs may be
cleaned only with special tools and then only when the bending radius of
the tubes is fairly generous. Because of this, U{ube exchangers are
usually found in non-fouling service, or where chemical cleaning s
effective. This construction is widely used for high-pressure applications'
Floating-Head TyPe Exchangers
The floating-head type exchanger is generally preferred in the petroleum
industry because both the tube and shell sides may be inspected and
mechanically cleaned. Also the floating head is free to move, thus
compensating for any di{ferential expansion between tubes and shell
without costly expansion joint provisions. This type is qulte expensrve'
The basic variations are:
Outside-Packed Stuffing Box Fig. 3(a)
In this type, shellside 0uid is sealed by rings of packing compr€ssed
within a stufling box by a packing'follower ring. The packing allows the
floating tubesheet to move back and forth. Since the stufling box only
contacts sh€llside fluid, shellside and tubeside fluids do not mix, should
leakage occur through the packing. The number of tubeside passes rs
limited only by the number of tubes in the bundle Since the outer tube
Iimit approaches the inside of the floating tubesheet skirt, clearances
between outermost tubes and shell are dictat€d by skirt thickness'
Used for shellside services up to 600 psi. and 600"F, these
exchangers are not applicable when leakage of the shellside fluid to the
outside cannot be tolerated.
Outside-Packed Lantern Ring Fig. 3(b)
rinls of
Here. the shellside and tubeside fluids are each sealed by separate
packings (or O-rings) separated by a lant€rn ring provided with weep
iroles, so that leakage through either packing will be to the outside The
width of the tubesheet must be suflicient to allow for the two packings,
the lantern ring and for differential thermal expansion A small skirt is
sometimes attached to the floating tubesheet to provide bearing surface
for packings and lantern ring.
Since there can be no partition at the floating end' the number of
tubeside passes is limited to one or two. Slightly larger than required for
U-tube eichangers, the clearance between the outermost tubes and the
inside of the shell must prevent tub€-hole distortion during tube rolling
ncar the outside edge of th€ tubesheet.
l8
SHELL-AND.TUBE HEAT EXCHANOERS
Outside-packcd, lantern ring units are generally limited to 150 pst.
and 500 F. This construction cannot be used when leakage ofeither fluid
to the outside is not acceptable, or when possible mixing oftubeside and
shellside fluids cannot be tolerated.
Pull-Through Bundle Fig. 3(c)
This type ofexchanger has a separate head bolted directly to the floating
tubeshiet. Both lhe assembled tubesh€et and head are small enough to
slide through the shell, and the tube bundle can be removed without
breaking anyjoints at the floating €nd. Although this feature can reduce
shellside mainlenance, it increases tubeside maintenance. Clearance
requirements (the largest for any typ€ of shell-and'tube exchanger)
beiween the outermost tubes and the inside ofthe shell must provide for
both the gasket and the bolting at the floating tubeshe€t.
The number of tubeside passes is limited only by the numb€r of
tubes. With an odd number of passes, a nozzle must extend from the
floating-head coYer through the shell cover. Provision for both
dilferential thermal expansion and tube-bundle removal must be made
by such methods as packed joints or internal bellows. Since this type of
exchanger requires an internal gasket between the floating tubesheet and
its head, applications are usually restricted to services where never
visible failures of the internal gasket are not intolerable.
Inside Split Backing-Ring Fig. 3(d)
In this design, the floating cover is secured against the floating tubesheet
by bolting to a strong, well-secured split backing-ring This closure,
located beyond the end of the shell, is enclosed by a shell cover of large
diameter. Shell cover, split backing-ring and floating-head cover must be
removed [or the tube bundle to slide through the shell.
Clearances between the outermost tubes and the inside of the shell
(which are about the same as those lbr outside-packed stulling box
exchangers) approach the inside diameter of the gasket at the lloating
tubesheet. This type of construction has the same limitation on the
number of tubeside passes as the pull-through bundle, but is more
suitable lbr higher shellside temperatures and pressures
19
t)lisl(;N ( )1, l,l((x:l.ss liQt,lPMIN'l SItIil,I,-ANI).TUBL I It]AT EXCHANCERS

FABRICATION OF SHELL-AND-TUBE
HEAT EXCHANGERS

Standards
J The TEMA'? (Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association) has

1& published detailed standards for the design and construction of.shell-
_!. Q and-tube heat exchangers. The mechanical standard has been divided
9Z
into three parts rePresenting the following three diflerent classes of heat
exchangers:
^x l. Class "R" Exchangers This type is specified for the generally severe
e requirements of petroleum and related processing applications'
Equipment fabricated p€r this class is designed for safety and
p duraLi[ty under the rigoroirs service and maintenance conditions rn
F
(, such applications.
z 2. Class "C" Exchrngers This is specified for the generally moderate
F
requirements of commercial and general process applications'
Equipment fabricated in accordance with this class isdesigned for the
economy and ove.all compactness consistent with safety and service
requirements in such applications.

F
3. Class "B" Exchangers This cl4ss is specified for chemical process
service. The equipment is designed for the maximum economy and
overall compactness consistent with safety and service requirements
d in such applications.
c0>
Fabrication Procedure''s
oo
Shells

The shell portion ofthe heat exchanger is made ofeither seamless pipe or
rolled and welded cylinder. These are fabricated from pipe with nominal
pipe diameters up to 12" as given in Table 1. Above 12" and including 24"
the actual outside diameter and the nominal pipe diameter are the same.
Shells above 24" in diameter are fabricated by rolling and welding steel
plates in accordance with the ASME Code Section VIII, Division l, for
Fressure Vessels. Automatic welding is used almost exclusively on the
longitudinal s€ams and also on most of the circumferential seams.

20
 t srs *x- l:I* l*,S r,-.l.o.l*.- lE:e
i$,i llll--l---l'''{.' SIl11t,l,-AND-'I L.lllli HEAT ITXCHAN(;ERS

lroo
Govr croo laroS,+or
o o I u, o .r I t\ r| €
l.r
|N . , l . ,
I
z Flanges
xE .'lclc I @
c?111 lqo ,
.

x! ooo I ooo I !99 ooo l9\etooo I

I
Flanges are designed and fabricated in accordance with the ASME code.
Forgings are mostly used to make these flanges. The channel and shell
lxoo
.6-lo lo-- l.'o l-.-
I q|6r I t\ cr ! l{rN- --. ro! body flanges require careful facing operations. Flanges made to
l-.r(\ l(\drt I ct.a . l(|at\ 6-c) loorao
od-
l!(|N lon
lcjcjct | <j<jd I dcj ldctcj cj--'l-.j-'l;ci recognized standards can also be used at the assigned pressure-
temperature ratlngs.
I | , , lcrovl
t-oat lol..\
v)c).o lofl
*+ , ,,lqc': q19 t('.o\q
an lo-- --- F(r Tubesheets and Tube Hole Pattern
z z
@o({ crour jO- Tubesheets are cut either mechanically or with welding torches from
| ! | t
| .vtoa o.9o c^-t\ oc{
Ll :R t,
I ', :!'1,?
ooo
-!c|
\qq
oo-
cqn n.c plates or forgings ofdesired materials. Tube holes cannot be drilled very
--_e --
close together, since too small a width of inetal between adjacent tubes
FJ I ar€(t N-\O -F
structurally weakens the tubesheet. The shortest distance between two
| , | , oi-r
E] |,, l{l\e qgl q'l adjacent tube holes is th€ clearance or ligament, and these are now fairly
F z I looo o-- -F standard. Four principal tube arrays employed in shell-and-tube heat
IA X ()
U) vlo.!o I N!6 \ooo lNv)N oot\ exchangers are triangular, rotated triangular, square and rotated square
V) 6-(\ | {()N, r -oao
6O- l'.O- .tN.r ooN,
OO€
s)6ro iqr!.r -6
c)-
F o-- | | | Nctcr .to{ lt\co6loN as shown in Figure 4. The triangular arrangement gives the strongest
!t 'J <jcj<j I cjdcj. -(\(!
--e cidci | <jctcj cjcicj cicjcj icjcjd l-.i
tubesheet for a given shell-side flow passage area, whereas the square
E J
Ir69lF.!q l-oo lpo.o ooo ooB arrangement simplifies some fabrication and some maintenance
3 q-d | !v)N Ilo!o- lt\O- lxoc,
ldN.,) looo
iooo ooo ,
ooo
tn ocici I cjcio lood lcicio lodd ldcid operations such as tubes being accessible for external cleaning. Square
,.1 cicid cicici
pitch also causes a lower pressure drop when fluid flows in the direction
z z I . , , l.oo- oso Lclo shown in Fig. 4(c). The tube pitch is the shortest center-to-center
!oo9 o.vr4, -.o
. , . l<()f) L$!t\ l@o distance between adjacent tubes. The common pitchesfor square layouts
z €3 -i..ii l-i^.i l;^ v
are i" O.D. on l" square pitch and l" O.D. on 1|" square pitch. For
it 66- O.('c) O(rr ('\o.o NoolNv)€ PQN !?N triangular layouts these are l" O.D. on i*" triangular pitch. In Fig.4(d)
9O .o6o 6-- a{vr o-.\ 6h@ lN.oo !o€ q<9
!'19
666 :-; l--- (tNN ddN Ir,oi a(lh square pitch has been rotated 45", yet it is essentially the same as Fig.
<jcjct I dcid I cjdo I dcjcj looo ooo ooo loo
= 4lct.
ooo- || or'lir I| on.c II ooo lxoo o.r.r l-.. l-.? After being laid out in their proper pitch and orientation the tube
v)
z !E €@6
ooo
O-('
| --F
*14'
| --F
O-Ci l('rr6
I Nd(r tN..N
NOF\
.vroo
NNF. il.\NN
| 66o to.)o t holes are drilled in the tubesheet with a slightly greater diameter than
"* ood I cjctcj I cjcto I cjcjd lood cjoo lcidd lcj ci cj
outside diameter of the tube and then lwo or more slooves are milled in
v) 6ho the wall of the hole.
z i('
qo
II
. ' ' lr\r\o
, . . !F.O(.) F\No
cl .l c? clqa
odc)
O\ON
9n9
OOO OOO OOO
E F Baflles
ooo a\N.\| qrqlo
!Po ' , t lr)v|q) --- l..No Itis apparent that higher heat hansfer coefficients result when a liquid is
J iN maintained in a state of turbulence. Outside the tubes it is customary to
t!
Fl employ ba{Iles which cause the liquid to flow through the shell at right
I OOO
q)vrr, OOCi
9o I ! , i r)vrF angles to the axis ofthe tub€s. This causes considerable turbulence even
F when a small quantity of liquid flows through the shell. The center-to-
center distance b€tween balfles is called the baflle pitch or bame spacing.
€9 u)oo 1000looo
N66 000looo Since the ballles may be spaced close together or far apart, the mass
cqc t.iqc? (:q9 9\\ qeq teqq
,: .! ..i ai l (ood {90 0!o velocity is not entirely dependent upon the diameter of th€ shell. Tierods

tttl
lss
sss sx ,l-Eat ls stttt69 I

Siii; ta{ol' ooc,r !t9o o!t0

I | | 'F t--F .rc||'
2
22
 l)l,Sl( iN ()lrl'lt(X:l.Sli li(l(lll'MIN l SHF]LT--AND-'t'UI]F: }IDAT LXCIIAN(;T':RS

are screwed into the tubesheets placcd secttrcly at thc eorrect spacing lor
the given exchanger. Baffles are then slipped onto the tie rods and Iirmly

l6] 3*:88
located in their proper place by use ol spacers between I hem as shou n in

& Fig.5.

1 trE
X
There are several types of baffles which are employed in heat
exchangers, but by far the most common are the segm€nt baffles
shown in Fig. 6. Segmental baffles are drilled plates which are
as
general-
be
ly cut to some percentage of the shell inside diameter' Baffles may
(4, (b) (c) (d)
arranged, ur rho*rr, for "up-and-down" flow or may be rotated 90o

FIG. 4 - TUBE HOLE PATTERNS to prJuid" "side-to-side" flow, the later being desirable when a mix-
ture of liquid and gas flows through the shell' The baffle pitch not the
percentage cut detlrmines the effective velocity of the shell fluid'
Shell flange
Other types of bames are the disc or donut, and the orifice baflles as
shown in Figs.7 and 8 respectively. Although additional types are
sometimes employed, they are not of general importance.

Tubes

Heat-exchanger tubes are also referred to as condenser tubes and should

Channel flange
not be confused with steel pipes or other types of pipes which are
extruded to iron pipe sizes. The outside diameter of heat exchanger or
condenser tubes is the actual outside diameter in inches within a very
strict tolerance. Heat exchanger tubes are available in a variety ofmetals
which include steel,copper, admiralty, muntz metal, brass, 70-30 copper-
FIG. s ' BAFFLE SPACER DETAIL (Enlarsed) +
nickel, aluminium bronze, alurninium and stainless steel. They are
obtainable in a number of wall thicknesses defined by the Birmingham
Wire Gage, which is usually referred to as the BWG or gage of the tube.
These tubes are available in various sizes, of which i" O.D. and 1" O.D.
are most common in heat exchanger design.
The choice of a tube material for any particular application may
pres€nt no problem at all in many cases but may be a dilficult and
ffi*ss-$ 6gm complex problem in severely corrosive envitonments. All the known

Fs88888?
\oooooo/ ./
N9-,/-o'ittihg
*,*ttj factors which influence or contribut€ to corrosion such as past
performance of materials under similar service condition, type of
corrosion experienced in similar units, etc. would aid an engineer
materially in selection of most economical and most serviceable tube
material for the job.
FIC. 6 - SEGMENTAL BAFFLE DETAIL" Duplex Tubes
It is not uncommon to find conditions where the fluids both inside and
outside the tub€s are extremely corrosive, and in addition require a
(l,r')rI "l'ft'c{ss l-lcnt Transfer" rv Donald Q. Kern - Copvdghr r9s0 dilferent amount of corrosion on each side. Tubes which combine two
I'v Mfl irnw llill ll.x)k Cornprny)

24 25
 SI IELI,.AND.'TUBE HtsAT I]XCHANCERS
r)rlsl(;N ()lr Pl{(x;liss lxll.J IPML|NT
problem'
differrent metals called duplex tubes can be used to meet this
by mechanically bonding tubes. of two
Duplex tubes are manufactured
different metals or alloys so that they are in intimate contact' In this way
orific€\[l or non-ferrous
it is possible to choose various combinations of ferrous
r------l alloys to combat successfully a certain type of corrosion at the^outside
surface and entirely different type of corrosion at the inside surface'
ir O. D. of tubes

r--1
nl Ferrules

Where contact of the ends of th€ outer tube with the fluid
passing
(a) Detail (b) replaced
* tfriough tlt" toUe isconsidered objectionable, these ends may be
ferrules
FIG. ? - ORIFICE BAFFLE with flrrules of the same alloy as that of the inside tube' These
the
need be only long enough to ensure their b€ing held in
place when
distinct advantage to have
tube ends are rollid into the tubesheets' It is a
iil."-1".tut". furnished as an integral part of the tube to facilitate
ir,.Lttutiott. The construction of duplex tubes with attached ferrules is

shown in Fig. 9 and 10 before and after installation respectively'

Tube Rolling
fixed in
Doughnut Tubes are passed through the tubeshe€ts and baffles, and are
place by an expanding operation. They are set in a preliminary.fashion
from
FIG. 8 , DISC AND DOUGHNUT BAFFLE ' Ly forcing u piog ug"intt the tubes. The plug preYents the tube
turning when the roller expander is inserted' The roller is a
rotatrng
mandr-il having a slight taper. It is capable ofexceeding the elastic limit of
that it
the tube metai and transforms it into a semiplastic condition
so
FERRULE seal A simple and
(Same material
flows into the grooves and forms an extremely tight
is shown in Fig. 11. Tube rolling is a skill,since a tube
as inner tube)
"ornrnon
-rv- U. ""u.ll.
Ou-og"O by rolling too thin and leaving a seal with little
structural strength.

Turning
Slot \

Tube wall
FIG.9 FIG. TO

I)UPLEX TUBE DUPLEX TUBE AND TUBESHEET

JOINT FI6. 1T . TUBE ROLL FIG. I2 - FERRULE
(From "Process He.t Transfer" Donald Q. Kern ' Copyright r95O
(lr,'rn '11rxrcss lltl't Transfer" Donald Q. Kern - Copyrisht 1950
by Mccraw-Hill Book ComPany)
hv M, (;rxw llill lr,xrk (l)mpany)
27
26
 sllDl,l--ANl)-ltJttli llliAl lix( l{AN(il:Rs
l)lisl(;N olr Plt.( )(il'lss llQtrlPMuN'l

ln some industrial uses it is desirable to install tubes in a tubesheet

so that they can be removed easily as shown in Fig. 12. The tubes are
actually packed in the tubesheet by means of ferrules using a soft metal DESIGN CAI,CULATIONS
packing ring.
After completion ofthe bundle assembly, it is brought to a test rack
where a hydrotest is applied. Bundles are then lowered vertically into the Shell Cylinder
exchanger shells and linal hydrotest of the exchanger is made. After the VIII, Division 1' Paragraph UG-27(c)
Reference: ASME Section
outside ofthe shell is painted with a rust-preventive paint and all flanges
are covered to prevent damage, the unit is ready for shipment. P = Design Pressure, Psig : 50 PSig
n = C..t A"i inside radius, in. = 28 125 in'psi
J : eilo*uuf" stress at design temperature' = 13'800 psi

E = Welcl joint efficiencY : 85

Design of rnajor shell and tube heat exchanger components is
illustrated in the examples given below. C.A.: Corrosion allowance, in : .125 in'
Now
t = Minimum cylinder (hickness' in'

: >* PR C.A.
SE _ ,6P

_ 50(28.125) _i .125
13s00(.85) - .6(50)
EXAMPLE NO. 1
= .1202 + .125 : '2452 in , use 72" (SA-285-C)

Usinghand calculation method, mechanically design all the components ofa Shell Cover CYlinder
carbon steel, 56 inch inside diameter having 16 feet long tubes, TEMA Reference: same as shell cylinder
'AET" type of shell and tube heat exchanger for the following conditions.
5O(28.t25) + .25
SHELL SIDE TUBE SIDE
13300(.85) - .6(s0)
Design Pressure, Psig 50 420
Design Temper'ature,'F 400 250
: + : in , use /2" (SA-285-C)
Va .1202 -125 '2452
Corrosion Allowance, In. '/a
Number of Passes l4
Shell Cover Head (2:1 ElliPsoidal)
Provide solid soft steel gasket at the floating head and steel j acketed asbestos
Reference: ASME Section VIII, Division l' kragraph UG-32(d)
gaskets at all otherjoints. Use ASME Section VIII, Division l6 and TEMA
"R" design criteria in calculations. Also, check the reinforcement require- P : Design Pressure, Psig : 50 Psig
nrcnt for an 8 inch 300# R.F. nozzle on the tubeside. R : Corr;ded inside radius, in = 28 125 in'
S : Allowable stess at design temPeratue' psi = 13'800 psi
E = Weld joint efficiency = '85
C.A. = Corroiion allowance, in = 125 in'

28
 l)liSl(;N ( )lr I'l{(XilrSS lQtJlPMIN'l' SHTJI,I--AND"TUBE HEA'I' T.:XCTIAN(itJRS

Now itn(l
8r : l '375 in
r = Nominal head thickness, in.
Now
PR h : : 1.3125 in. (min'), use 2'25 in'
1.5(eo) = 1.5( 875)
st - .lP k, - 2^l (1.375 - R75) = o.2222 < 0.333
(rone =E
50(28.125\
h ---:-------------
2.25
-F .125 + .u025
13800(.85) - .1(s0) Therefore, the flange can be designed as an integral type as shown in
Fig. 1a of Chapter 2. Now assume (64) lVt in. dia. bolts. From Table 3. in
: . i 199 + .125 + .0625 - .3O'14 in., use 26" nom. (SA-285-C) Chapter2, for lVq in. dia. bolts, we have

R : 1.75 in.
Chann€l Cylinder E = 1.25 in.
Reference: Same as shell cylinder Now
c=B+ 2(g t) + 2(R'):56.25 + 2(1.375) + 2(1.75) = 62.s in-
420(28.125\
t = C.A. and
17500(.8s) - .6(420) A: C + 2(E) = 62.5 + 2(r.25) = 65 in.
: .8078 + .125 = .9328 in., use 1" (54-516-70)

Channel Flanges at Cover and Thbesheet Gasket and Bolting Calculations

Reference: ASME Section VIII, Division 1, Paragraph UA-48 From lhble I in Chapter 2, for an iron jacketed asbestos filled gasket
m = 3.75
-+
Welding neck flanges are used in design. Both channel flanges will be
and
identical as they are independent because tube side design pressure is
v : 7600
conffolling the design.
Assume
Referring to the nomenclature, figures, tables and design steps for N= 0.625 in.
independent hub flange in chapter 2 and using SA- 105 flanges and SA-193-
Fig. la. of Table 2 in Chapter 2,applies to our situation. So,
87 bolts, we have
p: A/ n 6t5
420 psi 6 =:::: = 0.3125 in.
S' : 25'000 Psi 22
S" = 25,000 Psi Therefore
= 17,500 psi
: Vb^
Sr" Vc.:t s
Sr" = 17,500 psi h
-22 : U.L|YJ n.
Also in uncorroded condition
-:-
Now
8:56in. : - 2(b) : 62.s - 1.2s - 2(0.2s) -
- 2(2195)
80: t': l0in'
G C - a 2(0.25)
= 60.191 in.
Assume rib area : RA : '{0.7018 in.2
Assume
gr : 1.5(go) = 1.5(1.0) = 1.5in. Therefore W.r: 10.2795 (n) 60.191 + .5(40.7018)l 7600
Thus in corroded condition : 556,344 lb.
B: 56.25 in. Ho = 12 (n) 0.279s(60.19r) + 40.70181 3.7s(420)
8" : 875 in' = 230'590 lb.

3t
 l)lisl(;N ( )tr plt(x:liss uQUlpMtrNT SHELL.AND.TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS

1t 'l'hcrclurc,
It = -(60.1910), 42o = t,t95,097 tb
Mo = 1,456,044 (1.1545) = 1,681,003 inlb
W^, = |,195,097 + 230,590 = 1,425,68l. tb
t(O tr(62.5\
thus Actual bolt spacing =-: 64 = :.00S in.
. r,425.687
". =J5poo = 57.0275 in.z Assumet:5.0625in.
From Table 3 in Chapter 2, the root area of a
^:
1 ya in. dia. bolt having g threads g.e+l in.
per inch is .929 in.2 which gives
Miximum bolt spacing = 2(1 .25) + *9
(J. /J + U.)'

Ao = 64(.929) = 59.456 tn.2 Normal bolt spacing : 2(1.25) + 5.0625 = 7.5625 in.
Since A, ) A-, therefore (64) lVq tn. dia. bolts are adequate. Now Since, Actual bolt spacing ( maximum bolt spacing, the chosen bolt spacing
: is O.K. and also actual bolt spacing < normal bolt spacing, the correction
W 0.5 (57.02'15 + 59.4s6) 25,000 = r,456,044 rb lactor CF = 1.0.
and 'I'hus, the calculation factors are

.. (59.456) 2s.000

" ='u#-=
=zrr?oooioo.rsl = o5l7l
'"-t in 55.ite
Since N> N-r, therefore chosen gasket width is adequate.

Flange Moments Calculations tu t.681.003 ( t.0)

29,884
56.25
HD:-4 \56.25)2 42O = 1.043.j23 tb
Deiermining Shape Constants
H6 = Ho = 230,590 lb fr\
Hr= 1,195,097 - |,043,723 = t5t,3j4 tb : _ --:l= l.t))o
hp:1.75 + .5(1.375) = 2.4375 n. ^ )b.zi
hc= .5 (62.5 - 60.191) : t.1545 in. From Table 4 in Chapter 2, for rK : 1.1556
hr=.5 (r.75 + 1.375 + 1.1545) : 2.1398 in.
Z:1.8565
Now z = 6.9647
Mo= 1,043,723 (2.4375) : Y : 13.487 |
2,544,07 5 in-tb
and
Mc = 230,590 (1.154s) = 266,216 in-Ib
Mr:151,374 (2.1398) 323,910 inlb : U:14.8209
Therefore, Now

Mo = 2,544,0'15 + 266,216 + 323,910 L

= 3,134,201 in-lb = r.57l4
8o
Now, for the gasket seating condition

Hc: W : 1,456,044lb. ho :\6r.25.r;, = 7.0156

33
 l)Hst(;N ( )tr PR()cEss EQUIPMENT
SHELL.AND-TUBE HEAT EXCHANOERS

h=2.25: r.84( 55.719)

ho 7.0 t56 ^rn .S,, = ---- (5
= 2,765 psi <17,500 Psi O.K.
| .4467 .0625)2
From Fig. 4 in Chapter 2, for ss Trorl? aRTl\
P, h
''
s,. =-#-(5.0625)' 6.9647(2,765) = 10,064 psi <17,500 psi O.K.
"
8o-
1.51 t4 and - = .320i
ho > S^, there fore, 0. 5(24,484 + 10,064) = 17,274 psi < 17'500 psi
Sincc S,
we have o. K.

F= 0.8736 (;ssk€t Seating Condition

Similarly from Fig. 5 in Chapter 2, 1.20r9{ 29.884)
V = 0.3488
s- =€=
.446'1 ( | .37 5\2
1
l3.l32Psi >26.250 Psi O.K.

and ftom Fig. 8 in Chapter 2, 1.84(29.884)

S- =-- = 1.483 Psi <17.500 Psi O.K.
f = r.20r9 1.4467(5.0625\2

29.884(13 .487 l)
s.,, =::j:=-: ::
''' - 6.964i (1,483) = 5,398 psi <17,500 psi o.K.
p 0.8736 (5.0625t2
- =-: l)A\
7.0156
Since
and
14.8209
s. ) s.,
d : (7.0156t (.875)2 = 228.2333
laRR therefore,

0.5(13,132 + 5,398) : 9,265 psi <17,500 psi O'K.

Calculating Other Stress Factors
All stresses in both the operating as well as the gasket seating conditions
c= 5.0625 (.1245) +|: 1.63 are within allowables. Thus, the inde_pendent flange design is O.K.
Next we will discuss the design of the shell side or the dependent
B =14
\ \s.oozsr.l245)
3/
+ t= l.E4 flange.

I .63
' =-=
^, R7R, Shell Flange at Tubesheet
5.062s
Refer to Figure and design steps on weld neck dependent flange design
d- =-=
(5.0625)3
.5685 calculation sheet in Chapter 2. Here we have
P= 50 psi
i: .8782 + .5685 = 1.4467
Since, the flange and bolt materials are the same as for the independent
flange, the values of Sr, S- S" and St remain unchanged. Noq in the
Calculating Stresses uncorroded condition
Operating Condition ^ -r <i-
60 - ', -n
- v.J 'u.
^ :lZOt,r:tsr,
," 1.2019(55.719)
= 24,484 psi <26,250 psi O.K. Assume

8r = 0.8125 in'
 l)tist(;N oF Pt{o(iEss EQUTPMENT SHELL.AND.TUBE HEAT EXCHANCERS

Thus, in the coroded condition

H<;=W^t-H=l'425,691 - 142'273: l '283 '411 Ib
Hr = 142,273 - 124,252 = 18,021 lb
and ho : 2.4315 + .5(.6875) : 2.7813 in'
8r : 0.6875 in. hc : .5(62.50 - 60.191) = 1.1545 in.
Assume hr= .5(2.4375 + 6875 + 1.1545) :2.1398 in
h= 2.0 in. > 1.5 Go)> 0.5625 in. O.K. Nrtw

ro 6R?5 - n 17sl Mp = 124,252(2.7813) = 345'577 in-lb

Slope :--: .1563 <.J33 O.K. Mc = r,283,4r7 (1. 1545) :
l'481'718 inib
' 2.O
Mr inlb
= r8,02r(2 1398) = 38'561
Therefore, the flange can be designed as an integral flange as shown in
'l'hcrcfore,
Fig. la of Chapter 2.
Since, both the flanges are to be bolted together, the number and size of Mo : 345,577 + 1,481,718 + 38,561 : 1,865,854 inlb
bolts, and diameten B, C, G and A will be the same as for the independent
Now, for the gasket seating condition
flange. Also, the values ofn and y will remain unchanged since thi gasket
material is the same. Hc=W: l'456'045 in-lb
The value of radial clearance R will be greater than the minimum 'l'hcrcfore,
required for this flange, because its bolt circle dia. C has to match the bolt
circle dia. of the independent flange and its g, is smaller than g, of the Mo : 1,456,M5( 1.1545) : l'681'019 inlb
independent flange. So in this case
A$sume
c
R _ - lB
+ 2(8 )l 156.25 + 2(0.6875t1
-----;- t : 4.8125 in.
z =A5 = 2 4315 in'
Normal bolt spacing will be greater than the actual bolt sPacing , thus Cr
Gasket and Bolting Calculations t.0.
Thus, the calculation factors are
The width and the effective width of the gasket will be the same as for
the independent flange. Now
u:ffff=zz,nr
W^za : 556'344 Ib
Ho : 2n (.2795) 60.191(3.75) 50 : 19,820 lb lnd

H = 160.191.t, 50 : 142,273 r'r ={Se: zr,tss

W^r* = l'425
'691lb' I)etermining Shape Constants
which will result in the same A. as earlier, thus I7 will also be the same.
f
since the value of is the same as in the independent flange the values of I
Flang€ Moments Calculations
l, Y and U will remain unchanged.
Now

H" =X66.zs)2 (so) : 124,zszrb L=@: r.srrs

Lo 0.375
*The values of Wu I and W-2 are taken ftom independent flanse ho =\/s6.2s(0.37 s) = 4.s928
 r)Esl(;N oF PR(rcESS EQUIPMENT SHELL.AND"TUBE HEAT EXCHANOERS

h:2'o : o.+zss s, -1U{114!D - 6.s647(7s7) = 14,047 psi <17,500 psi o.K'

ho4.5928 (4.8125)2

From Fig. 4 in Chapter 2 for grl80 = 1.8333 and hlho : 0.4355 we have Sincc
S. > S^'
F : 0.8442
llrcrclbre.
Similarly from Fig. 5 in Chapter 2 o.5 (20,720 +14,047):17 ,383 psi< 17,500 psi O'K
V : 0.2671
(;o8ket Seating Condition
and from Fig. 8 in Chapter 2

f = 1'2179 t,, =4H9=

.1251(
4 5\2.687
8,667 Psi <26,25oPsioK'
Now
. 2.1794(29,88s) -^^ psr <17,500 psi O.K.
S.. = ___________- _: 6EZ
e =-=
0.8442
0.1838 ^ 4.125'(4.8t25)2 '
4.5928
. 29,885(r3.4871)
.\... = ----------------- - o.vo,+r(682) : 12,655 psi <17,500 psi O'K'
and
' (4.8125\2
14.8209
d= (0.375)'z : 35.8386 Since
0.26j 1@.5928) s. ) s^,

lhcrefore,
Calculating Other Stress Factors 0.5(18,667 + 12,655) = 15,661 psi <17,500psi oK'
cr = 4 8125(0.1838) +I= 1.8846
All the stresses in both the operating as well as the gasket seating
conditions are within allowables, thus the dependent flange design is O'K'
p :( r )a.8l2s(0.1838) + I :2.t794 Additional desired thickness for raised face, counterbore, tongue or
lroove should be added to the calculated thickness / to obtain the final total
thickness of the flange In the above example we added %o in. to the
r' =@:
1.8565
t.ot:t
thickness of each flange Jor counterbore.
(4.8125)l (lhannel Cover
-; =-:35.8386 J.ii
Rcference: TEMA hragraph R-8.2, ASME Section VIII, Division l, Para-
graph UG-34(c)
I: 1.0151 + 3.11 = 4.1251
P: Design pressure, psig = 420 Psig
Calculating Stresses G = Mean gasket diametel in. = 60.191 in.

Operating Condition
d,: Norninal bolt diameters, in. = 1.25 in.
:
h" Radial distance betwe€n mean gasket diameter and bolt circle, in'
- |.2t79(33,17t) ^20.720 psi <26.750 psi O.K. = 1.1545 in.
,S.. = = A,: Actual total cross-sectional area of bolts, in.z = 59.456 \n'2
4 .1251(.687 5)2
i : Required channel cover thickness at the bottom of the pass partition
^ = 2.1794(33,171) ^/57 psi <17.500 psi O.K. groove, as determined by the TEMA equation or the appropnate
,s^
4 . t251(4 .8125)2 ASME code equation. whichever is greater, in.

-
38

-:
 r )tjtit(;N ()tr t,R(xIiss ti.ltJ ,MINT
sHttlL-ANt),',t ulrlt IiAI Ix(]]tAN(]trRs
('.r'1. - Cornrsion allowancc
or dcpth ol pass partition groove, whichever 'lbbesheet
greater, : in.
.1975 in.
is
C = A factor for method of cover attachment
S., = Allowable stress for cover materi2l
= .3 l{cference: TEMA Paragraph R-7.1
naterial ar ar-^.^r.-,;^ ,---^-^...-_
at atmospheric
: 17,500 psi temperature, psi
^ : Allowable
J"o P = Design pressure, psig = 420 psig
: 17,500 psi
stess for cover material at design temperature'
psi :
S Allowable stress for tubesheet material at design temperature, psi

E : Elastic modulus of cover material at design

= 17,500 psi
: 28.4s(10)6 psi temperature, psi G: Mean gasket diametet in. = 60.191 in.
lV : Design bolt load for sasket
F: Tirbesheet constant :
1.0 (for tubesheets having straight tubes)
w-, : rb = r,4s6,044 rb :
C.A. Shell side corrosion allowance plus tube side corrosion allowance or
bort road ror
legu_,r9g depth ofpass partition groove, whichever is greater, in. = .3125 in.
= 1,425,687 tb "0"#l';":"::?fl,i:'
Now
TEMA Equation 7 : Effective thickness of tubesheet, in.

,=l*y".r#y1,, + cA
:iv;*FG Tp
C.A.

_ 1.0(60. 191)
_lt -422-$0.l9l)4 420+0.5(t.1545) 59.456(60.t91)
l06 j,,t + ,^ + .3125
L 28.45( 10)6 28.45( t0)6 t/i$ J
l87s 2

= 7 .1744 in. - = 4.6624 + 0.3125 : 4.9749 in.

Use 5" thick tubesheet (5,4-516-70)
ASME Equations
Notes: (l) Ihbesheet thickness for bending only is calculated and it is
Operating Condition assumed that shear does not control the desisn.
(2) Floating tubesheet will have sma er valui of G but both
t=G cP*.;;*
r.9lw_,) h-
r- to' tubesheets of the same thickness are used.

= 60.191 Floating Head

17.s00 (60.191)3
= 5.5177 in. Reference: ASME Section VIII, Division l, hragraph l-6 & Appendix 5

P: Intemal design pressure, psig = 420 psig

Gasket Seating Condition Pc = Extemal design pressure, psig = 59 nrit
S" = Allowable bolt stress at atrnospheric temperature, psi = 25,000 psi
t=U.,- /t.9twh-
l a+aA Sr: Allowable bolt stress at design temperature, psi = 25,000 psi
V s., (ct, - "' Sra = Allowable stress for flange material at atmospheric temperature, psi

| .9fl,456.044) 1.ts45
: 25.000 osi
= 60.191
C.A. Sn: Allowable stress for flange material at design temperature, psi
17,s00 (60.19t)3
= 25,000 psi
: 1.9288 in. Srr = Allowable stress for head material at design temperature, psi
= 17,500 psi
TEMA F4uation Conhols: Use 7.25 in. thk. (5A-516-70)
C.A. = Shell or tube side corrosion allowance, in. = .125 in.

41
 DESIGN OF PR@ESS BQUIPMBNT SHELL.AND.TUBE HEAT BXCHANOENS

Materials of Consnuction L = Inside radius fo( dished only head, in'

Bolts SA-193-87 =.8(B) = '8(51.25) = a1.0 in.
Flange SA-105 Rr = Rib area, in.2 = 19.22 in.2
Head 5^4-516-70
Flange and head will be designed using corroded dimensions becguse
Gasket Solid Soft Steel
conoded condition results in greaier thickness. Thus in corroded condition
Use 7r in. x 7a in. single nubbin for gasket facing.
A = 55.625 -
2(.125) = 55.375 in'
trlange Design B = 51.25 + 2.\.125') = 51.5 in.
Allolving % in. clearance between the LD. of the shell and the O.D. of the L= 41 + .125 = 41.125 rn.
flange, we get W., = Minimum required bolt load for gasket seating, lb
= (bnG + .5Ra))
A = Outside diameter of flange, in. = 56 - .375 = 55.625 in. = [.12s(tt) 51.625 +.5(19.22, 18000
Assume (56) I % in. dia. bolts. TEMA recommended minimum wrench and = 537.896 lb
nut clearances are not used for the flange design since this is an intemal joint Il, = Total joint-contact surface compression load, lb
and exchanger design does not require to comply with ApI 660 = (2ttbG + R)mP
requirements.
:12(tr) .r2s(51.62s) + 9.nls.s@n)
: = 138,060 lb
C Bolt circle diameter, in. Il = Total hydrostatic end load, lb
=A - Nut dimension across comers
:55.625 - 2.0 = 53.625 in.
=loct p
From Table I of Chapter 2, for solid soft ste€l gasket, we have
n = Gasket factor : 5.5 = -.(5r.625)2 420
) = Gasket seating stress, psi = 18,000 psi
Assume N = Gasket width. in. = .375 in. = 879,143 lb.
also w = Nubbin width, in. = .125 in. W-r = Required bolt load for operating condition, lb
=H+HP
Fig. (2) of Table 2 in Chapter 2 applies to this situation, so : 879,143 + 138,060
bo = Basic gasket seating width, in. = 1,017.203 lb
A,, : Total required cross-sectional area of bolts, in.2
w+N .125 + .375
: ^ W^r
.125 in, : Urearcr -:-or-;-
oI^W,a
J" J,
D = Effective gasket seating width, in. : bo : .125 n. _ t,Ot7 203
Also = Great€r d_537,896
ztmo - zsooo
G = Diameter at location of gasket load reaction, in.
=C = 40.6881 in.2
- Bolt hole dia. - .375 - N
= 53.625 - 1.25 - .375 - .375 From Table 3 in Chapier 2, the root area ofa I % in. dia. bolt having 8 threads
= 51.625 in. per inch is .728 in.2 which gives
I = Inside diameter of flange, in. Aa = Actual total ooss-sectional area of bolts, in2
:G_N = 56(.728) = 40.768 in.2
= 51.625 - .3?5 = 51.25 in.
Since A, ) A-, therefore (56) l% in. dia. bolts are adequate. Now
l' n

DEStcN oF PROCESS BQUTPMBNT SHBLL-AND.TUBE HBAT EXCHANOERS

W = Flange design bolt load for the operating condition or gasket seat_ io = Radial distance ftom the bolt circle to the inside of the flange ring,
ing, as may apply, lb m,
= .5(A^ + A) S" =.5(C a) = .5(53.62s 51.5) = 1.0625 in.
- -
= .5(40.6881 + 40.768) 25,000 ic = Radial distance from gasket load reaction to the bolt circle, in.
= r,018,201 lb = .5(C G) = .5(53.62s
- 51.625) = 1.0 in.
-
and frr = Radial distance from bolt circle to circle on which acts, in. Ii.
: =,s(hD + he) = .5(1.0625 + 1.0) = 1.0313 in.
.lf-, Minimum required width of gasket, in. hn = I-ever arm of force 11^ about centroid of flange ring, in.
=0 in.
:Aus"
2ryG Now
Ma = Moment due to I/r, in-lb
_ 40.768(2s,000)
=Hoho = 874,890 (1.0625) = 929,571 in-lb
2r(18,000) 51.625 Mc = Moment due to llc, in-lb
: .1746 in. = He hc = 138,060(1.0) 138,060 in-lb :
:
Mr Moment due to I1r, in-lb
Since N) N,,r, therefore chosen gasket width is adequate.
= Hr hr = 4,253(1.0313) = 4,386 inlb
flange Moments Calculations Mn = Moment due to llR, in-lb
: Hn hn = 1,089,471(0) = 0 in-lb
11o = Axial component ofmembrane load in the spherical segment acting Mo : Total moment acting upon the flange for the operating condition, in-
at the inside of the flange ring, lb
lb
:!8, p =MolM6+Mr+MR
4 =929571 + 138,060 + 4,386 + 0
: |,072,017 in-lb
1T
= -(51 .5)2 420 Mt:Mal moment acting upon the flange for the gasket seating, in-lb
:WC
= 874,890 lb : 1,018,201(1.0) : 1,018,201 in-lb
Ilc = Gasket load in operating condition, lb
:Ho Flange Thickness Calculations
= 138,060 lb Intemal hessure
1{. = Difference between total hydrostatic end force and hydrostatic
force on area inside of flange, lb
end P8\,6I;-;
:H-Ho 8S&(A - A)
:879,143 - 874,8m
= 4,253 lb
4206r.s\v4(4r.125)2 - 1.5)2
(5

Ilr = Radial component of the membrane load in the spherical segment,

8(17s00) (55.37s - 5l.s)
tb =2.557
f v_4L, - B'r=874,8e0L--=;:J
:""L-
_-
a I _ _^^f vai.nf=,7;rv1 :"+(^-"
M.o/A+B
) =;iff#ft(
55.375
55.375
+
-
51.5
51.5
: I,089,471 lb = 32.81

44 45
 DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUTPMENT SHELL.AND.TUBE HEAT EXCHANOERS

, = Rcquilgg_qEe thickness for opcrating condition, in. Mr= H, hr"

=F +\/F7 = 507(.0313) = 16 inlb
=2.557 +\EmTffir = 8.83 in. Mp: Ho h^
, = Required flange thickness for gasket seating condition, in. :129,698(0) = 0 in-lb
Moe = Ibtal moment acting upon the flange due to extemal pressure, psi
=Mo*M,rM*
#;"r-> =6,510 + 16 + 0 = 6,526in-lb
p.B\/trL - B,
1,018,20r,,55.375
8 Sf" (A - B)
5l i(lr5oo)(553?5
50(51.5) v4(41.12s\2 - 51.52
= 5.5821 in. 8(17500) (55.375 - 51.5)
Extemal hessure
= .3044
+n
p :YoG, p, J =Moe1e
B S/"\A - B
:f,u.azsl,5o = ru,66o lb 6.526 .,55.375 + 51.5
=
J(r?Joor(5si?s
sr - sl.s
no:!SP r" :0.20
t : Required flange thickness for extemal pressure, in.
:F +!F2 + l
=itsr.sy so : lo4,l53 rb
:
= 30da f/(304o2 + .?I .8454 in.
Hr=H - Ho Thus the flange thickness for operating condition controls. Adding %o in. for
counterbore and ys in. for shell side corrosion allowance, we get,
= 104,660 - 104,153 = 507 lb
Total thickness of flange= 8.83 + .1875 + .125
= 9.1425 in., Use 9.25 in.
Ilead Thickness Calculations

= t*,'slfV{4€#l
L 5t.5 I
: r2e,6e8 rb
Intemal Pressure
/azr = Minimum required thickness of head plate, in.
_ .833 PL
hp"= ho - h6 sl{
= 1.0625 - 1.0 : .0625 in. .833(420) (41.125)
hre: hr - hc = 0.8222 in.. sav 0.875 in.
17,500
= 1.0313 - 1.0 = .0313 in.
ha=o Extemal Pressure
Mo= Ho ho, tno = 0'875 in'
: 104,153(.062s) = 6,510 in-lb L = 41.125 in.

46 47
 t)t.:st(;N ( )tr t,t((xltjss lt(lrJ ,MtjN,t. sHIit-1.-ANI)-ltJBli I tAt lixcltAN(itsRs
Lltt , = 41.1251.875 = 47
17.500
A = Code factor to obtain B (max = 1.0):-:1.0
17,500

:{*, .125 ..l= .l2s

* =.0021 a = Outward nozzle weld leg size, in. : 375 in.
\LnHD/ +r :
F Correction factor = 1.0

From ASME Section VIII, Division l, Appendix 5, Fig. UCS-28.2 t,: Required cylinder thickness, in.

B = 13,900 PR
:
P" Maximum allowable external pressure for bead, psi sEt - .6P
B . 13.900
=l*/ l_-=2e5psi
+r
_ 420(28.r2s) :0.6849 in.
\LlrHD/ 17500(1.0) - .6(420)
Maximum allowable pressure Po is greater than the extemal design pressure /,,- Required nozzle neck thickness. in.
P" of 50 psi thus the head thickness is adequate.
PR"
:
Total.head thickness =,r/D + shell side C.A. + tube side C.A. * forming s"E - .6P
or thinning allowance
: .875 + .125 + .125 + .125 420(3.931s)
u. r rZr rn.
: 1.25 \n. nominal thk. =
15000(1.0) - .6(420)

Calculation of Reinforcement for Thbe Side Nozzle A = Area of reinforcement required, in.2
:dt,F + Zt"t,F (1 - f,r)
Reference: ASME Section VIII, Division l, paragraph UG-37 and Appen_ :7.87s(.6849) (1.0) + 2(.375) (.6849) (1.0) (l - .8571)
dix L = 5.467 in.z
P = Design pressure, psig = 420 psig A, = Excess area in cylindet in.2
C.A. : Corrosion allowance, in. = .125 in.
: Larger of the following
R : Conoded inside cylinder radius, in. - 28.125 in.
: d(EJ - Ft,) - 2t, (EJ Ft,) (.1 - f,)
R,: Corroded inside nozzle radius, in. = 3.9375 in. = 7.875 {l(.875) - l(.6849)} - 2(.375){l(.875) - l(.6849r(l -
.8571)
d: Corroded inside nozzle diameter, in. = 7.g75 in.
: 1.4767 in.z
Er = Channel cylinder joint efficiency 1.0 : of
E: Nozzle neck joint efficiency 1.0 : :2(t + t.) (Ert - Ft.) - zt"(EJ - Ft)(l - f,)
S: Allowable cylinder stress at design temperature, psi = 17,500 psi
S": Allowable nozzle stress at design temperature, psi = 15,000 psi = 2(.875 + .37s) {l(.875) - l(.6849)} - 2(.375) U(.875) -
t: l(.6849)) (l - .8s71)
Corroded cylinder thickness, in. = 0.875 in.
t,: Corroded nozzle thickness, in. : : .3369 'n.2
0.375 in.
:
S, Allowable reinforcing pad stress at design temperature, psi
42: Excess arca in nozzle, in,2
:17,500 psi
: Smaller of the following
:5(t" t,") f1 t
-
s- (max 15.000 = 5(.375 -
.1121) .8571(.875)
"/,, = J = 1.0)=-=.8571
17,500 = .9858 in.2
or
:5(t"- t,")fit,
f..r = (lesser of S, or Sp)/S (max - 1.0, = - ttt' =5(.375 - .1121) .8571 (.375)
-!f,
I /,)UU

49
 DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT SHELL-AND.TUBE HEAT EXCHANOERS

: .4225 in.z
Ar = Area of outward nozzle weld
= (a)2 fa EXAMPLE NO.2
= (.375)2 (.8571) : .1205 in.2
Total available area of reinforcement : A, -t A, ! Ao
:1.4767+.4225+.1205 Using hand calculation method, design a fixed tube sheet for a TEMA
"NEN" type of shell and tube heat exchanger for the following data:
= 2.0197 in.2
Since Ar + Az+ A4<A, use additional reinforcement
Shell
Additional arearequired : A- (At + A2 + A4)
20 in. O.D., Carbon Steel (4-106-8), % in. thick
= 5.467 - 2.O197 = 3.M3 rn,-z
Mean Shell metal temperature = 298"F
Try 15.5 in. O.D., .5 in. thick SA-516-70 pad thus , Dp outside diameter ot :
reinforcing pad, in. :
15.5 in. and, t, :
reinforcing pad thickness, in. = .5
Tbb€s
in.
( 284, 3/4 in. O.D., 14 BWG min. wall, 12 ft. long
Check with rtinforcing pad added
Carbon Steel (A-214)
A : Area of reinforcement required, in.2 Mean tube wall metal temperature = 288'F
= 5.467 in.2
lhbe Sheet
Ar : Excess area in cylinder, in.2
: |.4767 in.z Carbon St€el (A-516-70)
A, = Excess area in nozzle, in.2 Mean tube sheet metal temperature = 2147
= Smaller of the following
: s(t" - t,") f^ t Design Conditions
:5(.37s - .1121) .8571(.875)
SHELL SIDE TUBE SIDE
=.9858 in.2 or
75 130
:2(t" - t,") (2.5t" + t") f,l Design Pressure, Psig
Design Temperature, 'F 200
= 2(.37s _ .rt2t) {2.5(.37st +
360
.5} .8s71
: Corrosion Allowance, In. Y8 Y8
.6478 in."
Number of hsses I
A., :
1
Area of outward nozzle-to-pad fillet weld
: ta)z fa Use TEMA "R" and ASME Section VIII, Division 1 design criteria for
: (.375)2 (.857l) : .1205 in.2 calculations . Assume that there is no shell expansion joint and check to see if
Let c = hd to cylinder weld leg size, in. = .375 in. one is required.
Aor: Area of pad to cylinder fillet weld
= (c)z f,z DFSIGN CAI,CULATIONS
= (.375)2 (1.0) = .1406 in.2
As : Area of reinforcing pad
Fixed Thbesheet
:(DD_d_2t)tef5 Reference: TEMA Paragraph R-7
: (15.s - 7.875 - .75) .5(1.0) : 3.4375 in.z ASME Section VIII, Division 1, UG-23(b) & Appendix 5
Total available area for reinforcement = Ar + A2 + A4r + 442 + As Ps = Shell side design pressure, psig = 75 psig
= 1.4767 +
.6478 + .1205 + .1406 + 3.4375 = 5.8231 in.2 P, = lhbe side design pressure, psig : 130 Psig
Since area a\ailable for reinforcement is greater than area requircd, the
Do = Outside diameter of shell, in. = 20 in.
opening is adequately reinforced.

50
)l
ff1

DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT SHELL-AND.TUBB HEAT EXCHANOBRS

= Outside diameter of tubes, in. = 0.75 in.

do
4(r) 28.21(10)6 (.2s) [6.s96(10)-6 (228) - 6.
," = Corroded shell thickness, in. = 0.25 in.
,r ='IUbe wall thickness, in. 0.083 in. : [20 - 3(0.25t [1 + (1) .3135 (3.82)]
G: Corroded shell I.D., in. = l9.5in. = 216.89 psi
N = Number of tubes = 284
E": Elastic modulus of shell material at metal temperature, psi Pr, = Equivalent bolting pressure when tube side is under pressure' psi
:
28.21(10)6 psi
u
4= Elastic modulus of tube material at metal temperature, psi ',t
= (n2?- (G)3 = o (since M, = g;
= 28.26(10)6 psi
:
E Elastic modulus of tubesheet malerial at metal temperature, psi
:
Pr" Equivalent bolting pressure when tube side prcssuro is zero' psi
= 28.63(10)6 psi
:
d" Coefficient ofthermal expansion of shell material at metal tempera- 6'? M"-: g;
ture, in./in. "F :
6.596(10)-6 in./in "F = (n2 (G)3 o (since M" =
:
a, Coefficient of thermal expansion of tube material at metal tempera-
ture, in./in. 'F = 6.576(10f6 in./in. "F
O" = Shell metal temperature - 70"F = 228'F
O, = Tub" metal temperature - 70"F = 218"F
f"=t-"fo)'
Mr = Total flange moments in operating condition, in- lb = 0 :1-2s4(4,J2:.Siee
M2 = Total flange moments in gasket seating condition, in - lb= 0
F = Thbesheet factor
J:
Rctor :
:
I (for tubesheets with straight tubes)
I (for shell without expansion joint) * rrr.t +/")) - :J(e'
S = Allowable tubesheet stress at design temperature, psi = 17,500psi
?= Assumed thickness of tubesheet, in. 1.25 in.
Z = lbbe length between inner tubesheet faces, in. = 141 in.
= P! = P forir,s,L- (t + .lKF q\
D; = Expansionjoint inside diameter, in. = 0 (since there is no
_ 75r.4(1) u.5
+ - 5 29.379 osi
.3135 (1.5 + .5799)l
1+l(.3135)(3.82) I =
expansion joint)
-L
Now
P = Effective shell side design pressure, psi (will be the greater absolute
,, E" t" (Do
- t") value of the follorings)
Et\N (4 - t) : -
P=.5(P"' - P) = .5(29.379 - 46.89) 8.76psi
=@=.,..
28.26fl0)6 (.083) 284 (.75 - .083)
P
P=Pas=0
=P: = 29.379 psi

,G, 31tta
1300 r. E- P=.5(P! - Pa- Pns) = .5(29'379 - 46.89 - 0) = - 8.76 psi
F.= .25 + (F - .6) l=:-{;l
L KLE \t/ JI P = .S(Pas + P7) : .5(0 + 46.89) = 23.45 psi
P : P"' - Pes = 29.379 - 0 : 29.379Psi
:.25+t-.6t1--" ?rn/ ?s) 28.21(10)6 zl9.5ri-lt/a: ^3'62
^^
l.rrsrr+rr-e-orffi (,*) I The maximum absolute value of effective shell side design pressue will be
29.319 psi.
P, : Equivalent differential expansion pressure, psi
Now
_ 4./ E, t"
(oc" O" - a, O,)
(Do_3t")(t+JKFq) f,=1-*(+'
)J
 DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT SHELL.AND"TUBE HEAT EXCHANCEN,S

r.75 - 2 (.083Ir Cs = 1.0 (from TEMA kragraph R-7.22)

=l-284l-ler I
'z
=.74s Ss = Maximum effective longitudinal shell sness

_ (D. - r") (C" P"'*)

4t"
_ (20 - .25) (l) (83.5)
=
''[uffiffi@]:zs'sznsr =
4(.2s)
I,649 psi (tensile)
Since P,' is positive
P S" (allowable) = 15,000 psi (tensile)
= Effective tub€ side design pressure, psi (will be the greater absolute
value of the followings) S" < S, (allowable), shell is O.K. in tension
P =.s(Pi + PE, + P) = .5(75.87 + 0 + 46.89) = 6l.38psi Using rnaximum negative value of P"t we have
P = Pt! + Pat : 75.87 + o = 75.87psi C. = 1.0 (from TEMA Paragraph R-7.22)
Thus the effective tube side pressure will be 75.87 psi (20 - .25\ | //'6.89).
T: Requircd tubesheet thickness 4(.25'l
FC IF : 926 psi (compressive)
2y s
A= .r25 | (DJzt")
Where P is tlle gxeater of effective shell or tube side design pressure : .125 t (2O1.5) = .003l
From ASME Section VIII, Division l, Fig. UCS-28.2
r(rg.5\ EE :
B 14,900
2 V l75oo S" (allowable) =B= 14,9000 psi (compressive)

= .642 in., use 1.25 in (min.) + shell side C.A. + greater of tube side C.A. S, <S, (allowable), shell is O.K. in compression
or groove depth S.: shell material yield stress : 35,000 psi
or use r = 1.25 + .125 + .125 : 1.5 in. (54-516-70) .9is") = .9(35,ooo) : 31,5oopsi
Ls(E) : L5(1649) : 2,474 psi
It is O.K. to \se ly2 in. thick since
tubesheets thicker than computed are 1.5(S,) <.9(s'), shell is O.K. at hydrostatic test
permissible provided neither sheU nor tubes are overloaded.
Tube Longttudlnal Stress Calculatlon
She[ Longitudind Stnecs Calculations
Pr -Pr - P,'= 130 - 75.87 = 54.13 psi p, = p,' -+@) = 7s.87 -#(130) = 50.52 psi
P,* = Pr = 54.13 Psi Fq ' 1.8:.
or P,* =p
I - 29.379 psi
orPr+= - Pa = - 46.89psi :
Fq " =
P. P-'
-Lrr-, zg.37g -ft99 = 17'99 nsi
or Pj* = Pr + P"' = 54.13 + 29.379 = 83.5 psi
orPr*:Pr - Pa = 54.13 - 46.89 = 7.24 psi ';(75)
P,* = Pr. : 50.52 Psi
or Ps:* =Ps' - Pa = 29.379 - 46.89 : - 17.511 psi or Pr* = - Pr: - 17.99 Psi
or Prt =Pr + P"' - Pd = 54.13 + 29.379 - 46.89 = 36.62 psi or P,a : Po = 46.89 Psi
Using maximurn positive value of P"* we have or P,* : P, - Pg : 50.52 - 17.99 : 32.53 Psr

54 55
r
DBSIGN OF PROCESS BQUTPMENT
SHELL-AND-TUBE HEAT EXCHANOERS

ot P,r = p, +Po = 59.52 + 46.89 = 97.41 psi

ot P,4 =-P3+Pd: -17.99 + 46.89 = i8.9psi Since c" J
or P,* = p, - P3 + Pd = 50.52 - 17.99 + 46.89 = 79.42 psi
Using maximum positive \alue of P,* we have S. = Allowable tube compressive stress
C, = 0.5 (From TEMA hragraph it-7.23) tP E, _tr2 (28.26)106
S, = Maximum effective longitudinal tube stess
_
=r@y= : 3'417 Psi
,eoLory
_ Fo G2 Ct Pt+ \r,
4N4@o- t) S, (allowable) = smaller of S, (allowable) in tension or Sc

3.82 (19.5)2 .5 07.4tl = 3,417 psi

4(284) (.083) (.7s - .083) S, <S, (allorvable). tubes are O.K. in compression.

= 1,125 psi (tensile)

.9(S,) = .9(26,000) : 23.400 psL
1.5(,9) = 1.51a161 = 624psi
S, (allowable) = 10,000 psi (tensile) 1.5(S,) <.9(SJ, tubes are O.K. at hydrostatic test
S, < S, (allowable), tubes are O.K. in tension
Calculatlons of TubeToTubesheet Jotnt Loadg
Using maximum negative value of P,+ we have
P,* = Pt: 50.52 Psi
C,:1.0 (from TEMA kragraph R-7.23) orPr*=-Ps=-17.99psi
or P,* = P, - Pz = 5O.52 - 17.99 = 32.53 psi
^ 3.82 (19.5\2 | (17.99\
= 416 psi (compressive) Pr* = 50.52 psi (Greater absolute value of the above)
'' ("08ilJ5:ls3):
+,2g4)
Now
.s, : lhbe maierial yield stress : 26,000 psi W; = Maximum effective tube-io-tubesheet joint load
r : Radius of glration of tube
: 0.25Vdo2 + (do - 2r)z = ;;
1l
Fo P,* (G)2
= 0.25 V.75)2 + t .75 - .t66)2 : .2376 in.
= Maximum unsupported tube span : ar3.82l so.sz eg.5t2
= 60 in. (span between two baffles) 4(284')'
K = 1.0 (For unsupported span between two baffles)
: :203 lb
kt Equivalent unsupported buckling length of the tubes
: 1(60) = 60 in.
A, : Nominal transverse cross-sectional area of tube wall

IGFE. = .7854 fL-ldo2 - (do - u,)21

vs. :.78s41
LJ
.7s2 - (.15 - .166)2) I = .1739 in.z
2(n)2 28.26(10)6 ,( - Allowable tensile stress for tube material at design temperatue , psi
26,000 = 10,000 psi
= hctor for the length of the roller expanded portion of the tube
kl 60
= 1,0 (For joints made with roller expanded tubes in grooved tube
r .2376 holes)

56
57
 I )rist(;N ( )tr t,l{( x:lis:i ltlutPMtN't

/;. : Pactor for reliability ofjoint

= 0.70 (for rolled joints having two or more grooves)
:
4, Ratio of tubesheet yield stress at metal temperature to the tube yield
stress at metal temperature or 1.0, whichever is less, for roller
expanded joirts
= 1.0 2
17, (allowable) = Maximum allowable tube-lo-tubesheet joint load
= A, (s") f" (f) fy FLANGE DESIGN
: .1739 (10,000) l (0.70) I
= | ,217 lb

17, <lV, (allowable), tube-to-tubesheet joint is O.K.

All the stresses are within allowables therefore, the tube sheet design is
adequate and expansion joint is not required.
REFERENCES
l. Morton, Donald S., "Heat Exchangers Dominate Process Heat
Transfer," Chemical Engineering, June ll,1962, pp. 170-176.
2. Standards of Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, 6th
Edition. 1978. New York.
3. Lord R. C., Minton P. E., and Slusser, R. P, "Design of Heat
Exchangers," Chemical Engineering, J anruary 26,1970, pp. 96 -l18.
4. Rase, Howard F., and Barrow, M. H., "Project Engineering of Process
Plants," John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1957.
5. Kern, Donald Q., "Process Heat Transfer", lst Edition, McGraw-
Hill Book Company, New York, N.Y., 1950.
6. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, "Pressure Ves-
sels," Division I, ASME, New York, N.Y., 1983.
The flange is the most essential part of pressure vessels, heat
cxchangers and storage tanks. Flanges are used on the shell ofa vessel or
i|n exchanger to permit disassembly and removal or cleaning of internal ii
parts. Flanges are also used for making piping connections and any
other nozzle attachments at openings.
The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code permits, and even
cncourages, the use of flanges made to recognized standards such as
"Steel Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings," ANSI 816.5, 1973 or 19'11
cdition. Flanges conforming to this standard can be used without
calculation at the pressure-temperature ratings assigned in 1977 edition.
Certain other standards, however, that are not nearly as well
known, also provide designs which may be lound acceptable,
particularly in the sizes above 24" which is the upper size limit of the
ANSI 816.5 standard. Thus, it is often possible to find in a recognized
standard the exact flange type, size and material ne€ded for a particular
application.
The following are typical flange standards:
MSS SP-44 was developed to establish uniform flange dimensions for
use with high pressure pipe lines of26" through 36" size, and classes 300
through 900. It is now revised to include class 150 and sizes 12" through
60'.
API (American Petroleum Institute) Standard 605, Large Diameter
Carbon Steel Flanges, 75, 150 and 300Ib rating in sizes 26" through 60"
inclusive.
Taylor Forge Standard, classes 75, 175 and 350 in sizes 26" through 72"'
92" and 96" respe€tively.

58 59
 t)tist(;N ( )t t,t{(xjiss l1(?lIIt,MIrNI.
AWWA (Anrcricarr Watcr Works Association) Standard C207-55.
classcs B, D and E, in sizes 6" through 96".
The flanges included in the API Standard and the several Taylor
Forge Standards are designed in accordance with the requirements of
thecode. When flanges to other standards are considered, only allowable
ratings in accordance with the code need to be checked instead of the
development of an individual design.
Taylor Forge Catalog No. 722 lists all of the above and also other
large diameter flanges. A lot of unnecessary flange design time can be
saved by choosing the appropriate flange from this catalog. Howevcr,
due to the variety of sizes and pressure and temperature combinations
required for process equipment, manual designing ofthese flanges is not
very uncommon. The design analysis of various types of flanges along
with the sample design calculations for eash kind are included in this
chapter.
We will cover the design ofcircular flanges under internal pressure with
gaskets entirely within the inrer edges of the bolt holes and with the outer
rims of the flanges not touching under the applied loading as discussed rn
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel coder and EPG Bulletin No. 502,2 Thesc
are classified as circular flanges as illustrated in Appendix 2 of 1983 edition
of the ASME code Section VIII, Div l, Paragraph 2-4 and Fig. 2-4. The
following are types of such flanges:
1 Int€gral Type Flanges. This type covers designs where the flange rs
integral with the neck or vessel wall, butt-welded to the neck or vessel
wall, or attached to the neck or vessel walt by any other type of welded
joint that is considered to be the equivalent to an integral structure. In
welded construction, the neck or vessel wall is considered to act as a
hub.
Fig. la through ld represent flanges of this type. For flangcs
having tapered hubs, the dimension 9o is defined in the code as the
hub thickness at the small end, but for calculation purposes it is more
convenient to let go equal the wall thickness of the attached cylinder.
Also, th€ hub length I extends exactly to the point where its slopeline
meets the O.D. of the vessel or nozzle and thus ft may actually be
shorter or longer than the hub length as manufactured.
The dimension B in this case will be the inside diameter of both
the flange and the vessel or nozzle.
2- Loose Type Flanges. This type covers designs where the flange has
no dir€ct attachment between the vessel or nozzle and those where
the method of attachment is not considered to be equivalent ro
integral structure.
60
Irl.AN(il; l)rlsl(;N
l-ig. lc shows the original application of this type. The hub can
ho made of any length or omitted entirely. B€sides lapjoint, slip on,
threaded and socket type flang€s are also classed as loose typ€. For
hubbed flanges ofthis type, there is no minimum limitation on i or go.
I{owever, values oI go less than 1.5t, and i lcss than go are not
recommended. Ifthe hub is too small to meet these limits, it is best to
design it as in Fig. 1f, but ofintegral type, using hub thickness equal to
(t r + t,) at large end, t, at small end and B as the inside diameter ofthe
vessel or nozzle.
While designing loose type flanges, B should be taken as the
inside dianeter of the flange but not the vessel or nozzle.
Optional Type Flanges. This type covers designs where the
attachment of the flange to the vessel or nozzle wall is such that the
assembly is considered to act as a unit which should be calculated as
an integral flange, with the vessel wall taking on the functions of the
hub. This obviously includes welded construction with no apparent
hub, as shown in Fig. 1g and lh, or constructions with such small
hubs that do not merit inclusion in the loose typ€ group. The term
"optional" is used because the designer may calculate the
construction as a loose type flange provided none of the following
values is exceeded:
B .^^
,o:i Incn. ..i :J(^J
Design pressure :300 psi
Operating temperature : 700"F
Thus the integral flanges that come within the above restrictions
can also be designed as loose type flanges. This simplifies the calcula-
tions and may result in som€ economy.
BOLT LOAD AND GASKET REACTION
In bolt-up condition the bolt load is balanced only by the gasket
reaction as shown in Fig. 2a. As internal pressure is applied, the bolt
load is balanced by lhe sum of gasket reaction and the hydrostatic end
force due to pressure as shown in Fig' 2b. Thus, while designing a
flange, both the above conditions should be analyzed separately.
6l

INTEGFAL TYPE FLANGES
whete Hub Stope Adiacen! To Flange
E ceeds 1:3 Use Dataits (1b) ot (1c)
Loodlnt And Dlhutto.s
FIG. I . TYPES OF FLANGES
(Courtesy of Energy Produds croup)
62
lrl.AN(ili l)l1Sl(;N
Itr.qrir(d llolt Lords
TOOSE TYPE FLANGES
{rl lflet Disc-Type Gaskets: Operatirg Conditions
llrt: r'cquired bolt load, tIl.r, shall be sufficient to resist the hydrostatic
r'|l(l li)rcc, H, exerted by the internal pressure on the area bounded by the
,lrrrrrrctcr of gasket reaction G, and, to maintain on the gasket or joint-
, {,ntircl surface a compression load. tl, Thus'
w^t:H+He::G2P+2bncn? (l)
f. 8. tu1., At Nii-p.irt Ot Carocr B.- llolt-up or Gasket S€ating Condition
1..., n@0. Ard Lop t.d.p.nd.nt Of
lkrlilrc a tight joint can be obtained it is necessary to seat the gasket or
ro!nt-contact surface properly by applying a minimum initial load, l/,r,
wr tlrout the presence of internal pressure. This load is a function of the
prrskct material and the effective gasket area to be seated and can be
r'U)rcSSed aS:
W^z:brGY (2)
tk.w
OPTIONAL TYPE FLANGES
FIG.2a
| I
Fu
^=-,4
Pcr.r.o
;A
At. fha
Ba.k.hle
SoD. As
FIG' 2b
FIG. 2-BOLT LOAD AND CASKET REACTION
(Courtesy of Energy Products Group)
63
 t )lisr(;N olr Pl{(xtLss LQUTPMEN'I' l.t.AN(iti Dl1st(;N

ts
F ,:
o
'd
F
3i'^ ^
=I; -^*:i ?
.Y

-a
zt
4a
!o
yc7 E
-9'Z s >iE
iE
.;

<rr
21 g
$M mftum
E 5i+;,*r ;I *E
5a$#' R?RC9 83338 :Ei i€ s
:tj. E?.i
z1
<E E:{:i E
rz
i i+ L
<F iis
d'j:
;ts
-3FE i ;
iE.s I
I, I
Errij I
<t ;h.:::'
FC - !.n E z=E !.= A
5!E ti
F='d:
;
cc. - >,+!: >
=
-;36s?
: c o\o coo ,a
q,
:o,Y3
.9
e:a.
=7. ): ti 5 i
! Ed : ; ! -o : ; E*.i=3 ,r.
=
ii E7i-, a
6
" oir:? o = i *!! c
<!
F .iJ
o i9
3i h u-.:>e
3,
::5
i.ti.:=i
o- d ::6
,i.,i.:>6i+i .i.d,:> e i.,i:>6
::5 5'! ::5 5 (! F F'; ;: i;; F
=i,i. :E:'9n ar
J -o !g=t= E
]. Ya 1'r' vE I <
-' 6 .:= ;€;E+ E

3- =9:-.
.=
;r,,ib o o-< !l 3P
t
ai E;-E9
f $E!! ;
F d } OF U
: O;:E 93
tE:6
Jo 3
?.a
iE
!l
-1 i: Fv
rr1
cz

64 65
 l)lrsl(;N ()F PI{O(ILSS tiQUIPMENT FLANGE DESI(]N

--\ /:
b

al -l
+

{:..-
l'+ -l *:=+i+t
dj o:<
{'s
r! ce
o
i.9 E=
sj"
+ 16l E r;: ; 1"s"{
t
5>
i;

!!: !r, o L-E

:5
Ei;*:i[; EI
FT .-E .:
, =l
F
r{
g- vll
M l-'-
E]
-
^l
l^r
*'|
I
;.$
(,*
F cl
I
H ']i
l-"'lc
a <
-l l.r
El
,i Iv vtl

3
F
\z$ $z Ftil
{Ff IN a>

iNNRB 2A
T+ laF
3N
-{1tzN
'|| rt
rt ;= L

ZF ZN
lrl
_'t]*1.r_ ?:
T:
z7
r,t
E
,=
a
z
z a^ !
;

oo 67
 t)list(;N ( )tr pR(xitiss l]Q(itpMI]NT trt.AN(;li I)|]st(;N

For flange pairs having a tubesheet in the middle as in exchanger I lk)lts must be spaced close enough to assure adequate gasket pressure
application or for any other similar application wher€ the flanges and l)clwcen bolts.
or gaskets are not the same, W^, shall be the larger of the values
Seltction of Bolt Spacing
obtained from above formula as individually calculated for each
flange and gasket, and that value shall be used for both flanges. lhc minimum bolt spacing based on wrench clearances limits the
Code suggested values of gasket factor ,|| and minimum design rrrrrrrbcr of bolts that can be placed in a given bolt circle. The maximum
seating stress / for various gaskei materials are tabulated in Table I lxrll spacing is limited by the permissible deflection that would exist
and effective gasket seating widths for different contact facings are lr('twocn flanges. If the deflection is excessive, the gasket joint will leak.
given in Table 2. lil'(i Bulletin 502 "Modern Flange Design" recommends the following
frrrpirical relationship for maximum bolt spacing:
(b) Self-energizing Gaskets: Operating Conditions
6-L
The required bolt load for the op€rating conditions, t/,,, shall be Bolt spacing (maximum):2a
' +.(m + 0.5)
sufficient to resist the hydrostatic end force, H, exerted by the internal
pressure on the area bounded by the outside diameter ofthe gasket. H, is l,lstsblishing Bolt Circl€
to be consid€red as zero for all self-energizing gasket except certain I lrc thickness of hub at back of flange g, should first be calculated as
seal configurations which generate axial loads which must be con- Ir)llows:
sidered.
Bolt-up or Gasket Seating Condition
g L: 1.25 g o to 2.590
Table 3 lists the root area, minimum bolt spacing, radial distance
Self-energizing gaskets may be considered to require an inconsequen-
rrd edge distance etc. as functions ofbolt size. The minimum bolt-circle
tial amount of bolting force to produce a seal. So ttl.2 can be assumed
tliirnreter will be either the diameter necessary to satisfy the radial
equal to zero. Bolting, however, must be pretightened to provide a
bolt load sufficient to withstand the hydrostatic end force I/. ' lcirrances,i.e. B * 2(tr + R) or the diameter necessary to satisfy the bolt-
rpircing requirement,i.e. N(Bolt spacing)/z, whichever is greater. The
,rptimum design is usually obtained when these two controllirrg
Determination of Bolt Area (lr meters are approximately equal.
If S, denotes the allowable bolt stress at the operating temperature,
and S, the allowable bolt stress at atmospheric temperature, then l,'lange Design Bolt Load, W
the minimum required total bolt area,4- is obtained as follows: lhc bolt loads used in the design of the flange shall be the values
. w^,
A.: !' or
w^
'2. whicherer is greater
()btained from the following forrnulas:
Jn J, For operating conditions

Selection oibolts to be used shall be made such that the actual total W:W^, (3)
cross-sectional area of bolts, lr, will not be less than 1.. Excessrve For gasket seating
bolting may have to be provided while designing relatively thin flanges
u,:. .^ Ab\5.
t 4,-r
g)
for low pressure service because of the following,
i
l. Due to the danger of over-stressing smaller size bolts during
ln formula (4) S, shall not be less than that tabulated in Subsection C of
tightening, a minimum bolt size of /z " is usual in most piping and
pressure vessel work,
thc ASME Section VIII, Division t code. In addition to the minimum
fcquirements for safety formula (4) provides e margin against abuse of
2. For practical construction reasons, bolting is mostly provided in thc flange from overbolting since margin against such abuse is needed
multioles of four. plirnarily for the initial, bolting-up operation which is done at

68
69
 |)tist(;N otr PR(xtuss tiQtjlt,MUN'I' lrl.AN(;li I)l1Sl(;N

€! sN{ sNs ssN ss sss s

.r| || rr rrl)llcric tcnrpcta(t||c ltrd bcforc applicatiott tlf intcrnal pressure, the
llrrrrgc tlcsigrr is rcquircd to satisfy this loading only under such
5E
i3 ( ll (lrll()lls.

a Whcrc additional safety against abuse is desired, or where it ts

r( ( cssirt y that the flange be suitable to withstand the lull available bolt
.E!€ - s*s sss SSs ssx s:s;s s5 l, rrrrl. t hc llange may be designed on the basis of .4r(S,).
ioJ
o
lilurge Moments
& Er,r
,!.E
ssF 5ss sss sss ss xs
o I lrc various axial forces on the flange produce bending moments. The
rrrorlcnt ol a load is the product of the load and its moment arm. The
t z2 Ir()l|tcnt arm is determined by the relative position ofthe bolt circle with
E
!!a 55s sss ss sss sxs sx I rsllcct to that of the load producing the moment. The forces and the
E6
T I vcr arms for a typical integral-type flange for operating condition are
o ',lrown in Fig. 3. The total moment must be equal to the sum of the
F 3l sss Sss 5Ss SN sNs NS nr()u)cnts acting on the flange:

I lrr nge Loads Lever Arms Moments

z
tr hr:n+i Mr:
FI
!j na9 ci ct rt atc,t{
a.
rt,,:9.195432 o

R+ gt+
Hoh, (5)

i.: ll,:H-11o , hc
i/, -u
J
o s- "r- 2
L (6)

zt EE sss sxs ss sN5 sss ss

F iE Il,:ltY-g , CG (1)

!
!ro
tsi; d<;'
!Ei nqc? c.i t't .q kt <t 6
z:
<i Thus the total moment will bc

6(, Mo: M D+ Mr+ Mo (8)

EEi
d<;' qqc! 9\q a?c\ 99 ln the case of loose-type flanges in which the flange bears directly on
rhc gasket, the force Il, is considered to act on the inside diameter ofthe
;.P llange and the gasket load at the center line of the gasket face. The lever
5d
o
I s ss irrms for the moments are:
i.: t\94 FE]
E*
, C.B
:. (e)
"2
=o
3#" sxs ss sxs xxs ss x t" _hp+ hc
(10)
2

'71
70
 I)llsl(;N ()lr l,l{(xil-ss li(.ltJll'MliN f trt.ANCll l)tisl(;N

h.:= (ll)
These lever arms also apply to optional type flanges when they are
designed as loose-type flanges. However, exception to the above is taken
in the case of lapjoint flange Fig. 1e in which the lever arm ho is given by
equation (9) and lever arms lrr and lo are identical and are given by
equation (11).
For gasket seating, the total flange moment Mo is based on the
flange design bolt load of formula (4), which is opposed only by the
gasket load in which case

Mo:I'Yq:G) ir2)

The moments obtained by the above formulas are valid only if the
bolts are spaced sufliciently close to produce a reasonably even
distribution of gasket load. This spacing can be called normal spacing
and is assumed to be equal to (2d+ t). Thus, ifthe actual spacing exceeds
ii t
the normal bolt spacing, the flange thickness must be increased in order
to maintain an even distribution ofgasket load. This necessary increase -o l.E" I
in thickness can be determined by giving the total moments a - ;tr i
corresponding increase, the thickness increase being proportional to the 'rP
<! -3
square root of the moment increase as derived from formulas for
calculation of S^ and St, the radial and tangential stresses in the flange
respectively. So the total moment can be multiplied by a correctron 'a ...'

factor as derived from the above relationship and given by:

^ / actual bolt spacing

tr:
a/ 116rmar uort .spacins

FIG. 3 - FORCES AND LEVER ARMS FOR INTEGRAL FLANGE

IN OPERATINC CONDITION

'ra
73
Itl:Sl(,N ()l l,ltrx:l SS tirlll ,MtlNt lrl -AN(;li I)liSl(;N

u)
,1
3 oOoSB ci3
ci
,no

'.q

6 3E
3 '-i
PE

.3 :g
E
- o
E

35 3

^ >d 5
''oooo o
'co@sc) N
o.o(o €dr N _qq9c?
ooooo n :33 33 3E
- -do c; ci oo
: cas E -J

.rI 3
>r -
.: !- ,u d
E

o P9
o
; !5 o
vE
-
6i !+
<9
>9
,'i
3 o

o
A

74 75
 I )list(;N otr pt{(xjliss IiQtJtpMuN'1. trl.AN(iu l)lisl(;N

it ||(l

: Mocr
M
B
Factors T. Z. y and U can be determined from Table 4 as a function
ol K, the ratio of the outside to inside diameter of the flange.
Factors F, \ Fr,Vrandf canbe obtained from Figures 4 through 8.
l,irctors F and Iz apply in designing integral type flanges while F" and I/,
rrlc used for loose flange calculations. The hub stress correction factor jf
is of significance only when tapered hubs are involved, as its value is I for
hu bs of uniform thickness.
Flange thickness t must be initially assumed. Using the assumed
value of r, the various factors c, B, y, d and ,t can now be determined (see
thc attached calculation sheets) and used in the formulas for calculating
lhc flange stresses.
For integral fype flanges &s well as for optional type flanges
ctlculated as integral type and for loose type with a hub which is
considered in the design, the stresses in the flange for the operating
condition are:
l.onsitudinal hub stress

fM
sI| : .-2
^gr
l{adial flange stress

,-:0!
-" fu2
Frc. E _
VALUES OF/(UA-51.6)
'I
(Hub Stress Correction Factor) angential flange stress
(Reproduced from ASME CODE Section VIII, Div.
t) .MY-^_ ZSj
5-:
'1 .,

Calculation of Flange Str€sses For loose type flanges without hubs or with hubs which are not
considered in design and for optional type flanges calculated as loose
.The
stresses in the flange shall be determined for both the operating type without hubs or with hubs which are not considered in the design'
condition and gasket seating condition, whichever controls. In order to the flange stresses in operating condition are:
simplify calculations, the following factors are introduced in operating
as well as gasket seating conditions bydividing their respective moments Sa:0 MY
by the flange inside diameter B: and S":
't' ,
Sr:0
M:Mocr
B The stresses for gasket seating condition in either case can be found
by substituting M in place of M in the above equations.

76 77
 l)l,Sl(;N ( )l l'R( X liSli ll(.!( Jll,MriN l l l AN( ilr l)l Si( iN

TAI]LU 4 - T.'ACTOITS INVOLVING K "

TAULU 4 - I.',\CTOlts INVOLVING K (Continucd)
K T z U K z U T Z K T z U
r.oo I r.9l r000.50 l91l.t6 2100.18 1.016 r.90 12.O5 42.75 46.99
|.002 500.50 956.16 1050.72 t.o17 t.90 21.79 41.87 46.03
r.oer I
1.88 I 1.52 21.11 1.136 1.86 7.88 15.26 16.77
l.oo3 r.9l 333.83 637.85 700.93 1.0a8 1.90 21.35 at.o2 45.09
|.0e2 ll
I .88 11.40 21 .99 24.16 1.137 r .86 r 5.15 I6.65
|.004 | 9l 250.50 178.71 526.05 l.or9 I.90 20.92 10-21 11.21
r.093 l t.88 1 l.2E 21.76 23.91 l.t 38 1.86 7.78 15.05 16.54
r.005 r.9l 200.50 383.22 a21.12 r.050 r.89 ?0.5 | 39.43 43.34 r.oe4 1l
1.88 1 I.l6 21.54 23.67 1.1 39 1.86 7.73 r 4.95 16.43
|.oe5 I
1.88 I 1.05 21 .32 23.11 1.140 L86 7.6a 1 4.86 16.35
r.006 9l 67.17 319.55 351.16 t.051 1.89 20.12 38.68 42.51 tl

1.OO7 9l 13.36 271.09 301.20 L05 2 1.89 19.71 37.96 4t.73 r.096 |
1.88 10.91 2l.r r 23.20 l.l4l 1.86 7.62 | 4.76 16.22
r.008 9l 25.50 239.95 263.75 1.053 1.89 19.38 37.27 40.96
| .o97 |
r.88 r 0.83 20.91 22.97 1.142 1.86 7.57 | 4.66 t6.lI
r.009 9l I t.6l 2 t 3.4C 231.12 t.054 t.89 r 9.03 36.60 40.23
r.0e8 ll
r.88 10.73 20.71 l.l 43 1.86 7.53 14.57 r6.01
r.ot0 9l 00.50 r 92.1 9 2r r.l9 1.88 10.62 20.51 22.39 1.144 r.86 7.48 14.48 15.91
1.055 t.89 r 8.69 35.96 39.64
i?33 l L88 10.52 20.3t 22.14 1.145 r.86 7.43 14.39 15.83
l.0t
r.012
r.0t 3
I r.9l
l.9l
9t.rl
8
171.A3
3.81 160.38
77.13 148.06
| 92.13
17 6.?5
1.056
1.057
t.89
1.89
I8.38
I 8.06
35.3 4
34.7 4
38.84
38.r 9 I l0l
r.102
-x 1.88
1.88
't0.43
10.33
20.15
19.94
22.12
2l .92
1.t 46
I .1 47
1.86
t.86
7.38
7.34
1

1
4.29
4.20
15.71
15.61
1.9 | t62.81 1.058 t.89 17.76 34.17 37.56 ll

l.0l a r.9l 71.9 3. 137.69 I51.30 1.0s9 1.89 17.17 33.62 36.95 r.r 03 I
1.88 10.23 19.7 6 21 .72 'l
.l 48 1.86 7.29 | 4.12 15.5l
r.015 r,91 67.17 r28.61 I { r.33 1.060 1.89 17.18 33.04 36.34 r.r04 ll
1.88 l0.l 4 19.58 21 .52 1.149 r.86 7.25 14.03 15.42
r.t 05 ll r.88 10.05 19.38 21.30 1.150 1.86 7.20 13.95 I5.34
t.0 t6 t.90 63.00 I 20.56 132.19 1.06t 1.89 16.91 32.55 35.78 ---{
t.0 1.90 59.33 I r r.98 | 24.8l 1 .062 1.89 16.64 32.04 r.r 06 I
1.88 9.96 19.33 21.11 l.l 5l 1.86 13.86 15.23
t_0 t8 1.90 56.06 r 07.36 | | 8.00 r.063 1.89 I6.40 31.55 31.64 t.r 07 I
1 .87 9.87 19.07 20.96 1.152 1.86 7.11 13.77 l5.t 4
1.0 t9 r.90 53. r,( tot.72 I r 1.78 1.064 L89 l6.t 5 31.08 34.17 t.108 1 .47 9.78 r s.90 20.77 1.153 1.86 7.07 r 3.69 15.05
1.0 lo t.90 50.51 96.73 106.30 t.065 1.89 r 5.90 30.61 33.65 r.t09 I
1 .87 9.70 14.74 20.59 1.154 1.86 7.O3 13.61 14.96
1.rr0 ]
1 .87 9.62 r 8.55 20.38 l.t 55 1.86 6.99 14.47
.021 r.90 18.t2 92.2 | r0t.33 1.066 r.89 1 5.67 30.17 33.17
.o22 1.90 45.96 88.0t 96.75 1 .067 1.89 15.45 29.7 4 32.69 r.rrr I
1 .87 9.54 14.12 20.25 1.156 r.86 6.95 13.45 14.78
.023 1.90 4 3.98 81.30 92.6t 1.068 1.89 1 5.22 29.32 32.22 t.ll2 1 .87 9.46 14.27 20.08 1.157 1.86 6.91 14.70
.o2a r.90 12.17 80.8 | 88.8l 1.069 r.89 I5.02 28.91 31.79 t.n3 | .47 9.3 8 18.13 t 9.91 l.l 58 L86 6.87 I3.30 14.61
|.90 ,(0.5 | 77.61 I5.29 |.o70 r.89 14.s0 28.5r 31 .34 1.114 1.87 9.30 17.97 19.7 5 r.159 L86 6.83 14.53
| '| .a7 9.22 17.81 19.55 r.160 1.86 6.79 I3.t5 14.45
|.026 t.90 82.09 1.071 t.89 14.61 28.13 30.92 'lLl
t.o27 t.90
38.97
3/.51
7 A.70
1.072 1.89 14.41 27.76 30.5r l r.n6Z 1.87 9.1 5 t7.68 19.43 Ll61 t.85 13.07 14.36
1.028 r.90 36 22
.97
7 t
69.13
79.O8
76.30 1.073 1.89 I4.22 27.39 30.1I lr. 1.87 9.07 17.54 19.27 1.162 1.85 6.71 13.00 14.24
LO2 9 t.90 3 r.99 67.1| 73.75 t.o74 1.88 I4.Ol 27.04 ll. 8 t.87 9.00 17.40 19.12 1.1.63 1.85 6.67 12.92 14.20
t.030 t.90 3 3_8,1 61.9 | 71.33 1.O75 r.88 13.85 26.69 29.34 ll.u9
tl.l20
1 .87
1 .87
8.91
8.86
|
t7.13
7.27 i 8.98
18.80
l.t64
1.165
r.85
r.85
6.64
6.60
12.85
12.78
14.12
14.04
1.03 | 1.90 62.85 69.06 1.076 t.88 13.68 26.36 28.98 r.t 2l .a7 8.79 | 7.OO I 8.68
r.032 |.90 31.7 6 60.9? 66.91
1 1.166 1.85 6.56 12.71 13.97
LO77 1.88 26.03 28.69 |.122 | .87 16.87 18.54
1.03 3 t.90 30.8 | 59. r I 61.95 1.o78 1.88 13.35 25.72 2A.27 1.167 6.53 12.64 I3.89
r.034 |.90 63.08 r.123 1.87 8.66 '| 6.74 I 8.40 1.168 1.85 6.49 12.58 | 3.a2
29.92 57.11 1 .079 I.88 l3.t 8 25.40 27.92 1.124 .87 8.59 16.62 18.26
r.035 r.90 29,08 5 5.80 6r.32 r.080 1.88 25.10
1 1.t 69 1.85 6.46 12.51 13.7 4
r 3.02 27.59 Ll25 .57 8.53 16.19 l8.l I
1 1.170 1.85 6.42 12.43 r 3.66
r.036 1.90 24.29 51.29 59.66 1.081 1.88 12.87 24.81 27.27
1.126 | .a7 8.17 | 6.37 17.99 1.171 1.85 6.39 12.38 13.60
t.o37 1.90 27.51 58.08 t.082 1.88 24.52 26.9 5
1.127 .87 8.40 16.25 17.46 1.172 1.85 6.35 12.31 r 3.53
t.038 t.90 26.83 51.50 56.59 r.083 1.88 24.21 1

1.039 1.90 26.15 50.2 | 55.17 t.084 1.88 | 2.43 24.0O 26.34 t.128 1.87 8.31 l6.l 4 1.173 1.85 6.32 t2.25 13.46
r.0r0 1.90 25.51 48.97 53.82 t.085 r.88 12.29 23.69 26.05 1 .129 1.87 8.2 8 16.02 17.60 1 .174 1.85 6.29 I2.18
l.t 30 1 .87 8.22 15.91 17.48 1.175 1.85 6.25 t2.t0 I3.30
l-041 1.90 21.90 n7.81 1.086 t.88 12.15 23.14 25.77
1.0a2 r.90 21.32 16.71 1 .O87 1.88 | 2.O2 23.18 25.48 l l3l 1.87 8.16 1 5.79 17.35 1.176 1.85 6.22 12.06 I3.25
|.013 l.9o 23.77 15,61 50.15 L088 1.88 I1.89 22.93 25.20 t.132 | .87 8.1I I 5.68 17.21 't.177 1.85 6.19 12.00 13.18
1.0a 4 |.90 11.6A r9.05 1.089 1.88 11 .76 22.68 24.93 t.133 r.86 I J.a/ l7.t I 1.174 1.85 6.16 I 1.93 l3.l l
'13.05
t.0t5 r.90 22.71 ,t 3.69 14.O2 1.090 1.88 1 1.63 22.44 24.66 t.134 t.uo 7.99 | 5.46 r 6.99 1.179 1.85 6.13 11.87
t.135 1.86 7.94 I5.36 t 6.90 1.180 1.85 6.10 11.79 | 2.96
(Courtesy of Energy Products Group)

78
79
 | )l,l.il(;N ( )tr t,t{( X:liSS Ii(ltJ )MtiN I. l l AN(;li l)lrSl( iN
'l AllLlj 4 - IJAC'IOtts INVOLVING K (Continued) 'fAIJLIj 4 - ITACTOII.S INVOLVING K (Continucd)
K T Z Y U K T z U t( T Y K T z Y U
Lt82 1.85 6.04 | 1.70 12.86 1.278 r.8l 4.t 6
1.184 1.85
8.05 8.85 |.434 1.74 2.89 6.10 1.75 r.60 1.97 3.61 4.00
5.98 I 1.58 12.73 I.28t t.8l 4.12 7.98
1.186 1.85
8.77 L438 1.7 4 2.A7 5.52 6.0s 1.76 r.60 r.95 3.61 3.96
5.92 12.61 |.244 r.80 4.O8 7.9 |
1.188 t.85 J.60 I1.36 8.69 t.412 1 .71 2.85 5.48 6.0r 1.77 r .60 t.94 3.93
t 2.19 1.287 r.80 4.05 7.81 8.61 t.446 1.74 2.83 5.44 5.97 1.7e I .59 1.92 3.89
r.t90 1.84 5.8r 11.26 | 2.37 1.290 1.80 4.01 8.s3 r.450 2.81 5.40 5.93 1 .79 1.59 l.9l
1.192 1.84 J./ J I l.l5 12.2 5 1.293 1.80 3.98 7.70 8.46 t.80 L58 r.89 3.47 3.82
1.194 1.84 s.70 t.454 1.73 2.80 5.36
11.05 t2.t 4 1.296 1.80 3.9 4 8.39 t.458 1.73 2.75 t.8l 1.58 r.88 3.44 3.78
l.t
96 1.84 J.O5 10.95 I 2.03 1 .299 1.80 3.9r 7.57
l.l 98 t.a4 5.60
8.31 t.462 1.73 2.7 6 5.80 1.82 1.58 r .86 3.41 3.7 5
10.85 11.92 1.302 r.80 3.8I 7.50 8.24
1.200 t.466 1.73 2.7 4 5.21 5.76 1.83 1 .57 1.85 3.3 8 3.72
1.84 10.7 5 I l.8l r.305 1.80 3.84 7.41 8.18 2.72 1.84 1.84 3.69
t.470 1.72 5.71 1 ,57 3.3 5

1.202 1.84 5.50 I 0.65 11 .71 1.308 1.79 3.8r 7.38 8.1 I |.475 1.72 2.70 5.1 6 5.66 r.85 r.56 t.83 3.3 3 3.6 5
1 .204 1.84 5.45 r 0.56 I l.6l l.3l I 1.79 3.78 7.32 8.05 L 480 2.68 5.12 5.61 l.8l
1.206 1.72 r.86 r.56 3.62
1.84 5.40 10.47 I l.5l 1.314 t.79 J./ J 7.26 7.98 r.485 1.72 2,66 5.57 | .87 r.56 t.80 3.27 3.5 9
1.208 1.84 t 0.38 I l.4l 1.317 1 .79 7.20 7.92 r.490 1.72 2.64 5.04 1.88 1.55 1.79 3.24 3.5 6
r.210 1.84 0.30 1.320 1.79 3.69
r 11.32 7.1 1 7.85 ,u7: 1 .71 2.62 5.00 5.49 1.89 1.55 t.78 3.22 3.s 4
1 .212 1.83 5.27 I0.21 11.22 t.323 1 .79 3.67 7.09 7.79 t.500 .71 2.60 4.96 t.90 1,54 3.51
1
t.77 3.19
1 .21 4 r.83 l0.r 2 ll.l2 1 .326 1 .79 3.61 7.03 7.73 1.505 1 .71 2.5a 4.92 5.41 t.9l |.75 3.17 3.48
1.216 r.83 5.18 I 0.04 I r.03 1.329 1.7a 3.61 6.98 1.510 1 .71 2.56 4.88 5.37 3.45
1.92 | .54 1.74 3.1 4
1.2t 8 r.83 5.1 4 9.96 t0.94 t.332 t.7a J.J6 6.92 7.61 r.515 1 .71 4.84 5.33 r.53 3.43
t.93 1.73 3.12
1.220 r.83 5.t0 9.89 10.87 I.JJ5 l.7a 3.56 6.87 7.s5 r.520 1.70 2.s3 4.80 5.29 1.94 r.53 1.72 3.09 3.40
1.222 r.83 J.UJ 9.80 I o.77 r.338 .78
| 3.53 6.A2 7.50 .525 1.70 2.51 4.77 r.95 t.53 .71 3.07 3.3 8
| .224 5.01 9.72 I 0.68 r.341 1.78
1 1

1.226 r.83 4.98 9.65 10.60 1.311

3.5 | 6.77 7.41 t.530 1.70 2.49 4.7 4 5.21 l 96 i.52 1.70
1.78 3.48 6.72 7.39 t.535 1.70 2.47 4.70 | .97 .52 t.69 3.03 3.3 3
| .22a 1.83 4.94 9.57 10.52 1.317 1.78 3.46
1

1 .230
6.64 7.33 r.540 1 .69 2.46 4.66 5.1 3 I .98 r.5l t.68 3.Ol 3.30
L83 4.90 9.50 10.44 r.350 |.78 3.43 6.63 7.28 t_545 I .69 2.44 4.63 5.09 I.99 r.5l I .68 2.98 3.2I
1 .232 r.83 4.86 9.43 r 0.36 1.354 1.77 3.40 6.57
1.234 1.83 4.83 9.36 10.28
7.2 1 t.55 1.69 2.43 4.60 5.0s 2.00 t.5t 1 .67 2.9 6 3,26
1.358 1.77 6.50 7.t 1 1.56 r.69 2.40 4.54 4.99 2.01 1.50 t.66 2.9 4
1.236 1 .82 4.79 9.29 10.20 1 .362 1 .77 3.3 4 6.44 7.O8 | .57 1.68 2.37 4.48 4.92 2.02 1.50 I .65 2.92 3.?1
1 .238 t.a2 4.7 6 9.22 10.13 1.366
1.240 6.38 7.O l r.58 1.68 2.31 4.12 4,86 2.O4 1.49 L63 2.88 3.17
1 .e2 4.72 9.1 5 t 0.05 1.370 t.77 3.2I 6.32 6.9 5 t.59 t.6/ 2.31 4.36 4.79 2.06 1.48 t.62 2.85 3.t 3
1.242 1.82 4.69 9.08 9.98 1 .371 6.27 6.89
1.241 1.82 4.65 9.O2 9.91
r.60 1 .67 4.31 1.73 2.O8 L48 1.60 2.81 3.09
1.378 |,/6 6.21 6.82 t.6l 2.26 4.25 4.67 2.10 ,17 r.59 2.7I 3.05
t.246 1 .82 1.62 8.95 9.81 t.3a2
1

|.24a 1.76 3.20 6.16 6.77 .62 t.65 2.23 4.20 2.12 1.46 .57 2.7 4 3.01
1.82 4.59 8.89 9.77
1 1
1.386 1.76 3.17 6.1 | 6.72 r.63 1.65 2.21 4.15 4.56 2.14 ,46 1.56 2.71 2.97
1.250 | .82 4.56 8.83 9.70
1
1.390 1.76 3.15 6.06 6.66 r .64 l -65 2.18 4.10 1.50 2.16 2.67 2.9 4
1.252 1.82 4.52 8.77 9.64 1.394 1.76 6.0r 6.60 r.65 r.65 2.16 4.05 4.45 2.18 ,44 2.6 4 2.90
1.254 1 .82 4.49 8.71 9.57 1.398 1.75 3.10 5.96
1
o.55 I .66 1.64 2.14 4.01 4.40 2.20 1.44 1 .52 2.61 2.87
1.256 1.82 4.46 8.65 9.51 1 .402 1.75 3.O7 5.92 6.49 | .67 1.64 3.96 1.43 l.5l 2.58 2.84
1.258 l.8l 4.43 8.59 9.41 1.406 1.75 3.05 5.47 6.44 t.68 1.63 2.10 3.92 4.30
2.22
1.260 L8l 4.40 8.53 1.410 2.24 1 .42 t.50 2.56 2.8l
9.38 1.75 3.O2 5.82 6.39 t.oJ 3.47 4.26
2.08 2.26 t.4t .49 2.53 2.74
]ot 1

1 .263 l.8l 4.36 8.45 9.28 1.414 t -/5 3.00 6.34 1.70 1.63 2.06 3.83 4.21 2.28 t.4l 1.48 2.50 2.75
1.266 r.81 4.32 8.37 9.r 9 L418 1.7 5 2.94 1.40
6.29 1 ,71 .62 2.04 3.79 1.17 2.30 2.48 2.7 2
t.269 r.8l 4.28 8.29 9.i I 1.422 1.75 2.96
1
t.40
5.68 6.2 5 1.72 1 .62 2.02 3.7 5 4.12 2.32 1.46 2.45 2.69
1 .272 t.8l 4.24 8.21 9.O2 | .426 |,/4
r.275 r.8l 4.20
2.9 4 s.61 6.20 t.73 t.6l 2.OO 3.72 4.08 2.3 4 1.39 1.45 2.43 2.67
8.t 3 8.93 1.430 | .71 2.91 5.60 6.15 1.74 l.6l 1.99 3.68 4.O4 2.36 t.3B 1.44 2.40 2.6 4

80
8l
 I )list(;N otr pt{(x;tiss IiQtJ ,M[.N't. III,ANGI DLSI(iN

'fAllLE 4 - F'ACTOIIS INVOLVING K (Continued)

K T z U K T z U
2.38 r.38 l 43 2.3 8 2.61 3.5 0 t.r0 l.t8 1 .62 1.78
2.40 1 .37 1 .42 2.36 2.59 3.5 4 t.o9 1 .17 l.6l
2.42 l.4l 2.3 3 2.56 3.58 t.0B |,17 L59 t./ J
2.44 1.36 r.40 2.54 3.62 1 .07 t.l6 t.57 1.73
2.46 1.35 t.40 2.29 2.52 3.66 1,07 t.t6 1 .71
l l(;. 9a - TWO PASS FIG,9b, FOUR PASS FlG. 9c - SIx PASS
2.4a L35 t.39 2.27 2.50 ARRANGEMENT ARRANGEMENT ARRANGEMENT
3.70 1.06 r .16 t.)5 1 .70
2.50 L34 L38 2.2 5 2.47 3.7 4 t.05 r.t5
2,53 t.33 .37 2.22 2.44
1.53 1.68 FIG. 9 . MOST COMMON PASS ARRANGEMENTS
2.56
1 3.78 r.05 l.r5 1.52 1 .67 FOR MULTIPASS CHANNEL
1.32 2.19 2.41 3.82 r.04 t.l5 1.50
2.59 r.3l 2.17 2.3I 3.86 1 .03 t.t4 | .49 r.64
Allowable Flange D€sign Stresses
2.62 r.30 1.34 2.1 4 2.3 5 3.90 1.03 Lt4 1 .48 1 .62
2.6 5 r.30 r.33 2.12 2.32 3.9 4 1 .O2 1.r4 1 .46 1.6 |
2.6A r,29 1.32 2.O9 2.30 3.9 8 t.0l t.t3 1.45 t.60 l hc flange stresses as calculated above shall not exceed the following
2.71 1 .28 t.3l 2.O7 2.27 4.00 t.009 l.t3 i.59 values:
2.74 L27 L3l 2.04 2.25 4.05 1.002 1.1 3 t.43 | .57
1.26 1.30 2.02 4.t 0 .996 1.13 1.42 r.56
l. Longitudinal hub stress Sr should not be greater than 1'5 S/" in the
2.80 1.26 1 .29 2.O0 2.20 4.15 .989 t.l2 t.40 r.54 operating condition and 1.5 S/" in the gasket seating condition.
2.8 3
2.86
t.25
1.24
1.28
r .28
1.98
I .96
2.17
2.15
4.20
4.25
.982 1.12
t.l2
1.39
t.38 l,5i
l. Radial flange stress SR shall not exceed S/, in the op€rating condition
2.89 r.23 1 .27 1.94 4.30 .968 t.t I 1.50 and S/. in the gasket seating condition.
I. Tangential flange stress Sr shall not be greater than S/" in the
2.92 1 .22 1 .27 1.92 2.1 1 .962 Ll l 1.48
operating condition and S/, in the gasket seating condition.
2.95 1.22 1.26 r.90 2.O9 4.40 .955 l. r.34
2.98 r .21 r.25 r.88 2.O7 4.45 .94 r. 1.33 I.46 4. The greater of 0.5(srf + Sr) or 0.5(Sr, * Sr ) shall not exceed Sr" in the
3.0 2 'l
.20 1.25 1.86 2.O4 4.5 0 .911 t.t0 r.31 1,44 operating condition and S/" in the gasket seating condition.
3.06 l.t9 1.24 1.83 2.01 4.55 .9U l,t0 t.30 L43
3.t 0 l.t 8 .23 r.99 4.60 t.t0 If any of the stresses other than S, exceeds the allowable' the flange
1 1.81 .n8 | .29 1 .42
3.t 4 l.t7 1.23 1.79 1 .97 4.65 .nl l.t0 t.2a 1.41 I hickness r can be revised till the stresibs are within allowable. However,
3.t 8 l.t6 1 .22 1 .77 1.94 4.70 .911 1.09 1 .27 I.39 if S,, €xceeds the allowable, the increase in flange thickness will not help
3.22 l.t6 l.2l 1.75 1.92 .908 r.09 1 ,26 t.3d and it may be necessary to lengthen the hub, increase the 9r thickness or
3.26 t.l5 t.21 1.73 1.90 4.8 0 .9m 1.09 1.25
alter both of them.
3.30 l t4 1 .20 1 .71 r.88
3.3 4 l.l3 1 ,20 r.69 r.86 4.8 5 .893 1.09 L24
Deign
3.3 8 l,t2 l.t9 1 .67 t.84 4.90 .887 1.09 1.23 Considering Pass Rib Area in Flenge
3.42 l.t I l.l 9 1.66 r.82 4.95 .880 1.08 1.22
3.46 1.lr l.l8 1.61 r.80 5.00 .873 1.08 1.21 In certain application of flanges, especially in shell-and-tube heat
cxchangers where multipass channels are specified, the area for pass ribs
also contributes to required bolt load in the operating as well as in the
gasket seating conditions. Its effect may be negligible in some cases but it
is advisable to consider it in flange design wherever applicable. The most
commonly used pass arrangements for two, four and six pass channels
are indicated in Fig. 9. In order to simplify the calculations, the rib areas
for each case and for exchanger sizes 6" through 100" inclusive are given
in Table 5. Use ofrib area in llange design is illustrated in the calculation
sheet.

83
82
 r )lis t(;N ()|l Pl((xiliss riQUIpMl.iN't' !.LANCE DBSICN

Table 5 - Pass Rib Area Table 5 Psss Rib Area (Continued)

Nomlnal N omlna
-
Pass Rib Area, Rr, in.2 Pass Rib Area. Rr, in.2
Vessel Size Vessel Size
Two Pass Four Pass Six Pass in. Two Pass Four Pass Six Pass
6 2.84 5.27 8.36 51 19.69 36.02 53.59
8 3.59 o.oz 10.36 52 20.06 36.68 54.55
10 4.36 8.07 12.44
53 20.44 5t-3t 55.58
12 5.10 9.38 t4.43 54 20.81 38.07 56.60
l1 5.53 10.21 15.60
55 21.t9 38.77 57.63
16 6.28 11.56 t't.59 56 21.56 39.42 58.60
l8 7.03 12.95 19.58
57 21.94 40.11 59.62
20 7.78 14.30 21.63
58 22.31 40.81 60.59
22 8.53 t).o) zt.oz 59 22.69 4t.46 61.61
24 9.28 16.99 25.61
60 23.06 42.16 62.58
25 9.94 18.23 27.41
6l 23.44 42.86 63.60
26 10.31 r8.92 28.43
62 23.81 43.55 64.63
27 10.69 19.62 29.46
63 24.19 44.21 65.65
28 11.06 20.27 30.42
64 24.56 44.90 66.68
29 11.44 20.93 3t.4s 65 24.94 45.60 6'1.64
30 11.8 t zt .oz 32.41
66 25.31 46.2s 68.67
JI 12.19 22.32 33.44
67 25.69 46.95 69.08
12.56 23.0r 34.46 '70.66
68 26.06 47.64
33 12.94 23.71 35.43 69 26.44 48.30 71.69
34 13.31 24.36 36.46
70 26.81 48.99 72.65
35 13.69 25.06 37.48 7l 27.19 49.69 73.68
36 14.06 2J. t) 38.45
72 27.56 50.38 '74.'10
t4.44 26.4s 39.4'l
27.94 51.04 7 5.6'l
38 14.81 27.15 40.50 74 28.31 51.73 76.69
39 15.19 27.80 4t.52 75 28.69 52.43 77.72
40 15.56 28.49 42.49 '78.'74
76 29.06 53.13
41 15.94 29.r9 43.51 '19.7'l
77 29.44 53.78
42 16.31 29.89 44.48 '18 29.81 54.48 80.73
43 t6.69 30.54 45.50 '79 30.19 55.17 81.76
44 17.06 3t.24 46.53
80 30.56 55.82 82.73
45 17.44 31.89 47.50
81 30.94 56.s2 83.75
46 17.81 32.59 48.52
82 31.31 57.22 84.'72
47 18.19 33.28 49.55
83 31.69 57.9r 85.74
48 18.56 33.94 50.51
84 32.06 5 8.57 86.77
49 18.94 34.6't 51.54
85 32.44 59.26 87.79
50 19.31 35.33 52.56
86 32.81 59.96 88.76

84 d5
 l)list(;N Olr Pt{( x:Ess EQUTPMENT F'LANC!: DESIGN

Tsble 5 Pass Rlb Arer (Conrinued) SOLUTION

-
Nomlnal Pass Rib Area. Rr, in.2
Vessel Size
in. Two Pass Four Pass Six Pass ln this case we will have two flanges bolted together but designed for
Et 33,l9 0u.65 E9.7E diffcrent conditions. The required bolt load in the operating condition
88 33.56 61.35 90.81 lbr the shell side will govern the design of both flanges because of lhe
89 33.94 62.W 91.83 higher design pressure. Since the gaskets on both sides are of the same
90 34.31 62.'70 92.80 nraterial, the required bolt load for gasket seating will be greater for the
9l 34.69 63.35 93.83 low pressure flange. Since such a high design pressure is involved, gasket
92 35.06 64.05 94.85 scating probably will not control the design. Tberefore, the shell side
93 35.44 64.74 95.82 llange will be the independent flange while the channel side will be the
94 35.81 65.44 96.84 dcpendent flange.
95 36.t9 66.09 97.87
Independent flange has to be designed first so that we can carry over
96 36.56 66.79 98.83 the bolt load for the design ofthe dependent flange. Both the flanges will
97 36.94 67.49 bc designed here in detail, but the attached calculation sheets can be used
99.86
98 37.31 68.18 100.82
to save time. Both these flanges will be designed using corroded
99 37.69 68.84 dimensions because the corroded condition results in greater thicknels.
101.85
100 38.06 69.53 102.87
Design of Independent Flange

Refer to Figure and design steps on Weld Neck Independent Flange

Design Calculation Sheet. Now we have,
p:460 psi
Sa:25,000 Psi
EXAMPLE NO. 1
S":25,000 Psi
Sr' : 17'500 Psi
Design a pair of welding neck flanges to be used to contain a Sr": 17,500 Psi
tubesheet ofa TEMA BKU type of exchanger. The 4l in. I.D. two pass
channel designed for 150 psi at 500.F is built ofI in. thick A_515_70 piate Also in uncorroded condition
inclusive offin. corrosion allowance. Theshell sideflangeis to be welded :41 in'
B
to a 41 in. I.D. x 75 in. LD. cone designed for 460 psi at 650.F. The cone
go:t^:l'25ln'
consists of l; in. thick 4_515_20 plate inclusive of$ in. corrosion
allowance. Assume ironjacketed asbestos filted gasket Assume
on'Uotf,.iO", unO
use A-105 flanges with A-193-87 Bolts_ 9 t: 1.25(s o\: 1.25(1.251:1.5625 in.

Thus in corroded condition

B'41.25 in.
9o:1.125 in.
and
g r:1.4375 in.

86 87
 DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT FLANOB DESION

Now
,t = 1.s(gJ- 1.5(1.125)= 1.6875 in. (minimum) n =f,tu.t sF +oo = 7 23,4s2.t tb
$431s--!r25)
' =!9r:sd:
stope -0.1852 < 0.333 W: 123,492.1 + t2t 255.7 : 844,747.8 lb
h 1.6875

Therefore, the flange can be designed as an integral type as shown in

Fig. la- Now assune (48) 1| in. dia. bolts. From Table 3, for lf in. dia. .4.:Greareror'## * t*,ltl't=rr.tri".'
bolts. we have

R : 1.5 in. From Table 3, the root area ofa l| in. dia. bolt having 8 threads per inch
E = 1.125 in. is 0.728 in.2 which gives

Now A t : 48 (0'7 28l, : 34'9 44 in'2

c : B + 2(s ) + 2(R) : 41.25 + 2(r.437 5) + 2(r.5) : 47 .125 io. > .4., therefore (48)lI in. dia. bolts are adequate. Now
Since 74,
and
W:0.5(33.79 + 349,14)25,000 : 859,1 75 lb
A - C + 2(E) : 47.12s + 2(t.t25l : 49.37 s in.
and
Gaslet and Bolting C,alculatiom
r^,,:ffi,=0.4088in.
From Table 1, for an iron jacketed asbestos lilled gasket
Since N > N,ir", therefore chosen gasket width is adequate.
m:5- I)
and

v=76W Flange Moments Calculatiom

Assume
N :0.5 r!. H D:;@l.2512 460 =614,745.9 lb
Fig. la. of Table 2.applies to our situation. So,
Hc:HP-121,255.7 lb

u.:!=!=o.zsn; H r:723A92.1 - 614,745.9 = 1O8,746.21b

h
D: 1.5 + 0.5(1.437 5) = 2.21 88 in.
Therefore he :0.5(47.r25 -44.75): 1.1375 in.
D:0.25 in. fir:0.5(1.5 + 1.4375 + 1.1875) =2.0625 in'
Now
Now
G:C - a-2(0.375)-2(Q:a7.p5 - 1.rzs -2(0.375) -2(o.2s) :
M o= 6t4,7 45.9(2.21 88) 1,363998 in- lb
:44.75 in.
M e =121,255.7 (!.1875)= 143991 in-lb
Therefore M r = 1O8,7 46.2 (2.06251 : 224 289 in-lb
W^z* :0.25(n)44.7 5(7600) = 267,1t4 lb Therefore,
H, : 2(n) 0.2s (44.7 5X3.7 5) 460 : r2r,25 s.7 tb
Mo= 1,363,998+ 1 43991 +224,289 :1,732,278 in-lb
' See note on page 58

88
 t)list(;N ()lr pt{(xjriss ltQUlpMIiNT ITLANCI DDSICN

Now, for lhe gaskct seating condition

|tnd
He : W:859,175 lb U : ll9'75
Therefore Now
Mo : 859,175(1.187s) : 1,020,270 in-lb gr 4375
:1 = t.2l'Ie
Actual borr spacing
r(l) r{4J-125t 9o |.125
-
-n48 = :3.0843 in.
ho: Jqtzs(trzr:o.stzz
Assume t:2.75 in. ft 1.687s
^..-.
ho 6.8122
Maximum bolt spacing:2(t.l 251 , {J.-6975L-:6.Ij2J
/) +U.)l
in.
From Fig. 4, for
Normal bolt spacin E:2(l.t25l +2.j5:5 in. sJ
= t.zllg and !:0.2477
Since, Actual bolt spacing<maximum bolt spacing, the chosen bolt 9o no
spacing is O.K. and also actual bolt spacing <normal bolt spacing, the we have
correction factor Cr: 1.0.
F:0.894
Thus, the calculation factors are
Similarly from Fig. 5

M:u21J(1):a1,se5 V:O.441
and from Fig. 8
and
I:1.0
M:l'020'270(l)-14714 Now
41.25
0 894
NOTE
*The value of r|/., should
':-:u',,"
be taken from the low pressure dependent flange ifit results In
greater value there because ofrib area or dilTerent gasket miterial. and
ln tf,i. c"se
:' rto75 to'trzzltt' t2512 : 234
operadng condilion is controlling the gasket seating is of insignificant value_ "in""ir,"
However,
wnen rwo matrng tianges are designed to hold a tubesh€€t between them with |5|
pressurf oneachside ol the tub€sheet lhe llangeresullingin a grealer
the sam€
value of l,y-) due ro
nD area or gasket materjal should be considered as the independenl flange
d
ffi 1

as the dependent flange.

and lhe other Cslculating Other Stress Frctors
a:2.75(0.1312) + 1 : 1.3608
Deaermining Shape Constants

.. 49.375 a :$)z: s to.ttrz) + I : r.48 I 1

K: _* : t.197
41.2s
From Table 4, for K: l.l9? ,:{ff:ozrro
T: 1.84
z:5.625 a:ffi:o.osta
y:10.9
t :0.7396 +0.0888 =0.8284

90 91
 I )list(;N ()tr pRO(jtjss tjQtJtpMIjNT lll-AN()lt l)tisl(iN

Calculating Stresses and 57, remain unchanged'

rldcpcndent flange, the values of Sr, S', S7,,

Operating Condition Now, in the uncorroded condition

9o: t,:0 5 in'
^
t": I (41.995)
psi <26.250 psi O.K.
Assume
O.S.Zao1,.43 75lz:24.532 s' : 1.31 5(g'\ : 1.375(0.5) :0'687s in'
1.481 I {41.995)' lhus, in the corroded condition
":
.s^ -----:
o.8284t2.75r
= 9.928 psi < I 7.500 psi O.K.
go:O 375 in'
lrrrd
s,:4tp-e:!192 - s.62s (e.e28) :4.683 psi < r 7,500 psi o.K.
in'
12.7 5)2 9 t:0 5625

Since S^ > Sr, therefore, 0.5124,532 + 9,928): I 7,230 psi < I 7,500 psi Assume
o.K. fi:1.5 in. > 1.5(so)>0 5625 in O'K'
(0.s625 - 0.37s)
Gasket Seating Condition Slope: :0.125 < 0.333
l.)
| (24,7 34)
^ :9
s' 14'449 psi < 26'250 psi o K Therefore, the flange can be designed as an integral flange as shown
ffi.+:ts rz=
in Fig. la.
^ t.481| 124,7 341 Since, both the flanges areto be bolted together, the number and
s": O.tZt+tZrSl
:5.848 psi< 17.500 psi O.K.
sizc of bolts, and diameters B, C, G and .4 will be the same as for the
independent flange. Also, the values of m and y will remain unchanged
24.1 34t 10.9 |
Jr - since the gasket material is the same.
,.-*,,
v. t)r -5.625(5.848):2,755 psi<17.500psi O.K.
The value of radial clearance R will be greater than the minimum
Since rcquired for this flange, because its bolt circle dia. C has to match the bolt
circle dia. of the independent flange and its g1 is smaller than ,r of the
S^ > Sr, independent flange. So in this case
therefore,
p- c-tB+2(q,)l
-- 1:: :::' ',' 47.125- 141.25'r 2(0.5625)l
0.5(14,449 + 5,848): 10,149 psi < 17,500 psi O.K. ".". -
All stresses in both the operating as well as the gasket seatlng
z2
We must also include the effect of rib area R,r, since the channel has
condition are within allowables. Thus, the independent flange design is lwo passes.
o.K. From Table 5,Ior a two pass 4l in. nominal size shell, R, : 15.94 in'2
Next we will discuss the design oftbe channel side or the dependenl
flange. (;asket and Bolting Calculations

Design of Dependent Flange fhe width and the effective width of th€ gasket will be same as for the
independent flang€. Now
Refer to Figure and design steps on weld neck dependenl flange design :
w^, 10.25(n144.15 + 0.s(1 5.94)1 7600 32't,686 tb :
calculation sheet. Here we have :48'506 lb
H,: l2(nl1.2s(44.75) + 1 5.9413.75(150)
p: 150 psi

Since, the flange and bolt materials are the same as for H :X(4.7 s)' | 50 : 23 5,s21.3 tb
the

92 93
 DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT FLANOB DESIGN

W^tr =844'747'8lb Determining ShaPe Conslants

which will result in the same ,,{n as earlier, thus llzwill be the same also. Since the valueofK is the same as in the independent flange the values of
T, Z, Y and U will remain unchanged.
Flenge Moments Calculatiots Now
gt '-
HD=
;(r.2sl2
t so: 200,460.6 rb go-05625
0.375:l)
Hc:w - H =844,74'1.8 -235,921.3:608,826.5 lb ho: \t 4t .25 (0.3'15) : .933
''^. 3

H r:235,921.3 -200 460.6:35,460.7 lb _ft _ _i_:0.3814

1.5

lro:2.375 + 0.5(0.5625) =2.6563 in. fto 3.933

ha:0.5(47.125 -44.75)= 1.1875 in. From Fig. 4 for grlgo = 1.5 and ft/io =0.3814, we have
Irr:0.5(2.375 + 0.5 625 + 1.1875\:2.0625 in.
F:0.867
Now
Similarly from Fig. 5
M o= 2A0160.6(2.6563) : 532,484 in- lb V:0.343
Mc : 608,826.5(1.1 87 5) : 722,982 rn- lb
and from Fig. 8
M r:35A60.7 (2.0625):23,133 ;n- tO
f=t.0
Therefore. Now
M o:532A84 + 722'982 +73'138 = r,328,604 in- lb 0.867 - ---.
e:i5i=0.2204
Now, for the gasket seating condition
ano
Hc=W=859,1'15lb
: :
Therefore,
:
a
ffi o.rlltto.37sF le.3oe4

Mo 859,175(1.1875): 1,02O270 in-lb

Assurne
t :43125 in.
Calculating Other Stress Fsctors
Normal bolt spacing will be greater than the actual bolt spacing, 1. : 4.3125 0.22041 + l : 1.9505
thus Cr = 1.0.
Thus, the calculation factors are
n : r zs to.zzo4t + | : 2.2673
Q)+.t
u:t'3?Y0):tz.zov
,={ff=-r.ooo'
and

a:ffi=r.rsrs
u:t'v!oi?#(t) :z+,tz+
i:1.0601 +4.1535 = 5.2136

rThe valuc of lvnl is taken from high pressu.e independent flange.

94 95
 l)l1Sl(;N ( )lr l,t{( X;tiSS ti(ltJtpMltN t. trt.AN(;li Drisl(;N

Calculating Slrcsscs
Operating Condition
( I r12.209
\.. _-
" 5.2 | 36(0.5625,1

\^: 2.267 -3t32.2091 -753 psi <17.500psi O.K.

" 5.2 t36(4.3 t25),
s'= J2.209 t10.91 -5625{753): 14.642 psi < l7.500 psi o K.
t.l:l:st'
Since (:IJANN E L
i;IDE
St>S^, (:Y L INDER
ther€fore, TUBESHEET

0.5119,525 + 14,642): I 7,084 psi < 17,500 psi O.K.

Fis. l0 - EXAMPLE FLANGES

EXAMPLE NO.2
Gasket Seating Condition

1\24,134) Design a ring flange to be used on a 60 in. O.D., A-240-TP304L

-
5n:5.2tlo,'Jo2s |4,994 psi <26.250 psi O K r ylinder designed for 140 psi at 425"F. The cylinder is I in. thick and no
rz=
,rrlrosion allowance is allowed. Assume TP-304jacketed asbestos filled
^ 2.26'7 3 (24,'134)
s"-S.:r:oajl25,r:578 psi< 17.500 psi O.K
|ilsket and use an A-105 flange with A-193-87 bolts. Allow *3 in. for
, otrnterbore and in. for TP-304L overlay.
I
)4114t1n51
{- : --'-- " " -' s K)sr{'78} :
- I 1,245 psi < | 7.500 psi O.K.
t4.3t 25t, SOLUTION
Since
llclcr to Figure and design steps on ring flange design calculation sheet.
St > S^, Now ys 13y9,
therefore,
p: 140 psi
0.5(14,994+ 11,245): 13,120 psi < 17,500 psi O.K.
Sr:25,000 Psi
All the stresses in both the operating as well as the gasket seating S":25,000 Psi
condition are within allowables, thus the dependent flange design is O.K. sr,: 17,500 psi
Additionaldesired thickness for raised face, counterbore, tongue or
groove should be added to the calculated thickness r to obtain the final
Sr' : l7'500 Psi
total thickness ofthe flange. ln the above example we added rt in. to the Allowing I in. clearance between the O.D. of the shell and the I.D. of
thickness ofeach flange for counterbore. The toral final thicknesses and 1l)c ring flange we get
the arrangement ofuse ofabove designed flanges is shown in the Fig. 10.
B:60 + 0.125:60.125 in.

96 97
t.
DESICN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT FLANOE DBSION

Assume (56) $ in. dia. bolts. FromTable 3, for ]in.dia. bolts,we havc
Since ,4, > .4., therefore (56) $ in. dia. bolts are adequate. Now
R:1.25 in.
E = 0.9375 in.
tv:0.5(18.8077+23.464)25,000:528,396.3 lb

in. weld all around for securing the flange to tho 0nd
Allowing for I
cylinder, we get
'N-": 2(z)9000(61.75)
1.1-6=a=(-2ry :o.168oin.
C=B * 2(weld size)+ 2(R):60.125 + 2(0.51+ 2(t.25):63.625 tn. ''"
and Since N > N,nin, therefore the chosen gasket width is adequate.

A: C +2(E) = 63.625 +2(0937 5):65.5 in. FlNnge Moments Crlculatiors

From Table 1, for stainless steel jacketed asbestos filled gasket, we

H (60.125l'l4o:3g'7,4g1.'t lb
have ^:n
n:3'75 HG: H P=50'923'3 lb
y = 9000
Hr:4t9,268.t -397 =21'776.4 tb
Assume N:0.5 in. '491.7
.
ll'=
63.625 -60.125 .t'ts
-- tn' .
Fig. (1a)ofTable 2 applies to this situation, so,

r":f:f :o.zsiu fto:9.5163.Urt - U 1.75):0.9375 in.

ir:0.5( 1.75 + 0.9375) = 1.3438 in.
therefore,
b:0.25 in. Now -:
Now M o:397,491.7 (r.7 5):695'610.5 in' lb
2(b)= 63.625 -9.875 2(0.25):61.75 in. Mo : 5Q923.3(0.93751 = 47,7 40.6 in' lb
G =C - a- 2(O.25) - - 0.5 -
W^z : 0.25(n\6r.'t 5(9000) : 436,485 lb M r:21,77 6.4(1.3438): Z9'263.t tn-tO
H r = 2(n)0.25(61.7 5)3.75(140):50,923.3 lb Therefore,
M o:695,610.5 + 47,74O.6 + 29,263.1 :772,614 2 in- lb
n =!(j.l sl, t +o :4 1 9,268. 1 lb
Now, for the gasket seating condition
wa:419,268.t + 50,923.3 :470,191.4 lb H W= 529,396.3 16
"=
thus Therefore,
Mo: 528,396.3(0.9375) = 495'371'5 in-lb
/,=Creater ol" 436,485
2S,OOO
or 470,t91.4:lr.rurr
25p66
:, u
,6 -^-- 1n.-
Now,

From Table 3, the root area of a { in. dia. bolt is 0.419 in.2, which , :77]^6r?12 : t2,850. r 322
gives
A t : 56 (0'419) : 23'464 in''z
r=ffi:r.oar

98
99
 I)tsSI(;N oII PR(XJESS EQUIPMENT FLANCE DESICN

From Table 4, for K : 1.089 For K: AlB, nnd out the values of constants T, Z' Y and U ftom
'litblc 4.
Y:22.68
C culate ha, g r lgoand ft/hq and from Fig. 4, determine the value of
thus constant F corresponding to the calculated values of 9t/ go and hlhs'
12,850.r322(22.68) Similarly, lind the values of tzand/from Fig. 5 and 8 respectively'
:4.0809, say 4i in. Now calculate e and d. Also using the thickness of the flange t
17,500
cxclusive of any counterbore, overlay, raised face, tongue or groove'

Bolt sPacing: "\"' *-1:3

lrtA1 6? 5l
5694 in'
calculate stress factors a, p, 1, 6 and ,i.
If bolt spacing exceeds (24 + t), calculate correction factor

2a + t :2(0.8'7 5\ + 4. 125 : 5.875 in. -

tt:t/ /Bolt sPacing
1zc+rr
Bolt spacing<(24+r). Therefore, Cp :1.Q. The moment factor
stays the same and the thickness calculated above is adequate. Otherwise, assume Cr: l. Also, if the flange is not designed for any
Adding ]j in. for counterbore and ; in. for stainless steel overlay' we nrultipass cylinder, the rib area, Rr, can be assumed equal to zero'
have the total minimum thickness of the flange as Now, calculate the lever arms ho, ho and fir for integral type flange
lnd determine the MAWP as follows:
t:4 !25 + 0.18'15 +0 125 :4 43'15 tn'
AaSu
P (1)
therefore, use 41f in. total thick flange.
+l2nbc'n + R
Calculating Maximum Allowable ;G2 ^(m))
Pressures for Flanges 2S s"
M :n16+tF-2B1t;z (2)
Maximum allowable working pressures are required either for
determining unit test pressure or for code stamping purposes. When the M: (3)
body flanges are designed by computer, MAWP, (maximum allowable
working pressure hot and corroded) as well as MAB (maximum
allowable pressure new and cold) are generally given in addition to
,,
lvlnax= I 5.S"
:::_:+! (4) = lr^ (5)
flange and hub dimensions. These pressures if required, can be easily II 9D,f
^8r-
determined when the {lange is designed manually, or an existing flange is M^"*= (6)
to be evaluated. Since, MAP is very rarely desired only the technique for
and
determining MAWP will be discussed. However, the same technique can
be repeated to determine MAP by using uncorroded flange dimensions therefore Mo: ls-allqlr4le "!€I!!Pls!l!I4 (7)
CF
and allowable stresses at atmospheric temperature.
(8)
Calculating MAWP for Weld Neck Flange !p'
4 - a' 11t ,.
Referto Figure and calculation steps on the calculation sheet. For a
thus MArWP: Smaller of (1) or (8)
newly designed flange all the shape constants and other stress
calculation factors can be taken directly from the design calculations. Calculating MAWP for Ring Flange
However, while evaluating an existing flange which does not have any Refer to Figure and calculation st€ps on the calculation sheet' For K
design calculations available, the applicabl€ shape constants and other : .4/8. find out the value of shape constant
yfrom Table 4'
stress calculations factors may have to be determined

100
l0l
 r)Est(;N oF PROCESS EQUIPMENT IILANCE DESICN

If bolt spacing exceeds (24 + l), calculate correction factor

F:0.894
V:0.441

Otherwise, assume Cr:1. AIso, if the flange is not to be used in a e:O.l3l2

multipass cylinder, the rib area, Rr, can be assumed equzl to zero. d:234.r15r
Now, calculate the lever arms io, in and fir for ring type flange and r: 1.3608
determine MAWP as follows:
f = 1.481 I
P
AoS u
(l) l:0.7396
d:0.0888
Rn@ll
f,G'z+l2rcbGm+ ,;" =0.8284

,^^":+ (2t
also
Cr:l
therefore, ,":ry (3)
R,n:0
Sr:25,000 Psi

Mo Sr, : 17,500 Psi

^ ' (nt')r,*r2nbGm+ Rn(m)lho*frrc, - ntfn,

(4) B:41.25 in.
I t:1.4375 irt.
G =44.75 in.
thus MAWP: smaller of (l) or (4)
m:3.'75 in.
b:0.25 in.
EXAMPLE NO.3 At:34.94in'2
ho:22188 in'
Calculate MAWP for the weld neck indep€ndent flange designed in ftc:1.1875 in.
example l.
hr:2.O625 in
and
SOLUTION
t:2.75 in.
In this case, since the flange design calculations are available, the
shape constants and stress calculation factors are already known. We
have Now

T: t.84 p 34.94(25,000)
Z:5.625 sF + 7z1"yo.2s (44.7 s)3.i 5 + 0)
Y= 10.9 f,{ul
U:1r.975 :475.6568 psi -475 psi (1)

r02 103
 DESI(;N OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT F'LANOE DESI(iN

2(17,500) (i:61.75 in.

Ar:23.464 in.'1 fiu:9.9375
I 10.9 5.625(1.481l) m= 3.75 'n.
* hr= 1.75 in. /rr:1.3438 in.
ol.zg4rl.a3zit, tzlsy,- g.8zuo 1\', h:0.25
:50,312.4596 in-lb t :4.125 in.
(2) rr rttl
2(17,500)
:42,652.0419 in-lb (3)
t.481 I
+-t
0.8284(I.4375t' 0.8284(2.75)'
--
23.464(2s,000)
: 174.6607 psi
1.s(17.500) tt6l.75), + l2(z)0.25(61.75)3.?5 + 0l
n.8ru1!1-.-7sf =
ul4'e35 in-lb
(4) 4-
- 174 psi (l)
,=,r
t1:t=9
- = ,.
,t-481u.8284(2.75)z : 74.021 i^-tb (5) (4.t25\'z r'7 ,s00 :13129.3403 in-lb (2\
also 22.68
17j5,9-,, therefore,
;: _
r0.9 ,=,,, = 156.984 in-lb
5.62s(r.481r)
(6)
13129.3403(60.125)
(2.7s)2 .8284(2.712 Mo :789,401.5855
therefor€,
789,40 r.5855
0419(41'25)
74 o -42'652 : t,759.396.7i a) t.t S + lzn(0.25)61.7s(3.75) + 010.9375 +
!f,O.tZSl' f,@.ts'
| ,7 59 ,396.'7 3

-60.r2s'?).l1.3438
: t42.4ss psi - I42 psi (4)

f,{u.zs)'
z.xat + l2(n)0.2s(44.7 s)3.7 s + olt.t v s +Eg4.j s, I
I thus MAWP : 142 psi
-41.25, 12.062s :467.20t2 psi - 467 psi (8)
I
thus MAWP:467 psi

EXAMPLE NO.4
Calculate MAWP for the ring flange designed in example 2.

SOLUTION
ln this case we have

Y=22.68 Re:0 S.r,: 17,500 Psi

Cr=l 56:25,000 psi B:60.125 in.

tQ4 105
 l)tist(;N ol, PR()cEss EQUIPMEN'I' IILANCB DDSICN

FLANGE DESIGN WITH FULL FACE GASKETS wilh thc cxception that th€ sum of the inside and outside gasket moments
cclual zero, and accordingly the total applied moment becomes:
The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code does not coverthe rules M"= M 1t). M7
for designing flanges having the gasket beyond the bott holes. This section
discusses a method of designing such flanges as recommended by Taylor In addition, for flange design with narrow face gasket, the moment
Forge and Pipe Works3. This method follows the framework and the rcmains ofthe same sign throughout, while in the case ofa full face gasket
terminology of the code rules and provides for simplicity of calculations. ir moment reversal occurs. The moment due to gasket reaction is given by
It is assumed that full fixation at the bolt circle is produced during Mc= Hehc: w-H
bolting up prior to the application of the internal pressure. The inner edge r1.1-l
ofthe flange in this condition is assumed unrestrained so that the reaction
of the outer gasket is determined from static equilibrium about the bolt
Lh" ho'J
circle. Since the gasket moment M6 may be greater than the resultant
Design of flanges with full face gaskets is canied out using the rupplied moment M,, the following additional check of the radial bending
ASME Section VIII Division 1 Rules for Bolted connections using narrow stress at the bolt centerline will be required:
face gaskets with the following modifications: .s^.:6Mc
The gasket contact area shall be divided into two parts by the bolt
circle. The inner gasket reaction shall be determined as the larger of llo or
"r'C
The ring effect and the reduction in section caused by the bolt holes
Ilo in accordance n'ith the Code and the outer gasket reaction shall be have been neglected inthe above formula. However, the given value of the
taken as the larger of flo, or llpr which are given by $tress is quite conservative, since the moment at this location may be
Ha:Ha 1 la 1 cxpected to be lower than calculated.
and Ho,=H, 1 la 1
\ h"' ) \h", ) EXAMPLE NO.5
Where ft6 and ftc1 represent the moment arms of the resultant Evaluate the design of standard 24 inches Taylor Forge Class 125LW
gasket reactions with respect to the bolt circle. (Light Weight) flange as shovr'n on page 101 of Thylor Forge catalog 571for
Assuming uniform gasket pressure distributed over annular sur- use with full face 75A Durometer Elastomer gasket. Design conditions
faces, these distances may be expressed as: can be assumed to be 75 psi design pressure at 300'F Use sA-181 class 60
flange material with SA-307-B bolting. There is no corrosion allowance
hG= (C-B) (28+c) and hc1= 6-C) (2A+ c) and assume g, equal to gr in evaluation.
6(B+C) 6(C+A)
SOLUTION
The minirnum required bolt load then is obtained as the greater of
the folloY/ing two values: The dimensions of the flange as obtained from Taylor Forge catalog
571 are shown in the sketch on the calculation form for flange design with
W^t=H + Hp+He1=H+ H, ( 1, 9\ full face gaskets. Refer to this form for calculations of flange evaluation.
\ nct I (see page 132 )
and The calculations show that 1 inch thickness of the standard flange is
Ho* Hat- Ha !-q not adequate for the desired design conditions of 75 psig at 300'F as the
W^z=
-( t |+
ho,)
t,
calculated tangential stress in the flange, Sn is greater than the allowable.
Thus, the thickness ofthe flange must be increased to 1.125 inches in order
The botting requirement can be checked using the applicable bolt to bdns all the stresses within allowables.
load calculated above. The flange can now be designed like other flanges

106 107
 l,l.Sl(,N ()l l,lt(n li\\ l.(llltl,MljNI l'l AN(;11 l)lrSI(;N

It, l)illclcncc hctwccn total hydrostatic cnd lbrce and the

hydrostatic cnd lorcc on area insidc of flange: H Hr, lb
K Ratio of outside to inside diameter of flange: ,{/B
Nomenclature ,n Gasket factor
M Calculation factor for operating condition: M oC t l B
c Diameter of bolts, in.
M Cafculation factor for gasket seatrng= l14ogo1U
,4 Outside diameter of flange, in. MD Component of moment due to HD, in- lb
.4, Actual total cross-sectional area of bolts, in.2 Md Component of moment due to Ho, in- lb
.4. Total required cross-sectional area of bolts, in.2 Mo Total moment acting upon the flange for the operating
b Effective gasket seating width. in. condition, in-lb
bo Basic gasket seating width, in. Mo Total moment acting upon the flange for the gasket seating, in-
B Inside diameter offlange, in. lb
C Bolt circle diameter, in. Mr. Component of moment due to Hr, in- lb
CF Moment correction factor n Number of bolts
e Faclor f/fto for integral type flanges and F for loose type N Gasket width, in.
flanges "lho
P Design pressure, psi
E Radial distance from bolt circle to outside of flange, in. R Radial distance from bolt circle to point of intersection of hub
f Hub stress correction factor and back of flange, in.
F Factor for integral type flanges R,r Rib area, in.2
FL Factor for loose type flanges S. Allowable bolt stress at atmospheric temperature, psl
9o Thickness of hub at small end, in. S, Allowable bolt str€ss at design temp€rature, psr.
gr Thickness of hub at back of flange. in. 57, Allowable stress for flange material at almospheric
G Diameter at location of gasket load reaction, in. temperalule, psl.
h Hub length, in. Sy, Allowable stress for flange material at operating temperature'
fi, Radial distance from bolt circle to circle on which llo acts, in. psr
c Calculated longitudinal stress in hub, psi.
hc Radial distance from gasket load reaction to the bolt circle : (C
G\l2,tn. s Calculated radial slress in flange. psi.
-
/167 Radial distance from outer gasket load reaction to the bolt S^t Radial bending stress at the bolt centerline, psi
circle. in. sr Calculated tangential stress in flange, psi
fio Factor JBgo, in. t Flange thickness, in.
tr Vessel or nozzle wall thickness, in.
hr Radial distance from bolt circle to circle on which F1?. acts, in.
Factor involving K
H Total hydrostatic end force, lb
U Factor involving K
HD Hydrostatic end force on area inside of flange, lb
V Factor for integral type flanges
Ha Gasket load: W^t - H ,lb
ilc, Outer gasket load, lb VLFactor for loose type flanges
Hp Total joint-contact surface compression load, lb W Flange design bolt load for the operating condition or gasket
'lolal outer joint contact sudace cornpression load, lb seating, as may apply, lb
Hpt -
W, Required bolt load for operating condition, lb
108 109
 DESI(;N OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

W, Minimum required bolt load for gasket seating, lb

y Gasket or joint-contact-sudace unit seating load, psi.
Y Factor involving K
Z Factor involving K

REFERENCES
t. ASME Boiler and hessure Vessel Code, Section VIII, "Pressure Ves-
sels," Division 1, ASME, New York, N.Y., 1983.
"Moclem Flange Design, " G&W Taylor Bonney Division, Bulletin No.
502, Seventh Edition.
3- Design of Flanges for Full Face Gaskets, Bulletin No. 45, Thylor Forye
DESIGN FORMS
and Pipe \!brks, Chicago, Ill.

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132 132.1
 3
ROTATION OF HUB FLANGES

It was known, and reported, in 1957 that lhe ASMEr Ilange design
nrcthod was liable to be unsatislactory for large diameter llanges and
eould lead to designs that could not be made leaktight.
Following are some of the deficiencies2 of the ASME method of
flange design:

l. Satisfactory up to 60 inches diameter, progressively more

unsatisfactory abov€ this and inadequate above 120 inches diameter.
2. Hoop stress due to internal pressure is neglected.
l. Does not consider separately the deformation characteristics of the
gasket under effects of pressure and temperature.
4. Designs with self-energizing seals not covered other than elastomer O
rings.
5. Thermal elfects neglected.
6. Designs with radial slotted holes not covered.
7. Stress concentration at fillets and holes neglected.
8. Does not give rotation offlange.
Therefore, it is recommended that the large diameter low pressure
flanges should be evaluated by methods other than ASME.
This chapter describes a technique to check the amdunt of flange
rotation as discussed by Dudly.3 Rotation due to the following factors ts
included:
(a) Initial bolt tightening
(b) Internal pressure
(c) Unequal radial expansion ofthe flange and shell

133
 | )ris t(;N ()t, l,t{(xjljss li()(I 'MltN.t RoTATION OF HUI} FI-ANGES
Timoshenkoa or Wesstorm and llcrgh5 have also discussctl Distance of C.G. (centcr of gravity) of flange section from X-axis
methods to calculate flange rotation due to initial bott tightening. In his
l long Y-axis is
comments in Wesstorm and Bergh's paper Mr. E. C. Rodabaugh has also
recommended a technique to determine the amount of flange rotation Y:lA,kl12)+ Ar(sol2)+ A3@o+@ | - Sdl3)llAF
due to hoop expansion.
Also, distance of C.G. of flange section from small end of hub along X-
il)us ls
Analyzing Tecbnique
z:tA lh+ t12)+ AzQl2l+ A|Qhl3)flAr
The resulting forces and mom€nls on the flange cross section are shown
in Fis. 1. Now
r,: Bl2+ y
d:(A - By2
therefore, ir nd

At:t(d) r.: Bl2+ sol2

A z: h(g o) Moment of inertia of flange section along l'axis is given by

and dftt3 s^thlJ ls,-s^lh)! .1, r -\'
Ar: '',::jjjt2 +Yil
12 +"' 36 :: +Atlh+^-zI
'\2/
h(g r_ g)/2
therefore, total area offlange section rs
/ h\, / 2hY
Ao: Ar+ Ar+ A, +A2lz-)l +A\z- 3)
\L/

r'
Now, the amount ofrotation for ihe flangi can b6 worked out as follows:

Rotation Due to Initial Bolt Tightetring

(lnless the bolt stress is controlled to some value by using special tools,
-.........T- "B rhe maximum bolt stress attained due to bolt tightening will beo

Sb:4s,MlJ4
Now
,4.=(Number ol boltsxRoot area ofeach bolt;
thus
SoAu
-
- zTro
rrnd therefore,
Mr:F"ho
I.-lange rotation due to initial bolt tightening can be determined by using

FIG. 1. DEFINITION OF SYMBOLS

CENTER LINE \ __l the following relationship:

'*#ftcry.#)",
134 r35
 I )l15l(;N ()lr Pl{( x.l:SS Ii(IUII,MLNT ROTATION OF HUD F'LAN(;ES

Where

: t.285
_ro0o for steel

,
t/
vo
'j{
^ l2(l p2)
- I

-3
Yo- for steel
- 10.92
and
,. (Z r"r.ZI\( | ! r^r"l r^r"ZI \ / | r^r^Zl\2
w'
\p I, /\2prz' zAt ' "' r,-l-l--
X:l-+-" ll- "-: + I
) \2p' r, )
CENTER LINE
--\
Rotation Due to Internal Pressure
I I(;. 2. ELASTICITY OF BOLTS AND GASKET REPLACED BY EQUIVALENT SPRINGS
Internal pressure is usually assumed to act out to the centerline of the
gasket. If the nange with hub in Fig. I is taken as a free body, with unit
circumferential dimension at radius ro, the three forces due to internal
pressure P are: " _-4r-Lu
,,c
2nroT
Where T is the thickness ol gasket lbr llanges having a tubesheet in
.on_
-B'P
gro between and is one halfthe thickness ol gasket lbr joint with two llanges
only. Also, Eo lbr compressed asbestos can be assumed as 480,000 psi
. PBx and average value of 78,700 psi lbr spiral wound gasket can be used.
^ 2ro the spring rate lbr the bolt is
and
AaEo
P{G2 - 82) k8
r- T_ gao
2nroL
I.-or simple joint with two flanges t
the eflective length of bolt assigned to
The resultant F,will act at a radius of cach flange will be the flange thickness plus one half bolt diameter plus
G2 + GB+ 82 one half thickness of the gasket. For a tube-sheet joint with different
, 3(c+B) pressures on shell and tube sides, and flanges of approximately equal
stillness, the total eltbctive bolt length should be apportioned between
These lorces will cause furth€r rotation of the flange. Because the l he llanges in proportion to their respective pressures.
bolts and the gaskets are elastic, these movements will change the Pointz can be located such that
stresses in them. Thus they can be considered as a pair ofunequal springs
attached to the free body as shown in Fig. 2.
Equivalent spring rate for the gasket is
,o:j!l and ,u
koho
kB+ ke

136 137
 t)tjSl(;N ( )lr t,t(O(jliSS l j(.ltJ lpM LjN,l. l{oTA'110N ()| tlul} |l,ANcIls
.by theI his point ha$ thc propcrty that, il thc lioc bocly is rcstraincd orrry irnd thc total dilTcrcnti.rl movcmcnt to be counteracted by elastic action
springs l, and Ao, application of an axiel force at z will cause thc
free body to move axially without any rotation. Also, application of ol thc shell and flange is
a
couple will cause the free body to rotate around:. The equivalent do: iil * dr: qro(AT) + wo - rrr
torsional-spring constant of ltu and ko is
The amount of rotation lor a flange not attached to another flange
k Bkc(hdz as developed by Dudly is
-
kB+ kc t
The momenl exerted by internal pressure is Xtt \2lJ'}-a4\
'o_,."7tio( ltl
The same rotation could be caused by applying an external moment
M p- Frtr"-r.tl+ FDlt"-t,14 ,{t -\\L.t M./.to the flange, where
\
Now. the torsional-spring constant of the hubbed flange is given by ll \
E6ol Z
) H+ )
,. Mr EX II':g'g
' gB r,,r,.Z
pt,
(r.r,l
\a-+pD)
| \
i* op't
Since the flange is in contact with the gaskets and bolts, the actual
and thus the flange rotation due to internal pressure is rotation of the flange due to unequal expansion will be
MP
CF+C"

Rotation Due to Unequal Radial

Expamion of the Flange and Shell 'Ibtal Rotation of the Flange

Flanges are left uncovered in an insulated exchanger for several reasons. The total rotation of the flange due to initial bolt tightening, internal
If the flange is colder than the shell by an amount AT and if the pressure and unequal radial expansion of the flange and shell will be
expansion coeflicient is z, the shell will tend to move radially from the
flange by an amount
0":0 &oi e,
The dishing
"*
at the inner periphery olthe flange as shown in Fig. 3, is
d
r: ar,(ATl given by
The outward expansion of the shell due to internal pressure is
S: d.-(./)
Pr?
ra'o : .;:(2
RS pr?
o--:::: 0 If, the angle of rotation d or dishing S seems to be excessive' the
zEgo - t) =Lgo
for steel
design should be modified.
The corresponding expansion of the flange is

,-=\\"
' ArE
Recommendations
l. The rotation of the hubbed flange may be reduced by
So the outward shift of the shell relative to the {lanse is (a) Increasing the ring thickness
(b) Increasing th€ ring outer diameter
(c) Increasing the hub length

138 139
 r)rist(;N otr t,l{(xiliss tit.lr.I 'MItN f I{OTATIoN OF HLJI] tII-ANCES

lncreasing the hub lcngth has bccn ftrunrl to be thc most cll.icicn( l)ctcrnrinc thc n]xxilllum atnount of angle of rotation of the flange
solution liom a standpoint ol increased weight. Howcver, a cost checx irssuming thcrc is no lcmperaturc differential between the shell and the
has indicated the increased ring thickness to be the most elTicient. llange.
2. The relative motion at the gasket tace and the rotation of the channcl
flange may be reduced very efficiently by the addition of a verticat
dummy pass plate.
SOLUTION
3. Additional bolting capacity is indicated when utilizing multiple pass
plate. will be no rotation due to unequal radial expansion ol
Since there
the flange and shell, the maximum rotation of the flange will occur
during hydrostatic test rather than at the operating condition. Referring
to Fig. 1, we have
A:1'75.'75 in., 8: C: 173.875 in.,
169 in.,
G: l7l.'7928 in., t: 1.125 in., lt: 1.125 in., ao = I it.
and

dr:1 1875 in
Now,
FIG. 3. SECTION OF A ROTATED FLANGE d:1175.75 - 169)12 = 1.375 in.

therefore,
EXAMPLE : :
A| 1 .t25 \3.37 5J 3.79 69 in.2
A 169 in. inside diameter steel flange is to be used as a joint with
another flange having in. thick steel jacketed compressed asbestos
I Az= l.l25ll): |.125 in.'z
gasket. It
is designed at atmospheric temperature for l5 psi. internal and
pressure in accordance with ASME code and has the followrng
dimensions:
/.r : r.r25( t.l 875 - r )/2 =0.1054 in.'
thus
Outside diameter: l'7 5.75 in.
A ts:3.'1969 + 1.125 + 0.1054 : 5.0273 in.l
Bolt circle diameter - | 71.875 in.
Gasket O.D. : 172.5 in. y_ l.?9691 1.b875) - L I 25{0.5}+ 0.1054{'.0025,
_,.0,,n.
Diameter at gasket load reaction : ' 5.02'73
I7| .7929 in.
Gasket I.D. : 170.5 in. _ 3.7q69(1.6875) I I.125(0.5625) F0.1054(0.75)
: ' = -+1r)I ln.
Width of the gasket I in. " 5.0273
l

Diameter of bolts:0.875 in.

,, t69
169 I

; - l.4l 85.91 in..

Number of bolts:180 - ro - , +, - 85 in.
Flange thickness : 1.125 in.
Thickness ofhub at small end: I in. and
Hub length:1.125 in. .
/r
l7-r.E75 | 11 .79 28 .....
l-tr4ll ln.
Thickness ofhub at back offlange:1.1875 in. ) -

140 t41
 l)lisl(;N Orr P R( X)tiSS EQUIPMENT IToTATION OF HUI} FLANGES

, 3.375(1.125)-].l(1.125)3
rr: * -
1.1875 - 1.0x t.125)r
*---
( Rotstion Due to Test Pr€ssur€
lf i2 36 The flange will be subjected to test pressure of25 psi. (1.5 times the design
+ 3."1969 (0.27 t 4), + L 125(0.8536)' + 0.1054(0.6661r: 1.6727 in.4 pressure)and the resulting forces on the flange due to this pressure will
be as follows:

Rotation Dm to Initial Bolt Tightening tt69t225 lbrin. r-:_G;-

^ 25(169\2.25
Fr:]sf -1050 -56 lb in.

s,:ff
- J0.875 :48,t07 psi. Ao: t80(e.4t9t:7 5.42 in., 1e1: j5 rbrin.
e-:2!tnl!_!4
8(85)
- 48,107 t't
lr:- 5 .421
:6,794 lb/in. 1111.7928)' + 1'71.79281169) + 169' _85.2
:n(851 Now ,__ n.
' 3(17l.'7928 + 169l
therefore,
Mr : 6,794(1.041 | l: 7,073 in-lb/in. l- -r li2.s'-lio.s'?) :538.7844 in.'z
For steel
285 Ec:48(10)apsi. Er:29(10)'Psi.
E:29{10)6 psi. p: 1,
:O.t:S+
J85(l )
L: t.I2s + 0.0625 +0.5(0.875) :1.625 in.
llrl T:0.5(0. 125) :0.0625 in.
and '-'' :0.0916
/: to.92
t1"]111'19!,0--
thus there[ore tc t.?4?.783 lb7in. per lrnear rn.
2n(85)0.0625
_. f t.4t6t 85(85.e 1) r.4l6 t (0.0916)-l

10.r 394 1.6721 I ano o"=:to^1"?',t::

d 2'T(85X 1.625)
=2.520.185 rb7in. per rrnear rn.

I I ,85(8s.91)0.0e16 .8s(85.91)1.4161(0.0916)l 2,520,r 8s(1.041 1)

l2(0.1394111.4161 l.416l t.6j2't(s.0271) I Now
(2,s20,1 85 +'7,7 47,'t 83t
:0.2555 in.

_t r _85(85.er)r.4l6t(0.0916)l' :,",.r, : : in.

| 2t0.t3e4l' |.6127 I '""-'', r. 85.8964 + 0.2555 86.l5l9 xa:1.0411-0.2555:0.7856in.

therefore, . _2.520.185(7,747,783X1.04tt, = r.OU,., r,

(2,520.1 85 + 7.747.7831
85(8jelrt.4l6t
"'-_fLzsa ofi 6.rJ.z7)o.r 3ea(l i72u rlI
,,
r MP:3s(86 15 r9 - 8s a+ 1050(86l sl n.o-r?'-
r.rr,: rr59 in-rb1in.
[85(85.91t0.09r6 I I
| t/anr? |
I l.4l6r(5.0273) 4{0.1394)r(l.4l6t) l' " "' ^ 1,07
cr:ffi:667'264 3
therefore

-
:0.0106 radians :0.6073"
:0.00046 radians =0.0264"
(2,061,rs3 + 66't ,264)

142 143
F
l)ESt(;N (-)F PROCESS EQUIPMENT
ROTATION OF HUB FLANGES
Totd Rotraion of the Flange
llI Force due to internal pressure,lb/in.
trs =0.0106 + 0.000+6 :0.01106 radians =0.63370 9o Thickness of hub at small end, in.

Therefore g, Thickness of hub at large end, in.

S:0.01t06(3.325) :0.0173in.
C Diameter at location ofgasket load reaction, in.
Conclusion I Hub length, in.
Amount ol maximum allowable rotation is to be decided by the designer lr. Radial distance from gasket load reaction to the boh circle, in.
British Standard No. 1515, part l, 1965 ,."orn-"nd, m"xiiu_
allowable rotation ol lhe order of 0.75.. However, the example t sill2(t - p"):e;/10.92 for steel
flange
considered above represents an actual case in which leakage Moment of inertia of area u4, about lTaxis, in.a
was
observed around the periphery of the flange during the hydrostjic kB Spring conslant ol bolts, lb/in. per linear in.
tesr.
The most probable cause for the leakage was considered k(- Spring constant of gasket, lb/in. per linear in.
to be rotation of
the llange. The llange design was modified and the leakage
was stopped. L Effective length of bolt per flange, in.
It would appear therefore, that a maximum flange rotarion angl. more
conservative than 0.75" should be considered.
M. Moments acting on flange, in-lb7 in.
Mo Moments acting on flange, in-lb7in.
Nomenclature M,, Moments acting on flange,in-lb7in.
,4 Outside diameter of flange. in. M,r Moments acting on flange, in-lb7in.
At Area ofsection l. in.2 Maximum internal pressure, psi.
A2 Area of section 2, in.2 Qo Radial shearing force at small end of hub,lb
A3 Area of section 3, in.2 Radialdistance, in.
,46 Total thread root area ofbolts, in.2 Radial distance, in.
,4" Total area offlange and hub section, in.2 Radial distance, in.
Ac Face area ofgasket, in.2 rT Radial distance, in.
I Inside diameter offlange, in. s Dishing al the inner periphery of flange, in.
C Bolt circle diameter, in. si Maximum bolt stress afiained due to bolt tightening, psi.
C. Torsional-spring constant of bolts and gasket I Flange thickness, in.
Cr Torsional-spring constant offlange and hub T Thickness of gasket assigned to flange, in.
d Thickness offlange in radial direction, in. Outward radial displacement at small end of hub, in.
d, Diameter of bolt, in. Constant
D Plars constant ' z Axial distance from C.G. to small end of hub, in.
E Modulus ofelasticity offlange material, psi a Coefficient of thermal expansion of shell material in./in.' F
Eb Modulus of elasticity of boh material, psi lJ Shell constant
Ec Modulus of elasticity ofgasket material, osi U Angle of rotation offlange, radians.
FB Bolt force, lb7in. p Poisson's ratio of flange material
F, Force due to internal pressure,lbTin.
fo Gasket force,lb/in.
F R Force due to internal pressure,lbTin.

144
t45
 | )tist(;N oI I,l{()(itiss ljQtjIl,MLiNl'

RUt'URf,NCES

L ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel code, Section VIII. "Pressurc

Vessels," Division
l, ASME, New York, N.Y., 1983.
2. "A Review of Present Methods for Design of Bolted Flanges for 4
Pressure Vessels." British Standard Institution Document No.
8D6438, Ocrober. 1969.
3. Dudly, W. M., "Deflection of Heat Exchanger Flanged Joints as STRESS ANALYSE OF FLOATING HEADS
Affected by Barreling and Warping," ASME Trans., 1960, Paper 60-
wA70.
4. Timoshenko, S., "Strength of Materials," D. Van Nostrand Company
Inc., New York, N.Y., 1941,Part II, Art.34.
5. Wesstrom, D. B., and S. E. Bergh, "Effect of lnternal Pressure on
Stresses and Strains in Bolt€d Flanged Connections," TRANS. The floating head is an essential part of certain types of shell-and-
ASME. Vol. 73. 1951. tube heat exchangers, It consists of a segment of a spherical shell at-
6. Petrie, E. C., "The Ring Joint, lts Relative Merit and Application," tached to a ring shaped flange. A cross-section of a typical floating
Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning, Vol. 9, April, 1937. head is shown in Fig. l,

w-H-

FIC. I. CROSS SECTION OF TYPICAL FLOATING HEAD

147
r46
 l)ESl(;N 0r, PllocEss EQUTPMENT STI{ESS ANALYSIS OF FLOATINO HEADS

Floating beads can be built of forgings or castings. They can also Stress Analysis Due ao Intemal Pr€ssure
be fabricated from formed heads welded into rolled and welded plate
flanges or machined forged flanges. Regardless of the material or the Lst Pr be the tube side pressure or the pressure insid€ the floating head,
method of fabrication, the floating head must be designed to withs- then, the force H is
tand the combined effects of pressure and boltload. :PtrB2
H
4
A technique for designing floating heads is discussed in UA-6,
The dislance e can be determined by
Section VIII, Division I of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
code.' However, the formulas given are approximate and do not take
into account continuity between the flange ring and the dished head. ,:r_i(r_""*)
Now,
In this stress analysisl the flange is assumed to be cut loose from
the head. A ring moment, M, and a ring load, V, are applied to both )t:1.29
the head and the flange at their junction. These represent the total mo-
ment and the total force acting over the junction surface between the cot o
xt:l - sl
head and flange. M and V are computed assuming that the radial and
angular displacements of the flange are equal to those of the head at o
their line of junction. Forces and moments acting on the head and Kt:r- cot
rzsi,
flange are shown in Fig. 2. The total bolt load has been treated as a
continuous ring load. 0.2'75mt ln(K)
Kr -e
l.llmt ln(K\ 'r\
,,
rr:
^ BKr
- .-/T ^' l

"LIJJe cot ,o+'q"--q'-il-wh

c.:Hl
zsin al,, . t\. B 1.65e

r--
(^
+- z \^'*x,/-+ni- x,
.,:f('-'?)
Gl
B ,-l 0.35 \
/- _ut /4q' - B cot <o
H<- '.-"\ 4nd sin,pf
Therefore,
c2c6-c3cs
c2c4 ctc5
and
crc6-c3c4
FIC. 2. FORCES AND MOMENTS ACTINC ON HEAD AND FLANCE
c2c4-ctcs

148 r49
 I)rjst(;N oF Pr{(x)ljss EQUIPMENT STRESS ANALYSIS OF FLOATING HEADS

_.---.-|rp 0.15\
Head Stresses
- ,,(4(t-Bcot
(":nl
Stress on outside of the head is given by \ 44.1 Stn q,,/
Now,
_P,R , V cos tp , 6M
" z, - oBt 'rst,
'0.- c2c6- c3c 5
c2c4-c rcs
Stress on inside of the head is
anq,
-
\_ ::
P,R
-t.
rp 6M
Vcos crc6- c 3c 4
2t nBt nBt2 c2c4-c rc 5
Flange Stresses Head Stresses
Bending stress in the flange is given by
- P"R Vcosa 6M
^\.:-+-]--
2t tBt rBt2
":w?-ry)
Direct stress in the flange is
s..: -P-R' + Vcos o- 6M
2t nBt TtBt' =

*' \
-' : nBrl"
s" L__l n P
\8 -"'-l
-"o,,\- ull*l
'l\K'z- r/
Flange Stresses

- O.525n | -. 4Mi\
Resultant Flange Str€sses "': arK, \n-;i
Resultant stress on outside of the flange is . r
r,: --. \ ,,]/K'z+l\
1,,(+q v

-Llr\8-col )- )\K4 )
e
57, : Sa _ Sr

Resultanl stress on inside of the flange is Resultant Flange Stresses

S.r;1 :Sa+56
Slo : 51- 56
Stress Analysis Due to External Pressure Sliz:Sa*So
Let P" be the shell side pressure or the pressure outside floating head, the
Stresses with Full Gssket Restnint
force II will be
In lhis case also, C r, C 2, C 4 and C, will remain unchanged.
, : '.:t'- Also,

C t, C 2, C 4 and C, will be the same as worked out earlier for inlernal cr=;
pressure. C. can be worked out from the relationship
and
^ .-/ecot a+2str-at
Cr:H{ \
'"--'-il-wh B
c u=
\I,/ +ntt
and
Now

150 151
 l)l:Sl(;N ( )lr Pl{()(ILSS liQtJll,MINT STITESS ANALYSIS ()F I LOATINC HEADS

(' 3c
,, c 2(:6- 5 EXAMPLE
c2c4-ctcs
and Analyze the stresses in the floating head of a kettle type reboiler
ctco- c rc4 clesigned for 310 psi shell side and 100 psi tube side pressure both at
c2c4*ctcs 650"F. The flange material is A-105 and h€ad is made of A-515-70. The
head is 0.9375 in. total minimum thick and has inside dish radius of
With no pressure applied, stresses in head and flange due to unit force F 3l.09375 inches. The inside and outside diameters of flange are 34.75 in.
can be determined as follows: and 3'7.':'5 in. respectively and it is 5.5 in. thick in longitudinal direction
cxclusive ofcounterbore. The inside depth offlange is 3.8554 inches. The
Head Stresses diameter at the gasket load reaction is 35.125 in. and bolt circle diamet€r
is 36.5 in. The shell and tube side corrosion allowance can be assumed to
^
\.:t-
V cos e 6M
be 0.0625 inches. The total bolt Ioad is 255,443 pounds.
nBt rBt2
and

^ Vcos(p 6M SOLUTION
ftBt tBt2
Referring to Fig. l, we have
Flange Stresses
A : 3'7.'7 5 - 2{0.0625) : 37.625 in.

^ / ..
0.525n 4M)\ B =34.'15 +20.0625):34.875 in.
" BrKr\ B/ C:36.5 in.
and c:35.125 in.
^" /l - /\/K2+ I\ R : 31.093?5 +0.0625 + (0.937 s -0.125]112 :31.s625 tn.
J,:l- ll |
\'rBIl\K'- l / t :Q.93'75 - 2(0.0625):0.8125 in.

Resultant Flange Stresses

- , (A_ B)
u-
(37 .625
- 34.8't s)
2
Sy, : 51_ Sr
:
T: 5.5 -0.0625 5.4375 in.
Syr::Sa*56
and
The force F is given by the negatiye quotient ofthe values of Sr,, or
Sy;2 due to int€rnal or external pressure (whichever is higher) and the
q:3 8554 in'

value of Sr,, due to the unit force as determined above. Now,

tl
F:-fl',\ -' -fL.\
' \sr,. / ". \Sr'../
rr : :(c
2t -
c): :(36.5 - 35.1 25):0.6875 in.

Multiplying the str€sses due to unit force by F and combining these tl :0.
i = : (G - :;(35.125 34.875) 25 in.
2Z -
B) |
with the stresses previously computed for int€rnal or external pressure
(whichever is higher) will give us the resultant outside and inside head
T s 4175
and flange stresses in the floating head. If, the resultant stresses are not n: t' =-^u.6ll)
;z;;:6.6923
within allowable limits, modifications in design are required.

152 153
 l)r,st(;N orr pt{(xt[ss UQUtPMENT STI{ESS ANAI,YSIS ()1. I'I,oATINC HEADS

nr : (rr)r : (6.6923)r : 299.7272 l 9!9i! f102!t -12{22tsj?9!l lb

5.8668(8.5695) - 3.6535(s.2698)
= - 43,26',7
a 77 6)5
K=
r:ao*rr::t'ozss r.6535( - r5?.026) - 7e.892(8.5695)
: -40,562 in-lb
/14 R7s \ 5.8668(8.5695) - 3.651s(5.2698)
*:.,n'(urrr) :sin' r{o.s52s):33.s4"
Head Stresses
Ch€ck Up for Internal Pressure
Pr: 100 Psi .s. _r00(1.5b25r+, 1l.i.u],9.tLr:* or _alf9?l_ . : _ r.828 psr.
2(0.8125) r(34.8?5)0.8125 r(34.8?5X0.8125)'
-- 100(2X14.875)
:9)')lo lb (-43,267)0.8115
+ 100(J 1.5625) 6( -40,562)
": s,'--2tgjt25) + n(:qj?5lgjtx - :4vuz psl
n(34.875tt0.8125),
|/ nRlt{\
3.85s4 ::= | :
- z:I\ s.437s - v.6JJJ
/
t.62 {l ln.
Flange Sar€sses

;- /rr s,<rs
r.29 |-:::::::8.0401 \ _ 0.525(6.6e23) -- ( oa ro, _or- 40.s62)8.0401)_
34.875
_ 755 psr.
'
v u.drz) "'-:+.srs(o.8rzsto.so2s \ /
| 50R5 | | /41\85541
s' -n{34.815r5r37sle5'526(;8i5-,"'.no.\-, - r^r,-ll216"\
r-ffi:o.e62s /''--
r.,
l\0.r638J
1.5085 : - 1,299 psi.
Kz: t -
tr***:0'8499
Resultant Flange Stresses
0 21121.??2)0!' 2ll,tg78!l
_ 1.6241 :3.6535 in. Sr): - 1,299 -(- 755): - 544 Psi
0.962s
s711 : - 1,299 +( - 755): * 2'054 Psi
|.t (8.040t t299.'7 27 2 (0.8125)0.07585
v2
34.875 (0.9625)
+ r :5.8668 Check Up for External Pressure

2(3.8554) 1.5821 P":310 psi.

c 3
: s s,s26lt.624l (1.5085) + - o. 125]- 255,443(0.6875)
34.8'ts .. ( - 310)n(34.875)'z :
H:
:79,892 in-lb 4 -296.129lb
8i1910!525r(s34es+-t
2 \+ 34.875 * I j!!f i41)
c3:
r ,(:.sss+)l.s!4_o.rrrl
+: 34.8.7s
\ o.962s / 4(6.6923)1.t75 0.8t2s(0.9625) -296J291 1.6241(1.5085)
I
:8.5695
- s\: - 967'689 in-lb
255,443 (0.687

t^s =0.8r2s10.9025)
r.65 f * 4{8.0401)1.624t I 4(3.8554) - 34.87s(1.5085)
C6: -296,129l
Lr 34J7s l:s2698/in' 4(6.6923)t .37 5 -u1*]=o'u'"' 'o
^ ^- -^_[4(3.8ss4)-34.875(1.5085) 0.]5 | Now
1
":v:':zol a16Je21r.-i--osszsl: - 157.026 lb

t54 155
 l)ttst(;N ()tr PR(x:liss tx)(JIPM EN'I' S'I'I(USS ANAI,YSIS OF ITLOATIN(; HEADS

,, 5.8668(486.777 ) I 967,68e(5.2698)
256,M0 tb
atrtl :{Ilgrs47.sl ?f 1875(&5621 : _0.63e4 in-lb
31.0223 31.0223
and

M: 3.6535
(486,7 77) + 96 7,689 ( 8.5 69 5 )
31.0223
:324,639 in-lb 'hererore' r,.:0*#ffi*.;offiffi33rr : -0'055? psi'

Head Stresses irnd 6{ -0.6394)

( - 0.282)0.8335
(
_ _0.0504 psi.
(-310)31.5625 . 256,440(0.833s) 6(324,639) ''ri " ' n(34.875 )0.8125
-o-! r (34.875)(0.81 25)'
S,,
2(0.812s) - t(34 8?510^8 t25
- n(34J75X0-8 | 25f
:23,310 psi.
\, _ 0.s2s{6.6e23) [_o.rrr_0,-0.^u?1?-t.oootl:o.oreop,i.
.^:34875(0.8t
25)0.9625 L
"-"- 34.8'15 J
^ (
t,.:--l- - 310) 31.5625 2s6,440(0.8335) 6(324,639)
2(0.8125) z(34.875)0.8125 z(34.875)(0.812s)'?
: - 30,550 psi. s-l- / | -t' -0.2821
' \/2.1638\
ll - - l:0.0284 Psi
"J
U(34.87s)5.4375l\0. 1638/
Flange Stresses
Now
040r I
s.: _jj?!16€23)
'u:34i75(0J
f _, - 4r324.63er8
,.^ -5'530psi' Sr,:0.0284 -0.0396: -0.0112 Psi'
10.9625 Lt'o'*t) 14.8?5
125
-l: S7r3:0'0284 * 0'0396 =0'068 Psi'
I- t /r 6rR\-l
-'s :_nt34.8'75)5.43'7s |L_106
r
Iror _ t.066J)_256.4401..'.:: I l:1.315 psi, The force F is given by the negative quotient of the
two values ofSJi'
---'---' \0 1638/l thus with internal Pressure
/ tn54\.
-p:
Resultant Flange Stresses -
_I _-::: l:30.206 Ib
Sr":1315 -(- 5530):6,845 psi. \ 0.068 /
Sri, : 1315 +( - 5530): - 4,215 psi. and with external Pressure

Stresses with Full Gasket Restraint -o: -1-a2ls):ot.sts tu

\ 0.068 /
In this case
Stresses Due to lnternal Pressure
c,=seI:21187s n-tb and with Full Gssket Restrsint
by the
and Multiplying the stresses determined above due to the unit force
these with the stresses due to
34.875 .orr".pinOlng force F and combining
:0.94'15lb internal pressure as computed earlier, we get
4(6.6923) 1 .37 s
Now Sr,: - 0.0557(30,206) - 1828: -3,510Psi'
5.8668(0.9475) 2.7r87 s(s.2625\ srr : 0.0504(30,206) + 4902 : 6'424 psi.
- :
31.0223 -0.282 lb Sr,,: - 0.01l2(30,2061- 544: - 882 Psi'
Sr1:0.068(30'206) - 2054 =0

156 r57
 t)tlsl(;N ( )tr pl{(xjtjss lQtJll,MIN1.
S'TI{ESS ANALYSIS oT TLOATIN(; HEADS
Strcssrs Duc lo llxternal Prossurc
and with Full Gasket Resaraint I Corroded head thickness, in.

Repeating the above procedure and subtracting the external pressurc

T Corroded longitudinal thickness offlange, in.
[(] / Ring-load between flange and head,lb
obtain the combined stresses, we get
: w Total bolt load, lb
sa -0.0557(61,985) + 23,310 _ 310 : 19,547 psi. : sin
: : E One half of central angle of head ' (B/2R )
srr 0.0504(6 1,985)
- 30,550 _ 3 I0 _ 27,7 36 psi.
: - 0.01 12(61,985) + 6,845 - 310:5,841 psi.
s_/,,

S/r :0.068(61,985) 4,215 REFERENCES

- - 3lO: - 310 psi.
AII the stress€s determined above due to internal or external l. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, "Pressure
pressure and with or without full gasket constraint
are within thc Vessels," Division l, ASME, New York, N.Y., 1983.
allowable of 30,400 psi (0.8 yield) stress, rherefore, our design is safe.
Soherns, J. E., "The Design of Floating Heads for Heat Exchangers,"
ASME Paper 57-A-247.

Nomenclature

Corroded outside diameter offlange, rn.

B Corroded inside diameter offlange, rn.
c Bolt circle diameter, in.
d Corroded radiai thickness offlange, in.
G Mean gaskel diameter, in.
h Radial distance from gasket load reaction to the bolt circle
:(c - G)12
Radial distance from corroded inside diameter to the gasket
load reaction :(G - B)/2
K A/B
m n3
M Ring-moment between flange and head, in-lb
n T/t
P. Inside pressure on the floating head, psi.
Outside pressure on the floating head, psi.
q Inside depth offlange, in.
R Mean corroded head radius, in.
e Stress on the outside offlange, psi.
C
Stress on the inside offlange, psi.
S,, Stress on the outside of head, psi.
Jl,i Stress on the inside offlange, psi.

158
159
 5

FIXED TUBESHEET DESIGN

In the chemical industry, heat exchangers are frequently required to

be fabricated of expensive corrosion-resistant materials, and to avoid
waste of such materials it is desirable that tubesheet thicknesses should
be no greater than are required to withstand the design conditions
involved.
This chapter discusses the design offixed tubesheets in accordance
with the method proposed by Dr. K. A. G. Miller.r It takes into account
the support given to the tubesheets by th€ tubes and also the weakening
effects of different tube hole spacings. The tubesheet designed by thrs
method results in thickness much less than as given by the method
proposed by TEMA'? (Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association).
The Miller method is generally preferred over the TEMA method for
economical purposest especially for large diameter alloy tubesheets
designed for low internal pressure. There, will not only be a saving rn
material but, more important, a saving in the machining time for drilling
the holes in the tubesheet.
Discussion is limited to the box type ofexchanger as shown in Fig. I,
since thiscovers almost all types of fixed tubesheet exchangers used these
days. The tubesheet has been assumed to be simply supported because rn
almost all cases, gaskets are neither full faced nor extended inside bolt
holes. In any case, if the type ofexchanger or the boundary condition is
different than discussed, one should refer to Miller's paper for analysis.
A detailed example follows the short discussion ofdesign procedure
in order to present the application of this method for design problems.

t6l
 t)ltst(;N ( )tr P l{( x jtjss LQTJTPMENT FIXED TUBESHEET DESION

Design Procedure
I)ifferential exPansion is
y = d10t- d"0"

liflective pressure diflerence due to the combined pressure difference P

and the differential exPansion i' is
P":P+y*+
Determine the value ofdimensionless factor
E,na -]"
^|
rn:tot[tP;,1e-o ^
D
FIG. 1. . BOX TYPE HEAT EXCHANGER I
Typical cross-section of a tube is shown in Fig. 2. Cross_sectional The values of Gr, G2, G3 and Ga corresponding to the factor l(R can
area o[ one tube is be read from Table 1.

t: nd2 nd,2
q- q KR Gr c2 G.

0 0.800 0.800 +1.000 1.000

Cross-sectional area of inside ofshell is
0.5 0.809 0.810 +0.998 1 .002

" 1.0 0.820 0.844 +0.966 t.o29

A:lpz t.) 0.871 o.993 +0.836 t.14
4
2.0 t.012 t.412 +0.546 I .40
Cross-sectional area of tube holes in tubesheet is given
by
2.5 t.34 2.40 +0.121 t;79
c:|a,, 3.0 1.88 4.24 -0.306 2.25
2.69
J.) 2.36 6.36 -0.608
-0.7 4r
Cross-sectional area ofshell plate is found using the formula 4.0 2.75 8.53 3.10
4.5 3.10 10.7 5 3.47
-0.727
B: n(D + t)t 3.83
5.0 3.43 13.1 -0.619
Deflexion or ligament efficiency can be calculated from the 5.5 15.8 4.18
relationshtp -0.541
6.0 4.12 18.7 4.54
-0.515
4:P:(A-C) 7.O 4.82 2s.3 4.529 s.26
A 5.97
Determine
8.0 5.54 33.1 -0.5 64
9.0 6.26 41.8 6.68
-0.602
10.0 6.98 )l.t) 7 .39
a:E-!:
E"B 12.o 8.43 74.3
-o.642
8.81
-0.727
14.0 9.88 101.1 10.23
-0.816
Working Conditions 16.0 11.33 132.0 11.65
-0.907
Calculate equivalent pressure difference by 18.0 i2.80 t67 .2 -o.999 13.06
20.o 14.25 206.4 14.48
-1.091
P: P,' - P,. -' 'z""
A-C TABLE r. VALUES FOR Gl, G2' G3 and G4

162 163
 I )tist(;N ()tr t,l{(xItss IQtJtpMLNT.
IlxDl)'ruBBsHtit1,r D[slcN
Maximum radial stress in tube plate is given by
,,.:26.08(10)" psi.
t^^A^-l
- t'
z,:7.16(10) 6 in./in. "F
- I1 t e c,u oy' ,i : 5o Psi.
^u*, -lt"4lQG,+Gzf \ltl
,-,
l),:580 - 70:510"F
Also, maximum stress in tube material is sreater of ri:1.5 in.
r/' : 1.5 - 2(0.083) : 1.334 in.

P,r^u*1 :( A _oct
(-,;*, t)] ti,
a,:
: ZZ.52,tOru Ott.
?.96(10)- 6 in./in. "F
-
l, ", ,ir:27.52(10)6 psi.
Assuming the total thickness of tubesheet as 3 in. therefor€,

rl-u''A-stl ft:3 -Total required corrosion allowance

".@,T31]
Similarly, the stresses in tube plate and tubes should be determined
: 3 - 0.062s :293't5 n.
5)2 -334)2
for different combinations of shell and tube design pressures, if any are ..
-r(l _n(l
a:4-4- :0.3695 in.,
required. If, either of the stresses in any of the cases is found moreihan
the allowable, the tube plate thickness should be modified unless the na : 2436(0.3695) :900. I in''?
stresses within allowable limits are obtained.
n(I10.625)':n6l
^-.,1.6 in.'z
o:""'\"'"'
EXAMPLE -i | <\2
c :'"":' ecttt:4304.8 in.2
Design 58-162 Ni 200 tubesheets in accordance with K. A. G.
I l.?51, n(110.625t'
Miller method for a fixed tubesheet exchanger having an expansron
joint. The A-516-70 shell has an uncorroded inside diameter of I10.5 B=r(l O, _ a : t96.5 in.,

inches and is designed for 150 psi internal pressure at 580"F. The shell
plate is 0.625 inches thick inclusive of0.0625 inches corrosion allowance. A - C:s6ll.6 - 4304.8:5306.8 in.'
There arc 2436,22leet long, 1.5 inches outside diameter and 0.083 inches 5306.8
^ --^.
thick SB-163 Ni 200 tubes. Tube side design conditions are 50 psi at 4:It=-:u.))21
580"F. Shell and tube metal temperatures can be assumed to be 580"F.
(900.1)
Total corrosion allowance for tubesheet should be 0.0625 inches.
a: 27.52(10)6
26.08(10)6(196.5 r
:4.8336

SOLUTION
":,50_50-H#:er.5psi
Pr : 150 psi.
0"=580-70=510.F Sinc€ the exchanger has an expansion joint the differential thermal
D: r 10.5 + 2(0.0625): 110.625 in. expansion will be
t :0.625 -0.0625 :0.5625 in. ?:0

164 to)
 t)1.:st(;N ( )r, pti(xjljss tjQUtpMINT F'IXED TUBESHEET DESION

therefore,
Nomenclature
p.: p:91.5 psi.
a Cross-sectional area of metal in one tube, in.2
Let us assume_that the tube projection is 0.125 inches
outside each A Cross-sectional area of bore of shell, in.2
ruoesneet, whtch gtves
B Cross-sectional area of shell plate, in.2
L :22(12) - 2(3) _ 2(0.125) :257.7s in. Cross-sectional area of tub€ holes in the tubesheet, in.2
a Outside diameter of tubes, in.
d' Inside diameter of tubes, in.
D Bore ofshell, in.
From Table l, for kR:8.5282 we get by interpolation Modulus ofelasticity for tubesheet material, psi.
F Modulus ofelasticity for shell rnaterial, psi.
Cr : 5 9203
Modulus ofelasticity for tube material, psi.
G z:31 6953
6r: - 0 5841 h Thickness of the tubesheet, in.
and Gt:6.3450 L Ellective length of the tubes, in.
n Number of tub€s
P Equivalent pressure difference, psi.
P,(max): [91.5 - 50( l.8l l2)4.8jj6] I10.625
Pressure outside tubes, psi.
4 14.8336 (s.9203) + 37.69 zws Pressure inside tubes, psi.
:- l85l psi (compression) < I1,700 psi. O.K. p ElTective pressure difference due to combined pressure
p,(max) :#1r.5 -( -0 5s4r/1####{l.l P,(max)
difference P and the differentialexpansion i,. psi.
Maximum radial stress in tubesheet, psi.
:433 psi P,(max) Maximum longitudinal stress in tubes, psi.
Q E,nalE,B
t Corroded thickness ofshell, in.
e,r,nu4: !963 [el.s 1
91 5- 50( l'8 | l2t+ g:lo]1 r" Coeflicient of thermal expansion of shell, in./in. F
vw.r L -16.34591 (4.8336+6.3450) |
z, Coeflicient of thermal expansion of tubes, in./in. 'F
:1698 psi (Tension)< 15,520 psi, O.K.
7 Differential expansion per unit length, in./in.
Since all the stresses are within allowable limits, a 3 inch
thick 4 Deflexion efliciency
tubesh€et is sufficient for this exchanger. Thickness
.outa U" iu.it", p Ligament efficiency
reduced but seems to be quite reasonable for such a large
"*"nung"..
0" Temperature ofthe shell, 'F
0, Temperature of the tubes,'F

REFERENCES
l. Miller, K. A. G., "The Design of Tube Plates in Heat Exchangers,"
Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Vol. lB,
t952 53, pp.2l5-23t.
FIG. 2. CROSS SECTION OF A TUBE 2. Standards of Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, Sixth
Edition. New York. N.Y.. 1978.

166 t67
 6
FLANGED AND FLUED EXPANSION JOINTS

One must consider Yarious aspects of differential expansion

b€tween tubes and shell offixed tubesheet exchangers, when making an
expansion joint selection. Temperature differences between shell and
tuie side fluids cause differential expansion oftubes and shell Asaresult
the tubes are subjected to stress unless suitable provision is made to
accommodate the differential expansion. Expansion joints are installed,
when required, to accommodate differential expansion'
Tubisheet thickness design formulas of the TEMA STANDARDS'
are relatively simple for all construction other than fixed tubesheet
desien. In this desisn a factor "J" has a value of 1.0 for shells without
expa'nsion joints, and mostly zero for shells with expansionjoints, except
foi designs which require special consideration. Among these are those
expansion joints which require considerable axial load to produce
movement and are known as "ring expansion joints." There are several
types of ring expansion joints. They have been successfully used where
small movements are to be accommodated and wh€re the frequency of
movement is minimum. They offer significant advantages over the more
flexible thin wall bellows type joints in fixed tubesheet heat exchanger
applications.
The procedure as recommended by Kopp and Sayre2 for designing
these typis ofjoints is discussed briefly. This computation method takes
into account joint flexibility of the shell plates and of the circular ring'
The following three types of ring expansion joints can be analyzed with
this technique:
L FIat plates with ring Thisconsists of two concentric flat plates with a
circumferential bar at the outer edges. Tbe flat plates can flex to make
some allowance for differential expansion. This design is gen€rally

169
 t)Est(iN oF PROCESS EQUTPMENT
FLANOED AND FLUED EXPANSION JOINTS

used for vacuum service (steam surface condensers).

are subject to severe stress during differential
All wetd!
" Let E be the modulus of elasticity at design temperature and m be
2. Flenged only herds Inthistv
;_;;i;"."' the Poisson's ratio of expansion joint material. Now,

d;il;G";;;,ffi'ji"Hl!lii":tl.,1T,1x,.fl fi ]hlill ^Ro

The curved shape tends to reduce the
,"*, ,f," *"fi#;iiiir.
3. Flanged and flued herds Thi
expansion
""
joint.rnliiJtr;'i:11?il'H#,'iffj.liff i,.j:j
wrrn concentric reverse flue "IJi,i*fy
Tq.: f,.ra,
.:ffi(I)
expe-nsive because of the ^l1l"l
fluingoperation. iri" "*
the amount of stress significantly. "u-rii
Jr,;d;;&"r,
b:t +thf r I
l1- loRpa , , ,< |
L lt-^'11'o ' '-- ,
discussed applies directly to type
I above. However,
^-^..Ll._,::l-l'?":
provrsron ls made to convert the actual cross_section
an equivalent of type I (i.e., square
oftyp" iu"J ll",o
cornered ring, with the same total
leng.th of plare along the centerline)for
predicting the value of ,,J" factor #il,
rnlalirionl
unuryrir.
for designing fi;;;;.;;;;;
-L
zla + oJ
,"
:::::d** .with paragraph 7.tel of riMA" St;$ffi;;'"r.,
having_ these type of expansion
D:nffi) F,J

:I:n-,C:^.
example is included :"i*. l. p."r".[i
to demonstrate rhi .f ;"t;iq; ;;;;;;;. ^" At:(2b- LIC
"r"
Design Procedure Br:(2a+ L)C

a,:ltt-rtc
n,:lta+Dc
v,:L]+oa,-Le,

v,: -l-o.a,+L-;,
TYPE I TYPE 2 TYPE 3

FIG. I. RING TYPE EXPANSION JOINTS

^:ffl
Moments Drc to Internal Pressure
joint of Type 2 or 3 is desired,
..-
tnese-Il "*p1ori:l
types should be converted to an equivalent oi
the dimensions of
Let P be tho internal pressure and x be the distance above point I as
Type f ioff-o*r,
", is shown in Fig. 1, then
For Tyrr- 2, L:G _O.2t5r
For Type 3, t: c O.215(r tr,)
-
For Type 2 or 3, lr : H _0.43r ':(+)"
170 t7l
 t)Est(;N oF Pt{(xtEss EQUTPMENT
FLANCED AND FLUED EXPANSION JOINTS

F=KW
S, should also be determined in the same fashion and at the same
Ft=LW-F distances from / as Sr.
Mt: AzW- ArF
M j: B1F _ B2lU Resulta[t St]esses in Expsnsion Joints

It4:7,4,- p,r 1!2 rz S=Sr*Sz

Thus, the resultant stress at each location from I to B can be
Moments Due to Differential Thermal Movement determined by adding S, and S, at the same location Care should be
taken to use the proper sign while adding these stresses. The resultant
Using the proper sign for dillerential movement A stress will be compressive if positive and tensile ifnegative.
(i.e. + if thejoint
opens and
-if the joint closes) determlne The pressure, deflection or combined stresses should be less than
the corresponding allowable stresses, otherwise, the design should be
',4
t=, modified.

- /D\ ly
rr:l;;
Allowable Stresses

\Lrr'/ The movement with respect to each other of the shell plates at the joint
willbe determined by the elastic changes in the shell and tubes. This may
Mn'=-A'F' cause high stresses locally in thejoint and therefore some plastic yielding,
Mu'=B'F' but any yield in the joint will not cause further movement of the shell
Mr=M^r*Frx plates, and so will be self-limiting in nature. The portion undergoing
plastic deformation is small in comparison with the portion undergoing
Determining Section Modulus elastic deformation. Therefore the residual strain will be imperceptible.
of Exprnsion Joint Section Thus the prevention of significant plastic deformation does not require
all calculated elaslic stresses to b€ below the yield point, since
z:+(!-f,+t\
6\ r ' -/ appreciable plastic deformation can occur only if the material yields
across the entire area. Thus, ifthe exchanger service is to be a steady one,
Str€ss6 Due to Internal pressure the local stresses with this type of loading should always be lower than
twice the yield stress in order to avoid failure by brittle fracture as stated
s,
'z=M by Brownell and Young.3
Similarly, internal pressure acting on the flat plates in thejoint may
should be determined at x 0 i.e. at /4, ro x:
.S, = B at an interval of cause them to bulge, but as they bulge. catenary or cupping stresses as
one inch by changing the values of M and
Z. well as bending stresses are introduced, and unless the plates are very
heavily loaded, the bulging will also be self-limiting in nature.
Msximum Str€ss rt Test h€sslre
Therefore, the stresses of the following order can be allowed
while designing such expansion joints:
s,: Maximum s, (p) r.s
Pressure Strcsses
Stresses Due to Dilfcrcntid Moveme
Maximum allowable Sr = 1.5(Sd"")
-M, Maximum allowable S, : 2.25(S"'n)
'z
172
173
r' DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT
FLANOED AND FLUED EXPANSION JOINTS
Detlectlon Strsss
EXAMPLE
Maximum allowable S. = smaller of 2(Srr)
A 15.25 inches I.D. exchanger is to be equippedwith a flanged and
or 4(S0.,)
flued expansion joint to be designed to open 0 125 inches in order. to
Toasl Stress The internal design
u""o-rnoa"t" tlie dilferential thermal expansion'
inches total minimum thick
Maximum allowable S=smaller of 2(Sro) fressure is 100 psi and the shell is 0.375 joint
inclusive of 0.0625 inches corosion allowance' The expansion
or 4(S;,) material has the following properties:
Calculating Value of J Factor psi
Code allowable stress at design temperalure: 17'500
ratio ofthe force to move the expansionjoint
"/ is the Yield stress at design temp€rature:38'000 psi
one inch to the force (10)6
to move the shell and the expansion joint rogitt
on" i. ,i""0
in"i. Modulus ofelasticity at design temperature = 27'6
".
earlier, these types of erpansion jointsiequi."-"onria".uur" pci
produce the required movemenr. JJlo"a, to ratio:0.3
Thus, the value .r J J""iJ o" Poisson's
determined as follows:
fixed tubesheet
By definirion Also, calculate the value of factor '/ for designing
assumingthe overall length of shell to be equal to 16 feet'
Fr
,: ,
(f.r+r")__-
, *& SOLUTION
where F" the force to move the shell by one inch
can readily is assumed to be the
determined from ..Hooks Law" as:
be
The minimum expansion joint plate thickness
radii are made equal to J llmes
same as the shell thickness' Both corner
A straisht flange of 0'875 inches (should- be..1.inch
r'":/!(rd=z(Do=49u ;l;;;;l;-k"".t. joint as fabricated wrll be as
normally) is assumed and the expansion
Therefore, shown in Fig. 2.
\
,*opF#L 4.37 s',

Mettods of Calculating F,
B€sides the Kopp and Sayre technique
also stated methods of calculating
Gardnera and Samoiloff have t
_Fr. fr.**"r, .rrf y"t"n""_"iirra -i
:*::T:T^1
i., ll.Ko?pas:
can oe determlned
and Sayre is disiussed here, accoioirg,.
*iir,
rr:0.375L
Fr=2(F,)(R,)n

But, in accordance with TEMA .I can be

assumed to be equal to zero for
shells with expansion joints, where
=r;Jlrs.2vlD
Fr <(Do-t)tEs/loLl
FIG. 2. EXPANSION JOINT IN EXAMPLE CALCULATION

t74 t75
 [)ESI(;N OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT FLANOED AND FI.UPD EXPANSION JOINTS

. The expansion joint calculation sheet can also be used for design.
The joint should be analyzed in the corroded condition only. Referring D: 27.6(10)6(0.3125)l
l2(l = 77132.3 lb-in.
to type 3 joint in Fig. I and determining the data for analysis in corrodcd -0.3, )
condition: A | = t2(7.2502)- 6.l23ll(0.3895) :3.262e tn.

81 : [2(0.6090) + 6.1231](0.3895) :2.8593 in.

G = 6.625 +0.0625 = 6.6875 in.
H = 4.0 +2(0.0625) = 4.125 in.
e, :4!p1t.zs02)- 6.I231I(0.38e : 12.4236 in.'z
t =0.375 -0.0625 =0.3125 in.
tr :0.375
-0.0625:0.3125 in. a, : 1r1o.ooe0) + 6. 1 23 l I (0.3se 5) = 6.3202 in.z
oltrs {1
r: I.125 + 0.0625 + '';- : t.3438 in.
,, :(u
ttit)'
*o.u oso(3.262\-9!21(2.85e3) :5.730? in.'?
lt?s
o-'-:--
rt:1.125 + :1.2813 in.
r,: -(6'l2tlt)'-o.6o9ooz.a:r,6'ya!E\ 6.3202) =- 16.9125 in.r
lsrs n?rr<
R,=:-19.962, +' T":7.8438 in.

Ro:
t2
rll
+ 0.i75 + 6.6251q.g62510
n 25
':l+ff] :2,5tzin
= 14.8438 in. Now, P: 100 psi.

- R"
1(:d: 14.8438
: t 8924 in'
therefore,
7J43s
w:ry1!@l : rr+4.62 tb lin.
h: H -0.43r = 4.125 - 0.43(1.3438):3.5472 in. : :
F 2.95 12(144.62) 426.8025 lb
L: Q -0.215(r + r) :6.687s -0.215(1.3438_ 1.2813): 6.r231 in.
F r 6.1231(144.62)- 426.8025 =458.7202lb.
Also given,
Since the expansionjoint is to be designed to open, therefore, A will
E:(27.6)106 psi be taken as positive, i.e.
and A:0.125 in.
m:0.3 Now,
Calculating y=0.125
- -:0.0625 in.

_:F::I
a:--,/7.8438(0.3 r 25) /0.31253 \
- _ __ l=0.6090in. and
t2)J3tt - 03'z | \0.3125r/ 7't 132.3
F,: . -=:(o.o62s):
' 6.1231(5.7307) 137.38a3 lb.
:7.2502 in. Cdculating Str€sscs

The magnitude of stresses due to internal pressure and differential move.

ment and also the resultant stresses at different locations are determined
^ 6.1231
L:)a;ono*rr* :o'389s and tabulated as follows assuming tle positive stresses to be compressive
and the negative being tensile:

176 177
 DES|(;N oF P l{ocEss EQUTPMENT FLANCED AND FLUED EXPANSION JOINTS

Maximum Saress at Test Pr€ssure

S,:24785( I) 1.5:37178 Psi.
2t^
Sa; E
ql
S €
|:l.-o\NF-v)\oF
6 6
3
(.)
I S
\O \.r
$a Allowable Stresses
'i dc.l
-i cr"r
NF ' I I
Maximum allowable sr : 1.5(17500):26250 psi.
Maximum allowable Sr:2.25(17500): 39375 psi.
Maximum allowable 52 or S:smaller of 2(3800) or 4(17500)
!?ooocov('l
C.l .Oco; oo \o
€
sFcn(/)o\v.. o C.l a- : 70000 psi.
h90g?..roo
'll
E Since all the actual stresses at differcnt locations are less than the
ot corresponding maximum allowable stresses, the design is considered safe.
z
:
o Determining the Value of J
z O\ \O.is
(?IF-O\<
N .") .o ll Ft =2(F r)(R)n
\ z
E :2(t37 38a3)Q.8437sln
:6770.81 14 lb.
Es:27.6(10)6 psi.
q 3 G:
d, v)
F
F
R - E
..TTTI E R
I = 3 R gh
o
L, -- 192 in.
(Do- tltEs (r6 - 0.375)0.375(27.6)106
l0L1 10(1e2)
F
z :84,228.5156 lb.
2 t^ o
jE oo vN F sr . g P+
>a $.ll H
o,, qr ...r
.? a'Fr .d
-i ii H ll
Since
: ertt : F t,- -(Do -r)tEs
=-ioL
N Therefore, ./ can be assumed to be equal to zero.

z? 6
g
q E : q$ cN R
q q c H:
qc Nomenclature
(/)E
c Factor, in.
()
z \ Ar Factor, in.
oQqi * c.r o rf ,n o Fi Y A2 Factor, in.2
,4" Cross-sectional area ofshell metal, in.2
6 Factor, in.
Br Factor, in.
B2 Factor, in.2
r78 t79
 l)L.sl(;N ol, PRoctiss UQUTPMENI' III.AN(;LD AND III,UIiI) IiXPANSIoN JOIN'TS

(' Constant S Combined stress in thc expansion joint, psi.

D Flexural rigidity of expansion joint, lb-in. Sr Stress in the expansion joint due to internal pressure, psi.
Do Outside diameter of shell, in. 52 Stress in the expansion joint due to differential movement, psi.
E Modulus of elasticity of expansion joint material at design S.,. Allowable stress in expansion joint material at atmospheric
temperature, psl. temperature, psi.
Es Modulus of elasticity of shell material at design temp€rature, Sr." Allowable str€ss in expansion joint material at design
rFmharar',rc nei
psi.
F Vertical force at B due to int€rnal pressure, lb. Sl Maximum stress in expansionjoint due to test pressure, psi.
Fr Vertical force at B due tojoint moyement, lb. S", Yield stress of expansion joint material at design temperature,
DSi.
FA Vertical force at I due to internal pressure, lb.
t Thickness of exchanger plate, in.
Fr Force required to move the expansion joint one inch, lb.
tr Thickness oI expansion joint plate, in.
Fs Force required to move the shell one inch, lb.
C Total distance between outside of shell to inside ofcylindrical
w Lateral load on span L, lb./in.
ring, in. Vertical distance from corner 1{, in.
fi Effective inside width of expansion joint, in. Y, Factor, in.2
H Total inside width of expansion joint, in. Factor, in.3
./ Ratio of the force to move the expansion joint one inch to the z Section modulus of expansion joint plate at distance x from ,4,
force to move the shell and the expansion joint together one in."
inch A Maximum movem€nt of expansion joint, in.
K Factor, in.
REFERENCES
L Effective distance between outside of shell to inside of
cylindrical ring, in.
1. "Standards ofTubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association j' Sixth
Ll Overall length of shell, in. Edition. New York. N.Y.. 1978.
m Poisson's ratio ofexpansion joint material Kopp, S., and M. F. Sayre, "Expansion Joints for Heat Exchangers,"
M Moments at distance x from ,4 due to internal pressure, inlb. ASME Misc. Paper VoL 6, No. 211 (1950, ASME annual meeting)
Mr Moments at distance x from 1 due to joint movement, in-lb. 3. Brownell, L. E., and E. H. Young, "Process Equipment Design," John
MA Moments at ,4 due to internal pressur€, inJb. Wiley and Sons Inc., 1959.
M^ Moments at .4 due to joint movement, in-lb. Gardner, K. A., Report to TEMA on Fixed Tubesheet Exchanger
MB Mom€nts at I due to inl€rnal pressure, in-lb. Design Background for TEMA Par. 3.3 and Par.7.15. December 14,
1963, pp. 7 and 8.
M", Moments at B due to joint movement, inlb.
p 5. Samoiloff, A., "Evaluation of Expansion Joint Behavior," Power,
lnternal design pressure, psi.
Design and Equipment Application section, January, 1961.
Mean radius at outside corner, in.
ri Mean radius at inside corner. in.
R Width of annular plate at the outside considering a unit sector
at the shell plates, in.
Ri Mean radius of exchanger shell, in.
Ro Mean radius of expansion joint, in.

181
180
 C'
Il + z
,;
z
I
tn
z
I

<z ...1

X=
rIJF r4 \.-l lN
a\< ll
a: tl o
ll + ;
'JY lG.
:^< ca
z o i l..l
NI NI U
rI]9 F \./
Fr F\ +
>'''
rr
>':
k-r
rr l(\ ll

z L, 's -t_ >lN

I
t.- k:
ztrl : + v)
I
!- : z
I l.o I

a
rl, ti < l..l {l tl
tl
I

ll v ; -fr7-
{ axd
a vl2 z
t.\ dYi
t-:
l-r F :'.

l',ol^L
l.]
lolt
ra
J I

zvt T&

F +
*l
z F
()
z
aa .,<
lI] tl rq ;
/--'-:-\ tl Ht
--l- ll ll
,t-
ll^
Q
*t U F]
II a:
.c
i =+
-1
I
":il .o
q--lll_ l
I
I
F.l tl
(q I
I
4
\Jt-
,.t(, *l
z + :s
*1 \ N
t. e n
x
F
l1

; z \ @
 7
PIPE SEGMENT EXPANSION JOINTS

The flued-head design has given good service in a number of

applications, but occupies considerable space and is expensive for
the

which it provides. Thus, in some cases expansion joints made

movement
of pipe segments are desirable. This is another kind of ring-expanston
joint in which pipe may be halved and quartered to produce a ring lt is
where the
also restricted to applications involving small movements and
frequency of moYement is minimum However, it can be designed'

fabricated and installed much cheaper than bellows or flanged and flued
expansion joints. In addition, ring-type expansion
joinrs are rugged and
heavy walled. thus, they do not require any additional protection'
They

are also a good substitute for bellows expansion

joints on exchangers
where corrosion maY occur.l
This chapter along with a solved example discusses a technique
for
2
analyzing these type of expansion joints A method of calculating
"J"
factor for designing fixed tubesheets in accordance with paragraph 7'191

of TEMA STANDARDS3 for exchangers having these types of

expansion joints is also included.

Analyzing Technique
Choose size and schedule of pipe to be used as an expansion
joint'
Determine the corroded pipe wall thickness exclustve of mill tolerance'
which is
r:(Nominal wall thickness)(0.875) - c

185
 I)ESI(;N oF' PR(X]ESS EQUIPMENT PIPE SECMENT EXPANSION JOINTS

In general, t should not be less than the corroded shell plate movement due to differential thermal expansion or contraction can be
thickness. calculated by using the following relationship:
tr: (0,a, _ 0,a")
A positive value of A indicates expansion whereas a negative
value indicates contraction.
Internal pressure also causes some movement, the nature of
which, depends upon the type of corrugations. Inner corrugations
cause expansion and outer corrugations cause contraction and are in-
dicated by positive and negative signs respectively. Thus, if, there are
an equal number of inner and outer corrugations, the resulting move-
;$E ment due to internal pressure will be zero. This will also be the case
when we use expansion joints made of pipe segments,
FIG. I. DEI,INITION OF SYMBOLS
--_tgxchanger__ Total end force required to obtain the desired movement can be
In order to usethis analy$is tneratio r/b should be less than determined as follows:
.
size or schedule should be altered
0.1. prpe For 4 <g <40, the relationship for maximum movement is
until the above conaition i"."ii.ti"O.
Now the mean radius of expansion joint as shown in Fig.
l, is 0.s7'7 PbnJt - m'
^
^:
a:0.s(d)+(b-c\
Determine -Er'
Rearranging the above equation to get the relationship for axial
force B we get
u:;J12(1-z.2l LEt2
Saresses Due to Internal Pressure

Stresses due to internal pressure can be calculated as follows: Now, th€ value ofA can be plugged in the above equation to obtain
Maximum meridian bending stress is given by
For p <4, maximum movement is given by
si :o.e55p(t - -' t-''' (o!)u' CPb3n
^
A:--;-;
Maximum circumferential membrane stress is 4uD

si :0.955p(l - n') t'" ( !!\''' 4A,aD

- Chsn
Maximum Stress at Test hessure where
Et3
s,:(Greater of si or s;r(fu)r.s D: _
tzv-m-)
and C is a constant which varies with the value of p and should be
Stress€s Due to Axial Movement interpolated from Table 1.

If not already given, the maximum required expansion joint

186 187
 t)ESt(;N oF PR(XIESS EQUTPMENT PIPE SECMIJNT EXPANSION JOINTS

Pr€ssure Stresses
Maximum allowable Si or S;: 1.5(Sd.")
Maximum allowable Sr : 2.25(S.,-)
Dellection Stresses
Maximum allowable S'i or Si:smaller of 2(Sno)
TABLE r, - vARtATIoN or C wtn a or 4(Sr"")
Combined Stresses
Now, the in the expansion joint resulting from the desir€d
stresses Maximum allowable S, or S, : smaller of 2(Srr)
axial movement can be determined using the following relationships: or 4(Sr"")
Maximum meridian bending stress can be calculated from Calculating Value of J Factor

-.. l.$Pf ab ltrr As already discussed J is the ratio ofthe force to move the
expansion
-:=--l
Ji
znat lt2
|
joint one inctr to the force to move the shell and th€ expansion joint
---Jl _m2 J iogether one inch ./ is one when no expansion joint is used and ismostly
Maximum circurnferential membrane stress is joints are used But' the type
eq"ual to zero when bellows type expansion
0.925pf ab(t _ m2yltt3 under consideration requires considerable axial loads to produce
-,, follows:
"r: 2"", L___V_ l required movement and J in such cases should be calculated as
Bv definition
t., I
Combined Stresses "-rr r
rr., ,*.iF
due to internal pressure and axial movement can be
'J,'F
-Stresses
combined algebraically to obtain the resultant stresses as follows:
Resultant meridian bending stress is Where F", the force to move the shell by one inch, can readily be
determined from "Hooks Law" as:
st :si +si
Resultant circumferential membrane stress is
F":41?.
t

s'?:si+'li _r(Do _tltE"

If the pressure, deflection or combined stresses as determined above
are within the corresponding maximum allowable, the design is safe, and f, the force to move the exPansion joint by one inch is

otherwise, modifications in design are required. Et2

For 4< p<40, Ft=
0.577bn
Allorrble Saress€s
This type of loading will not result in plastic
lelding of expansion
joint material since the portion undergoing plastic deformation
For P<4' Ot::*
is small
in comparison to the portion undergoing elastic deformation. This has
already been discussed in detail in the chapter on ttanged and flued But in accordance with TEMA, J can be assumed to be equal to
expansion joints. Thus, strcsses of the following order can be zero for shells with expansion joints, where
allowed
while designing such expansion joints: Fr <(Do-t)tEslloL

188 189
 tll.:st(;N ( )tr pt{(xjtiss IQtJtpMtiNl. PIPE SECMBN'T EXPANSION JOINTS

EXAMPLE and
(s 37sf
:2:tsts
Design carbon steel expansionjoint
. accommodate
to the movement
orjoints made of pipe segmcnlr -,, - 60.625(0.56575) ."fixr -at\
due to diiferential t t .rrui .* p?n.ion
between shell and tubes in a heat exchanger.
naateriU
shell is carbon steel and tubes are made oinickel.
oil"".i-Xr"
r",
The shefLi" a"J"""i f". Stresses Due to Internal Pressure
150 psi. inrernal pressure at 580.F.
Meral liiir-.n.ff
and tubes are 530'F. Length offace to face "rnp.r"ur*r'i*
oftubesheets i, iiz.zs ir"n., si : 0.e55(r50x1 -o.r,l-',.[ffiffi]"" : r4roo n.i
and uncorroded inside shell diameter is 110.5
tnches. Shefipf"i" 6.OZS
in. thick inclusive of 0.0625 in. corrosion allowance. "
nir. i"il"rl" tn. i4f!1t-l'''
value of lactor J for designing fixed tubesheet
for this e;;;;:;.-* si : 0.e55( I soX | - 0.3' 1"0 = t+,zr t p'i
[60(u.)b)
L /)r I
SOLUTION Maximum Stress at Test Pressure
s,: 14,960(l)1.5 :22,440 psi
Try a l0 inch schedule 100 (0.718 in. wall) pipe and referring to Fig.
l, we have Stresses Due to Axial Movement
O: ).J /J tn A : [(s l0)7.96(10)-
6
-
6]
510(7.16) 10- 25',1.'t s : o.r0s2 tn
t:0.718(0.875) 0.0625 =0.56575 in.
- Since g < 4, the applicable formula for P is
thus
4LaD
/ 0.56575 'D__
- Cb3n
,:JJ?5:0.1052>0.1
where
But..since rhis ratio is very close to 0.1, it is
assumed ro satisfy the
requtrement ol using the technique discussed. D: 26.08(10)6(0.56575)3
12(l
= 432A'73 lb-in.
uslng two expansion joints i.e. one near to each -0.3'.)
tubesheet, we have
and C can be interpolated from Table 1, for p:1.7835 we get
n:4
AIso c :0.7216
d:110.5 +2(0.0625): I 10.625 in. I nerelore
L:2) l. l5 rn 3l ^,
m:0.3 P:':ffi#:24'6tstb
^ 4(0. 1052)60.625(432,47

0:580-70=510oF
Now
a"= 7.16(10)-6 in./in. 'F 'l',.
4:580 - 70:510"F |.63(24,615)/
[ 60.625(s.3!) : l,eot pri
6
a,:7.96(10)- in./in. 'F 2r(60.625)0.56575 Lto.soszs)t.r/t - to:F I
E:26.08(10)6 psi and
4 =26.08(10)6 psi
si
o.s25t24,6tsl [(60.625X5.375X1-0.3')-]"' : 1.030 o.i
a:0.s(110.62s) +(s.375
-0.0625) =60.625 in. 2zr(60.625)0.5657s f (0.56575f I

190 t91
 l)Est(;N oF PR(X:ESS EQUIPMENT PIPE SEOMENT EXPANSION JOINTS

Combined Stresses E" Modulus of elasticity of shell material at design temperature,

s1 : 14,960 + 1903 : 16,863 psi psi.

S, = 14271 + 1030:15301 psi Fr Force required to move the expansionjoint one inch, lb.
F" Force required to move the shell one inch, lb.
Allowable Stresses J Ratio of the force to move the expansion joint one inch to the
force to move the shell and the expansion joint together one
Maximum allowable Si or Si : 1.5(15000) = 225q0 t.1 inch
Maximum allowable S,:2.25(15000):33750 psi L Length of face to face of tubesheets, in.
Maxirnum allowable S'i or 51:smaller of 2(30000) m Poisson's ratio of expansion joint material
or 4(15000) : 60000 psi n Number of semicircular corrugations
Internal design pressure, psi.
Maximum allowable S, or S, :60,ffi p5i
D

P Axial force required for expansion joint movement, lb.

Since, all the calculated stresses are within the corresponding maximum Maximum meridian bending stress due to internal pressure, psi.
si
allowable, thus the design is safe.
s'i Maximum circumferential membrane str€ss due to internal
pressure, psi.
Calcuhting J Factor
si Maximum meridian bending stress due to axial force, psi.
Since 4 <4. Therefore
si Maximurn circumferential membrane stress due to axial force,
psi.
o,:ffi##:233,e80rb. Sr Resultant meridian bending stress in expansion joint, psi.

(D,-r")r"4 (11r.75 0.625)0.625(26.08) 106

52 Resultant circumferential membrane stress in expansion joint,
- psi.
10L 10(2s7.75)
S",. Allowable stress in expansion joint material at atmospheric
:702,749.7575 tb.' temperature, psl.
Since F, < Do t")r"E"/I0I, therefore J can be assumed to be equal to Sd"" Allowable stress in expansion joint material at design
- temperature, psl.
zeto.
sr Maximum stress in expansion joint due to test pressure,psi.
Nomenclature Yield stress of expansion joint material at design temperature,
DSi.
a Mean radius of expansion joint, in.
t Corroded expansion joint pipe thickness exclusive of mill
,4" Cross-sectional area ofshell metal, in.2 tolerance" in.
b Outside radius ofexpansion joint pipe, in. r" Uncorroded thickness ofshell plate, in.
c Shell corrosion allowance- in.
C Constant
a" Coefficient of thermal expansion of shell material at metal
temperature, in./in.'F
d Corroded inside diameter ofshell, in.
r, Coeflicient of thermal expansion ol tube material at metal
D Flexural rigidity of expansion joint,lb-in. t€mperature, in./in.'F
D, Outside diameter of shell, in. g Shell metal temperature in "F - 70'F
E Modulus of elasticity of expansion joint material at desrgn tl Tube metal temperature in 'F - 70'F
temperature, psi.
p Constant
A Maximum required movement of the expansion joint, in.

192 r93
 l)ltst(;N ( )tr Pt{(x:uss IiQT.JtPMENT

REFERENCES

t. Rubin, F. L., "Choose Heat Exchanger Expansion Joints Carelully,"

The Oil and Gas Journal, November 3, 1975.
Roark, R. J., and W. C. Young, "Formulas for Stress and Strain," Fifth
Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1975. 8
3. Standards of Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, Sixth
Edition, New York. N.Y.. l9?8.
YERTICAL VESSELS SUPPORTED BY LUGS

The choice of the type of supports for vertical vessels depends on the
available floor space, the convenience of location of the vessel according
to operating variables such as the size, the operating temperature and
pressure and the materials of construction.
Various kinds of supports for vertical vessels have been discussed by
Brownell and Young' in detail. Lugs offer many advantages over other
types of supports. They are inexpensive, can absorb diametral expansions,
are easily attached to the cylinder by minimum amounts of welding, and
are easily leveled and shimmed in the field. However, a footnote after
paragraph UG-29(e) in Division I of ASME Code for Pressure Vesselsz
cautions against supporting of vessels through the medium of lugs unless
they are properly reinforced. In other words, each case should be analyzed
thoroughly to insure that the shell is not overstressed.
Vertical sh€lls supported on lugs require consideration of two important
factors:
1. The additional stress of the support forces when combined with the
working stress of the shell must not increase the stress in the shell
above the allowable limit.
2. The support should not restrain the stressed shell so it becomes too
rigid to flex under normal changes in working pressure or loads,
The following types of stresses are developed in the shell supported on
lugs:
1. The internal or external pressure on the shell, along with its weight,
causes tangential and longitudinal stresses in the shell.
2. Eccentricity of this type of support results in a radial force on the
shell which causes bending stresses in the ring ofthe shell (from the
bending moment) as well as axial tensile sresses (from the tensile
force), both of which act tangentially.

t94 195
 DESI(;N OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT VERTICAL VESSELS SUPPORTED BY LUGS

3. The radial force causes radial shear stresses in the shell, and
$a Now, only a portion of the shell beyond the lug is assumed to with-
longitudinal force causes longitudinal shear stresses, bothadJscont
stand the flexural stresses due to moment M. This assumption results in
to the lug. However, these strcsses are so small that thcy rrt conse ative stresses since it disregards the reinforcing effect of the remainder
often disregarded.
of the shell as well as of the heads of the vessel. A rigorous determination
After the proper analysis of the forces involved, the various stresrGl
of the effective width of shell that resists these stresses, requircs a laborious
must be combined to detemine the maximum normal and shear
stressot, mathematical analysis. For simplicity, the shell with stiffeners can be com-
If the resulting stresses are excessive a simple study of the indiyidual
stressor pared to a curved beam with an extremely wide flange. Von Karman4
will indicate what portion of the lug is underdesigned and should suggests that an effective width of the flange on each side of the stiffening
be strengthened.
web is approximately
For example, the bending stresses may be excessive inficating thst
some type of stiffener ring.should be attached to the
shell between supporte
to substantially increase the moment of inertia of the shell section thereby \lin
'--T
decreasing the bending stress.
The method of analysis presented in this chapter is based on the The value of '?" should be limited to a maximum of 12 ts.
t€chnique discussed by Blodgett., It allows us to calculate stresses in thc
The moment M applies radial forces to the shell having a distribution
shell at the location of lugs and also gives the procedure for sizing stif-
similar to that of bending forces, i. e. maximum at the outer fibers and zero
feners, if required. along the neutral axis. It is assumed that the radial force applied to effective
Analyzing Technique shell width g would decrease linearly to almost zero at its outer limits. Total
horizontal force /2 on the shell will be as shown in Fig. 1(a). The resulting
distribution of radial forcefi on a unit wide shell ring is indicated in Fig. 1(b).
Now, mom€nt Mcan be expressed in terms of moment of areas of force
distdbution diagram about t}Ie neutral axis, which gives:

M= 2 f, (+)r(+ t\, z r, o I rI.+)

=fth2
bo
+frc(3h:2s )

={{nz +zsn+zsz)

(a) ( h) =!Ur*rxo*u)l
I,](;, I , RADIAL I:ORC!] DISTRItsUTION ON SH!]LL DUE TO LUC LOAD

Let F be tlle nraxirnunl lotd on each lug then thc resulting lo|gitudinal Therefore, radial force fi, applied to the unit shell ring due to moment M
moDl€nl on thc shell duc to eccentricity will be can be expressed as
lV=FL
AIso 6M
lt' TF+|T67ET-

196 r97
 l)DSl(;N ( )lj PR( )(i uss LQUIPMENT VERTICAL VESSELS SUPPOIT'IUI) I}Y LUCS

as follows:
And the bending stress in the unit ring can be det€rmined
Bending moment on unit shell ring is
I M,=K2f1r"
Section modutus of the unit shell dng is given by
b ftJ2
s= -----
I Therefore,
tl
o"6 = M'lS
FIG. 2 - RADTAL FORCES ON UNIT SHELL RING HAVING FOUR LUGS
Using a one inch wide shell ring, the radial forces for a vessel having
four lugs will be as shown in Fig. 2. Slresses in Shell Due to Pressure

Pressure in a shell produces two types of stresses:

Stres6e6 In Shell Due to Lug Support
L Longitudinal Stress. This is the stress in the direction of the meridian
The bending stress in the shell halfway between lugs will be com-
pressive and much less than the bending stress at the lugs which will be and is given bY P r"
tensile in nature. On the other hand, circumferential tensile stress will be -mp 2 \
greater in magnitude halfway between lugs rather than at the lugs.
l. CircumferentialStress. This is the stress in the direction of the tangent
However, circumferential tensile stress is small and when combined with
to the circumference. This is also referred to as hoop or tangential
compressive bending stress halfway between lugs, will further reduce the
resulting stress at that location. Therefore, for simplicity, only stresses in stress and is equal to P r"
the shell at the location of the lugs will be considered. o"p =--
Table I lists the multiplying coefficients rK1 and,l(2 for various lug
These stresses will be tensile if the pressure is internal €nd com-
configuratiom for determining circumferential tensile force and bending stresses in the shell at the
moment respectively in the shell at the lugs. These coefficients have been or"*iu" ii th. pr.rrur. is external' Since the
tabulated by Blodgett and can also be derived by using formulas for cir-
lu", u.e onlv tinsile and these will be further reduced when combined
cular rings in Roark and Young.s A complete table of coefficients for
*ir, unv .otnpt.tsive stress, only the stresses due to internal pressure
should be considered.
calculating bending moments in circular rings has also been developed by
Samoiloff." Combined Stresses
Now, the tangential tensile force in the unit shell ring set up by the Representing the resulting stresses in a cubic unit of shell taken
at any
total radial force can be calculated by point ofintersection of thlee planes perPendicular to each other as shown in
T=Krfr Fig.3.
omp
Area of the unit shell rine is

A=bts
Therefore,

o4= TfA FIG, 3. - SHELL STRESSES DUB TO LUG SUPPORT

AND INTERNAL PRESSURE

198 199
 |)|Sl(;N Olr Pl{O( j tjSS tjeutpMLNT VBI\'llCAt, VUSSIil'S SUPtORTEI) llY

Let or be one of the principal strcsses. Combining these stresses in the Now,
outer fiber of shell adjacent to the lug, where o. = o, we have M1= t,(w,) r1 +/"(r") x2
Longitudinal tensile stress = o_
Circumlerential tensi]e stress j 6"
". and
= o"n + o", + o"o Ar = t, lU, + ls ts
Maximum shear stress is equal to half the difference between two
principal (normal) stresses and is given by calculate
n=Mr/Ar
o"-o,
thus,
If any of the stresses calculated above exceed the
at the lugs should be stiffened. The following method
allowables, the shell r t, lW,l3 + t tw ttn - x. )2 + /s (ls )r F /s (ts, (x, -
'n=_i
r)2
of O"rignin; ,tiff.n.r, t2
should be used in order to bring the excesstve stresses
within limits.
Stresses in nuil-t-op S"ctio" Due to Lug Support
Designing Stiffeners now,
Total radial force acting on shell section resulting from maximum load Tr=Ktfz
F is given by thus,
o", = T1fA,
+^ M =
,"= FL
h h and
Now, the resulting bending moment on shell section at the suppo o,jo= M'1@)lI'
s is

M,1=K2 f 2 r. Stresses in Built-up Section Due to Pressue

Therefore, the additional required section modulus can be approximated Longitudinal tensjle stress = om P
reduced by
as Circumferential tensile stress (it"o) can be assumed to be
SP M='r entiri of the built-up section:
= considedng it to be acting over the cross-section

.odulus equal to or greater than

So the stiffeners huuing the s"Jttion
54 should be added to the shell at top and bottom of the lugs and the ""0=m
^ o"^ (Area of the effeciive shell section)

resulting stresses should be checked as follows: o"p(l'

t")
Only the effect of the bottom ring should be considered since it applies
radial tensile forces to the built-up ring and shell section. When rrngs
=GilrTtt
made of flat bar are used the composite shell and bottom ring section will
be as shown in Fig. 4.

Combined Stresses
to Fig. 3, and combining these stresses in the. outer liber of
Referdng
+ tfr" ,tiii"n r, ifr"re 4 - O "na also o.o = 0 (because. longitudinal.tensile
.ir.r, *iff in th" shell only and not in the outer portion of the stiffener)'
we have
""i
ocp + oct + ocb
Circumferential tensile stress = oc =
Maximum shear stress is

-'mrx-o"--o,
ts

FIG. 4 . EFFECTIVE SHELL AND RING SECTION 2

200 20r
 t)Est(;N oF Pt(ocESS EQUIPMENT VERTICAL VESSELS SUPPORTED IJY LU(;S

anq
If the resulting str€ss€s are excessive, the stiffener size should be
revis€d until the stresses are within allowable limits. = 211I lb /inch ring of shell

Stresses in Shell Due to Lug Support

Number of Values for Values for
Lugs
From Table l, for shell having two lugs, we have
'l\l K2
Kr = 0'0 and Kz = 0'318
2 0.000 0.318 Therefore
3 o.289 0.189 r=(0)(2111)=0
4 0.500 0.137 A = | ('62s) = '625 ir'2
6 0.866 0.089
8 1.207 0.066
n
-ct=O-
Now
TABLE I - MULTIPLYINC COEFFICIENTS FOR CIRCUMFERENTIAL TBNSILB and
. M=.318 (2111) 12.4375 = 8350 in-lb
FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT IN SHELL AT THE LUCS s = 1 (.625)2 16 =.0651 in. 3
t}Ierefore,
o"b = 83s0/.0651 = 128260psi
EXAMPLE
Stresses in Shell Due to Pressure
Analyze the stresses at the lugs on an A-515-?0 shell of a 24 in. I.D.
640 fl 2.4375\
Vertical exchanger designed for 640 psi. internal pressure at 660o F and omp= :-::-:-:::-::J- = 6368 Psi
2 (62s)
having .75 in. thick shell inclusive of .125 in. corrosion allowance. The
and
exchanger is to be supported by two I ft. high lugs, and the total weight 640 (12.437 s)
of the exchanger is 16910 pounds. The bolt hole in each base plate is ^
""p-
= ___ = I j/JO psl
3E-
located at a distance of 8.25 in. from the outside of the shell. If the shell
is found to be overstressed, provide th€ stiffeners to adequately reinforce
Combined Stresses
it so that the stresses are within allowable limits. (O'K' )
Longitudinal tensile stress = omp = 6368 psi
Circumferential tensile stress = oc
SOLUTION =12736+O+128260
= 140996 psi (excessive)
F= 1691012= 8455lb Maximum Shear Stress = rmu*
ts = .75 - .125 = .625 n\. =
140996 - O

2
L = 8.25 in. = 70498 psi (excessive)

Since the stresses are excessive, stiffeners should be added to

bdng the
r.. = 12.125 r .3125= 12.4375 in.
Now- ' M = 5455 (8.25) = 69754 in-lb
shell stresses witlin allowable limits.

Designing Stiffeners
Determining the followings shown in Fig. I
,,f- ,= ___1;
as
84ss (8.T)
\/6EIT1Atin = serr ru
I = -----t- =l4in'(12ts'hence oK' M,1 =.318 (5813) 12'43'15 = 22992 in-lb

202 203
 DBSICN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT VERTICAL VESSELS SUPPORTED BY LUGS

Using 4-515-70 stiffeners, the allowable tensile stress for stiffener Combined Streeses
material at 6600 F is l?320 psi. Therefore, the approximate section modulus
of the stiffener is Referring to Fig. 3, and combining these stresses in the outer fiber of
ltoo? the stiffener we have
S* =
*n32o = 1.32?5 in.3
o. =0 o_p =0
Let us provide 3 5/8 in. wide and 5/8 in. thick stiffeners at the top and oc = 6187 + 8697= 14884psi. O.K.
bottom of lugs around the circumferenc€ of exchanger and check the
14884 - o
magnitude of resulting stresses in built-up section as follows: i max-
- ='7442 'osi. o.K.
2
Referring to Fig. 4, we have
Since all the stresses are within allowable limits, our design
ts= .625 in.,\= .625 in., ll = 3.625 in., acceptable.
ts=.625+2(1.4)=3.425in.," r = 1.8125 in' and NOMENCLATURE
x z = 3'9375ln'
Area of unit shell ring, in.z
Now
Mr = .625 (3.625) 1.8125 + 3.425 (.625) 3.937 5 = 12.5352ir..3 Ar Total area of effective shell and ring section, in.2

and b Unit width of shell ring, in.

A t = .62s (3.625) + 3.42s (.62s) = 4.4063 in? c Corrosion allowance, in.
Thus Ir Radial force on unit shell ring, lb/in.
12.5352 lz Total radial force on shell, lb
n = ___;_-;;;__ = 2.gul4g in.
+,+uoJ F Maximum load on each lug, lb
Therefore s Effective shelt width on each side of lug, in'
(3.625t 3 .,^-, 3 4251.625)3 h Height of lug, in.
,"=ff.625 + (.62s) 3.62s (t .0323)2 +
=::::-:::- Moment of inertia of effective shell and ring section about neutral
axis, in.a
+ 3 .42s (.62s) (r .0927)2 = 't .s2o9 na '
KL Mdtiplying coefficient for circumferential tension in shell at lugs
Stresses in Built-up Section Due to Lug Support
Kz Multiplying coefficeint for ben&ng moment in shell at lugs
/, Effective shell length, in.
11 =0(5813)=0 thus, oct=0
, Distance of centerline of bolt hole from outside of shell' in'
and M Maximum moment on shell due to eccentric loading, in -lb
^ = --jiis- 8^^a\ = 8697 psi
22992 (2
o"t M, Sum of the moments of areas of effective composite section about the
' outside of stiffener, in.3
Stresses in Built-up Section Due to hessure Mt Bending moment on unit shell ring, in -lb
Mr, Maximum bending moment on sltell, in -lb
omp = 6368 psi
l1 Distarce of centroid of composite section from the outside of stiffener,
ln.
_ 12'136 (3.42s) .62s
""P = -----766-- = bl6/ P Maximum internal Pressure. Psi
Psi

204 205
 | )ESt(;N OIr Pt{(XitSS EQUTPMENT

/c Mean shell radius in corroded condition, in.

S Section modulus ofunit shell ring, in.3
s Approximate section modulus of the stiffener, in.3
t Uncorroded lhickness of shell plate, in.
tr Thickness of stiffener, in.
/" Corroded thickness of shell plate, in.
T Tangential tensile force on udt shell dng, lb
t1 Tangential tensile force on shell, lb
9
w Width of Stiffener, in.

xr Dstance of centroid of sliffener from outside {L, ), n. VERTICAL VESSEL LEG DESIGN
x2 Distance of centroid of corroded shell from outside of stiffener
(. ttr- + +,
t- tn.
o. Resultant circumferential tensile stress, psi
o"b Tensile bending stress due to lug support, psi
ocp Circumferential tensile stress in shell due to internal pressure, psi Legs are most commonly used to support small tanks and vessels. lf
vessels are located out of doors, the wind or earthquake load as well as
o"t Tangential tensile stress due to lug support, psi
the dead weight load should be considered in the calculation. However,
omp Longitudinal tensile stress in shell due to internal pressure, psi as leg supported vessels are usually of much smaller height than skirt
o, Principal stress at principal plane, psi supported vessels, the wind loads may sometimes be a minor
ot Allowable tensile stress for stiffener material at shell design temperature, consideration. The wind or earthquake load tends to overturn the vessel,
psi particularly when the vessel is empty. The wcight ofthe vessel when Iilled
r-", Maximum shear stress, psi with liquid tends to stabilize it.
This chapter discusses the complete design analysis oflhese types of
REFERENCES suppods. It gives the method of calculation for forces and moments due
to ;ind and earthquake based on the criteria presented in the Uniform
1. Brownell, L- E., and E. H. Young, "Process Equipment Design," First
Building Code.r These forces and moments can also be calculated in
Corrected Printing, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., April, 1968.
accordance with the ANSI Standard A - 58.1'?, ifdesired. After the size o[
..r,SME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, "Pressure Vessels," the required legs to withstand the greater ofthe wind or earthquake force
Div. l, ASME, New York, N. Y., 1983. is established, the stiength ofthe selected leg support should be checked,

Blodgett, O. W., "Design of Welded Structures," Third Printing, The in accordance with the technique presented herein and as also has been
s
James F. Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation, August 1967. explained by Brownell and Young

4. Karman, Von, "Analysis of Some Thin-Walled Structures," ASME Paper

AER-55-19C, Aer. Eng., Vol. 5, No.4, 1933.
5. Roark, R. J., and W. C. Young, "Formulas for Stress and Strain." Fifth
Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1975.
Samoiloff, Alexander, "Investigation of Stress in Circular Rings,"
Petroleum Refiner, Vol. 26, No. 7, July 1947, pp 99-103.
Cllculating Wind Forces
If the vessel is to be exposed to wind, first of all, the base shear and
moment should be determined. After the wind pressure zone for the
location of vessel is established from Fig. 1, the wind pressures' p, for
various heights can be determined from Table l. The effect of shell and
legs should be considered separately.

206 207
 l)l1Sl(;N ( )lr l,l{()(itjSS l:etJIpMljNT VtsI\TICAL VESSEL LEG I)ESIGN

WIND I'RI.SSURF P WHLN THL HORIZONTAL

CROSS SEC]ION SOUARE OR RECTANCULAR
HEICHT MAP AREAS
Zone ft. 20 25 30 40 45 50
less than 30 20 25 2S 30 35 40
30 to 49 25 30 40 45
sO to 99 25 30 40 45 50 55 60
l0O to 499 30 40 60 't0
TABLE I.
WIND PRESSURE FOR VARIOUS HEIGHT ZONES ABOVE GROUND
Shell
Wind force should be determined by applying the factor for cylindrical
structure excluding appendages to the vessel and then adding the forces
due to the attached elements, if any.
S., the wind shap€ factor for cylindrical structure excluding
appendages is 0.6. Now
A": Dh

therefote F": .4"(s,)p

Legs

Calculate ,4, in the direction of the wind. Also

Sr : 2.0(constant )

thus F t: A t(S r\P

Total Wind Shear and Overturning Moment

I' - F !F
and
Mw:F'.(hl2+D+FL(12)
Wind force and moment due to platforms (if any)should beadded tothe
ones calculated above to get the resulting shear and moment due to
wind.

Selecting Approximate [,eg Size

The approximate size of lhe required legs to withstand the total

FIG. 1. . WIND PRESSURE MAP OF THE UNITED STATES
lR"prod.u""q from rhe Uniform Buitding Code. t976. wirh ihe permission ofThe
rnrernafionat ( onrerence ot Building Officiats)
horizontal force { can be chosen from Figure 2. This size can be further
checked for its adequacy for earthquake force' if the geographical
location of the vessel requires such.

208 209
 | )llst(;N I )t l,t{( ,(.Lss LQL.JIt'MLNT
VEIITICAL VESSEL LEC I)ESICN

Calculating Earthquake Forces

The legs can be assumed to be fixed at the vessel shell and pinned at their
bases. Since the shell is stiffer than the legs, the deflection of the legs
can be assumed to be the deflection of mass resulting from a lateral load
applied at the mass equal to its own weight. For a vessel supported on
three or more legs symmetrically spaced about the center, the deflection
can be determined from the formula:

2W(t)'
3NE(/,_+ r... )

Now, the first mode natural period of vibration of the vessel can be
determined by using the following formula for one mass structure:
Iv
I: Zn I
vs
Base Shear
F 5.0
o 067
5.5
C:=,,
(r, -
(C should not exceed 0.12)

1: 1.0 for vessels

If T:2.5, S: l.s
It T>2.s, S:r.2+ 0.24(n 0.048(T)'z
(S should not be less than 1.0)

The applicable earthquake zone can be established from Fig. 3,4 or

5 for the location of the vessel. Now

Z -0.1875 for zone l, 0.75forzonel,

K=2.0foru.rr.l,
0.375 for zone 2, 1.0 forzone4,
thus
v: z r K(cs)w
(CS should not be more than 0.14)
LENGTH OF LECS
If, / is greater than F., the leg size should be rechosen for
horizontal force I/ using Figure 2.

Base Overturni[g Moment

For vessels having T> 0.7 a portion of t he total eart hquake lbrce, 4 shall
bc applied at the top of the vessel, the magnitude of which is given by

210
ltl
 l)Est(;N oF PR(XIESS EQUIPMENT VERTICAL VESSEL LEC DESION

PACtFtC OC€tN

I FIG.4. - SEISMIC ZONE MAP OF ALASKA

i XAUA I

ie /-)
#,,oP
:i (

..'l ---t'.
H t':
b Er!;
a::-
_q i=_ E
;=5
!
!5 i
E ;;
!_: ;P
r(*
4) M0L0m I

=
" -:
@ :: i:
I E::t
I !:i€
; I 5- i
9 9!E!:
I Eri9li
;= E'.;; s
E

!1!= :; i

.\-\-
iiiiill ;;.
i:r'!!i; E
=;;
B ee
EEi
E9E E
F

FIG. 3.. SEISMIC ZONE MAP OF THE UNITED STATES

(Reprodrced f.om the uniform BuildinB Code, 1926, with the permisston of The
tnternational Conference of Building Officials) FIG,5. - SEISMIC ZONE MAP OF HAWAII
(Reproduced from the Uniform Building Code, 1976, with the permission of The
International Conferenc€ of Buildins Ofiicisls)

212 213
 l)Esl(;N o| PRoc[ss IQUIPMEN'I' VERTICAL VESSEL LEG DESIGN

4 = 0.07 TY(4 should be limited to Therefore, the change in length of brace can be determined by
0.25 I/ maximum and strould be assumed (lcs)b
T!0.7) a_
equal to zero for (AE
Considering the weight, l{ uniforrnly distributed along the shell Thus,
length, the remainder of the earthquake torce {V-F) resolves to a
ttapezoid, the extended non-parallel sides of which intersect at the base Y=4-
sin 0
as is shown in Figure 6. For this iype of load distribution the base
overturning moment can be determined by the formula: The period of vibration can be deternined by using the relationship i

ME:Flrlr+l(v-F)(H3 -ti)l@, - Pl

The rest of the calculations to determine the earthquake force and

moment will be the same as discussed for unbraced legs.
v -F
Checking Strength of the Legs

To check the adequacy of leg size, the vessel support can be considered
as acolumn and allowable fiber stress under concentric axial load is
given by

F _ t8ffn
'"-r+(f13666"2,
The maximum fr ratio should not exceed 120 and also the
maximum allowable fiber stress should be limited to 15000 psi.

FIG. 6. - DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKE FORCE Designing Legs for Axial Loading

ALONG THE VESSEL LENGTH
The required cross-sectional area of each leg for axial compression can
Wind Forces for Vescels with Braced Legs be found from

The technique discussed earlier can be used to determine the wind force A,: pt/F"
and moment except that the projecied area of the bracing exposed to the
Ifthe value of .4,, as calculated above, is greater than the actual area
wind should also be taken into consideration with legs.
of selected leg, ,4, choose the one with higher area and recheck the
strength of the leg.
Earthquake Forces for Vessels with Braced Legs

The static deflection, { is found by determining the change in length of
the bracing resulting from a total lateral load equal to the weight of the
vessel.
Now, the maximum force in the brace will be
Designing Legs for Eccentric Loading
When the legs are attached to the vessel with distance 'a' between the
centerline of the leg and the centerline ofthe yessel plate, this produces an
eccentric loading and an additional stress in the leg supports. This stress
is siven as

":(#):
214 2t5
 I)tisI(;N Ot? PI{(XJESS EQUIPMENT VERTICAL VESSEL LEG DESIGN

L€g Design Analysis

f"":P::
sr
A technique for analysis is presented for four angle supports with F acting
The effect ofeccentricity ofleg supports which are welded directly to in two directions. The moment due to eccentric load is assumed to be
the vessel is almost negligible. However, this should not be neglected if negligible. A typical cross-section of the angle along its various axis is
the legs are attached dilferently. shown in Fisure 7.

Designing l*gs for Wind or Earthquake Loading

The legs for this type of loading have to resist the greater of wind or
earthquake force as well as the moment about base. This moment
eventually is converted to direct load on the legs, the magnitude of
which depends on leg location corresponding to the direction of force.
This load should be added to lhe dead load while calculating direct
stress. Analysis of most generally used cases are discussed in figures 8 and
9.
The force F (greater of F* and /) at the base produces bending
moment which is comparable to considering the leg as a beam fixed at FIG. 7. . VARIOUS AXES OF AN ANGLE
one end but guided at the other end with a concentrated load at the Let
guided end. This type of loading produces the same bending moment at
M:Grealet of Mn or ME
both ends and the magnitude of maximum bending stress in leg is given
by Now select the configuration of supPorts corresponding to the
direction of force F and analyze using the proper figure as described
lN)t/2 below.
fb-G sr Direction of "F" as shown in Fig. 8.

However, to obtain more conservative results in actual analysis in WM

figures 8 and 9, the leg is considered as a cantilever with the load F Pt:i' P': ot
concentrated at the free end.
- /*,.'F - I=, F
Designing l*gs for Combined Inading
":zrt^* *Ll' ":at..j Lj
When leg supports are subjected both to direct loads and bending ,t!, . L:F:
Leg,,a..y.:-_
t.

produced by wind, earthquake or eccentric loads, the sum of the axial A r",
compressive stresses divided by the allowable column stress, plus the
t
,4'' -1^:l^'
bending stresses divided by the allowable flexural stress shall not exceed t-ec't* 1.:Pt
s"."
unlty, or
Sum of direct stresses Sum of bendine stresses Using approximate values we can simplify and say:
<l
w M 0.l0F l
where Fr, the maximum allowable bending stress in the column should LeC"a" l;:4-+ D,i. h: S*
not exceed 20.000 Dsi.

Irg" o-L:#, ,=ti::'

216 217
 l)ust(;N oF pl{()(jLSs TIQUtPMENT VERTICAL VESSEL I,E(; I)ESICN

Bracing of Legs

Legs 7 feet or greater should be braced. The recommended bractng

DP sysiemconsists ofcross-bracingconnecting adjacent pairs of legs Braces

ti
nr
'2
should be stitched together at their point of intersection' Knowing the
t maximum shear per leg, the maximum tensile load in each brace can be
"rl lP.

?t
P1
calculated by multiplying the maximum shear by the ratio of the length
1 IP' ofthe brace io the h;rizontal distance between two legs Using allowable
6 "ln]" stress of 22,000 psi for the tension member the required area of the brace

I
\ L LJ".,*-o' p
,
".i-,1
,rt|J
".17
P,
can be easily determined by dividing the maximum tensile load by
allowable stress. However, the ratio of the length to the radius of4
g;ratlon of Uracing members, ifother than rods,should not exceed 300
the

\-( tl tltl
.171"s"u' IJ tJ

"-fl S-.n
(P*'
[1L
JI fr
I uF4
<> 19t tu-'h-4
'F-rEn,r'-rn rYl
\y'*r lr' rl. F-
flrh
tsil--4
FIG.8 FIG.9

FIG. TO. . TYPICAL BASE PLATE DETAIL

Direction of "F" as shown in Fig. 9.

pr:V,
-WM-F ,r:rU t Fr=O

" P,+P. Jb:i:

l"= F,.t Base Plate D€sign

A-. Refer to Fig. l0 and lel 0 be the larger of the dimension '/ or O, the base
Dlate thickness can be calculated by using the relationship;"

.w ^M F.t
J.:4A+2DiA.h:+s*
In any case, if f.,fo
F,- h Restrictions on Using l.€gs

exceeds unity, the design should be modilied till the above equation 1. The legs should be used on small vessels in general
becomes equal to or less than 1. Figure 9 also applies to other types of 2. Legs lhould not be used on vessels where severe pulsations will make
columns. the vessel vibrate.

218 219
 l)us t(;N otr pRo(iltrss tQUtpMuNT L
VERTICAL VESSEL LEG DESIGN

EXAMPLE Check Leg Str€ngth for Axial Loading

Area of the sel€cted leg, ,,4 = 3.82in.'l The load to be supported by each
A 54 in. inside dia., 10 ft.
in. tangent to tangenl carbon steel vertical
6
vessel having ellipsoidal heads, is 0.375 in. thick. The biggest overhead
les, tu*g:oo*
nozzel size is 8 in., and the vessel has 4.5 in. thick insulation. The
Pt: q
,o

maxlmum operating weight is 16,000 lbs. and the vessel is to be

therelore
supported on four 7 ft. high legs. Neglecting the elfect of earthquake,
A,: 4000112865 :0.3109 in.'? < 3.82 in.2 O K'
design the leg suppods if the vessel is to be located in a 40 psf wind zone.
or maximum direct stress is given by
SOLUTION 4rrx)
fF#= t047 psi < 12865 psi, o.K.
Shear for the vessel and legs can be calculated separately and then
combined in order to come up with the maximum shear at the base. Check Leg for Wind
However,for simplicity and to be on the conservative side, the maximum
base shear can be calculated by assuming the vessel as a cylinder of The bending sfess in each leg due to base shear can be calculated from
diameter d throughout its length including legs. 8t4)8412
r. =5001 psi <20000 psi, o.K.
The wind diameter in feet is given by '" -(2595 5.45
D: [vessel I.D.+2 (vessel thickness)+2 (insulation thickness)
+overhead line size+2 (insulation thickness) 1 (extra for external Check Leg for Combined Loading
additions)l/12. It
r-t t!L< t
Thus D in this case is
f ft
"
D : ls4 + 2(0.37 5) + 2(4.s) + I + 2(4.5) + r2ll 12 : 7.'t 3 tr.
Total length ofthe vessel:tangent to tangent l€ngth +inside depth .'lna1+ ---'=0.3314<l.O.K.
sfnl
of head +top head thickness + height of the tegs:(126 + 5414 + 0.3j5 12865 20000
+ 84)/12: 18.6563 ft.
Bracing of Legs
Therefore
Try 2" x2" x!" angles as bracing and arrange as shown in Fig. I I Then
f :(Wind diameter)0.6(Wind force)total length of vessel
: 7.73(0.6)30(18.6563) :2595.8 lbs =2.5958 kips Length of each brace:J272 +692:74 ir'.
minimum radius ofgyration oleach brace:0.391 in.
From Figure 2, for a vessel with a wind force of2.595g kips, choose
the leg size as I,Y4 x 13.
Now for this leg, r:0.991 in. and l:84
Length :A:,rr.roo,o.*.
in. Therefore mlnlmum radius of gyration 0.391
Area of each brace:0.938 in.2
t- -:
18000
--
" I + [842118000(0.991)r] = 12865 psi. < 15000 psi. O.K. t
t/r:84/0.991:84.8 < 120, O.K.
Shear in each leg: "T : uon b

maximum tensile force in each vace:o+sffi): nlal tu

220 221
 t)tilit(;N ( )l. pt{(xttjss tjQtJtpMtrN'I. VEI{TICAL VISSEL LE,G I)ISIGN

1778 7 :0.089
"
Required area of each brace:
22000
in.'1<0.938 in.'?
Nomenclature
Thus selected brace size is O.K.

a Distance between the centerline olthe leg and the centerline of

the vessel plate, in.
.4 Actual area ofeach leg, in.2
,4s Cross-sectional area ofeach brace, in.2
.4, Projected area of legs including braces (ifany) in the direction of
wind, ft.2
.4, Required area ofeach leg, in.2 I

Notch to cl€ar
A" Projected area of shell, ft.'?
b Length ofthe brace, in.
B Width of base plate, in. lr

c Distance as shown in Fig.7, in.

C The fleiibility factor
SECTION X.X D Effective wind diameter, ft.
E Modulus ofelasticity of leg or brace material, psi
f Maximum direct stress in the leg, psi
/, Maximum bendingstress in the leg due to wind or earthquake
load, psi
f", Maximum bending stress in the l€g due to ecc€ntric loading, psi'
F Greater of the wind or earthquake force on vessel, lb I
FIC. 1I. , ARRANGEMENT OF LEGS AND BRACES
F" Allowable compressive stress in the leg, psi. (should be limited
to a maximum of 15,000 Psi')
Base Plate Design FB Maximum force in the brace, lb
Section "x - x" of Fig. I I is shown above.
Fh Allowable bending stress in the leg, psi. (should not exceed
20,000 psi.) l

Comparing section "x - x " with Fig. 10, we have

F" Wind base shear due to legs, lb
J:O:I in., therefor€ Q =I in. F, Allowable bending stress in base plate, psi. (should not exceed
20,000 psi.)
p:
^ 4000
... _ t. psi F" Wind base shear due to shell, lb I'
ol o,
F, Earthquake force at top ofthe vessel,lb
The thickness of the base plate is given by F. Total base shear due to wind, lb
g Acceleration due to gravity, inches/sec'/sec. (386 inches/sec'/sec') l1

20000 lr Shell length from bottom tangent line to top head, ft'

=0.1291 in., therefore j in. thk.plate is O.K.

H Total h€ight ofthe vessel, ft. I

l'

222 223
l1

I
 r)Est(;N orj PRocEss EQUTPMENT VERTICAL VESSEL LEG DESIGN

/ Occupancy importance factor (1.0 for vessels) Z Earthquake zone factor

1",. Moment of inertia of angle about W-W axis, tn.a A Change in length ofbrace, in.
11,,+1lI-1"") 0 Angle between the leg and the brace, degrees
1,, Moment of inertia of angle about X-X axis, in.a
1,, Moment ofinertia ofangle about Y-Y axis, in.a
REFERENCES
1"" Moment of inertia of angle about Z-Z axis, in.4 (r2,4)
J Distance as shown in Figure 10, in. t. "Uniform Building Code," International Conference of Building
K Structure coefficient (2.0 for vessels) Officials. Whittier, California,l982.
I Length of legs from base to sh€ll attachment, in. "Minimum Design Loads in Buildings and Other Structures," ANSI
I Length of base plate, in. A-58.1, 1982
M Greater of wind or earthquake moment at base ofthe vessel, in- Brownell, L. E.,and E. H. Young, "Process Equipment Design," First
tb Corrected Printing, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., April 1968.
ME Earthquake moment at base, in lb "Manual otsteel Construction," Eighth Edition, American Institute
M- Wind moment at base, in Jb of St€el Construction, New York, N.Y.,1980.
N Number of legs
O Distance as shown in Figure 10, in.
p Wind pressure at the height under consideration, psf
P Bearing pressure on foundation, psi. (maximum load on each
leg /area of base plate )
Pt Maximum compression load per leg, lb (4N)
Q Larger of base plate dimension ./ or O, in.
/ Least radius ofgyration ofeach leg, in.
S Numerical coefficient ior site-structure resonance
g Section modulus ofeach leg, in.3
S" Wind shape factor for legs
S, Wind shape factor for shell
S,. Section modulus of angle about 17- tlzaxis, in ! (I*. lcl
S*, Section modulus of angle about X - X axis, in.3
Sr" Section modulus of angle about Y- Yaxis, in.3
S,, Section modulus of angle abolt Z - Z axis,in.3
r Base plate thickness, in.
T Period ofvibration of vessel, cps
/ Base shear due to earthquake, lb
l/ Operating weighl of vessel, lb
x Horizontal distance between two legs, in.
Y Leg deflection due to lateral force, in.

22s
10
ASME CODE SECTION VlrI, DrvIsIoN
2

I,ICU TTS COMPARISON TO DIYISION

1

History of Division 2 and

ri-r" nSft4g code committee has continually modified' revised'
code ever since it was fi$t
exoanded the Section VIII of the pressure vessel
work-
;;;;;; ilis. the oti6na criterion was a factor of 5 between
ioJrtr"r, *O ultimate tensile strength Back in the 1930's-the wrtn a
American
vessel co-de
Peiroleum lnstitute and ASME developed a pressure
during World War
,"i",V f"*- of 4' In an attempt to conserve materials
ASME adopted the code with the lowest safety
factor'
*' the
U, *-nii"t
committee and the
ift" *1tt' in the eally 1950's, ah API-ASME
main committee ageeil that the revised Section
VIII on pressure vessels
In earlv 1955 the ASME Boiler and
;;;;;;; lhe"continuing code'
Pressure Vessel Committee orgaruzed a special
committee to review and
.uulout" th" following in the existing Section VIII of the pressure vessel
qode (now designated as Division l):
1. Basis of the allowable stresses'
of
i. Experimental ancl analyticat investigations -of the influence
mierials, design and other factors on the performance ot pressure
Research Committee
vessels as conducted by the Pressure Vessel
of the Welding Research Council'
stress values'
3. Practices used by other countries in setting allowable
to make recommendations which
ift" rnul" purpose of all this was
to
latest analytical design techniques
*oUJotiti". modem technology's
or rcduction of safety'
afiive at higher allowable stresses without sacrific€
committee realized an urgent need of the
fr, iSf8, }t"o*"""r, the special
code for nuclear pressure vessels' Therefore' they
issued a
".*,-"tio"
it"ii"r sJ* uI tto*.tp*did to t*o Dvisions) in 1958 and published
and after
tlle first edition in i963' Retumhg to their original assignment

227.
 | )tist(;N Otr ptr()oljss IQUtPMENT
ASMII ('Ol)li, sli(l l()N vlll' l)lvlsloN 2

tlro cxpericnce ol producing Section lll, the special committee issued the
rucllts o1'tlle detailed strcss aDd I'atiguc analysis can be evaluated and per-
initial draft of Division 2 of Section VIII in January of 1967 and rrublished
lbnned if required, as discussed below.
the first edition in December of 1968. Both Division 2 of Section VIII.
and Section III had safety factors of 3.
Stress Analysis
Code contains a series of design rules in which the analysis has been
Introduction
carried out for a series of specific configurations. If the desi$er stays
Division 2 of Section VIII for pressure vessels entitled .,Alternarrye
within the limits of these configurations, a detailed stress analysis is not
Rules" covers minimum requirements for the design, fabrication, inspec-
required. Thus, the cdteria for determining whether a stress analysis is to
tion and certification of pressure vessels that are prohibited by the Dvision
be made on a particular vessel are left to the judgement of the vessel de-
l. Consequences ofthese rules may be summarized as follows: signer.
1. Pressure vessels above 3000 psi can be designed and manufactured
After it has been determined that a stress analysis is required, all
to comply with these rules and can thus be code stamped. This
loadings on the vessel must be analyzed in accordance with Appendix 4 to
extension of pressure limits encompasses a large number of vessels
determine their effects on the vessel, It is a step-by-step process of stress
that were previously constructed as specials, or in many srares
analysis in accordance with the maximum shear theory. Items such as
constructed without reference or comparison to an established
wind, earthquake, piping, support loads, intemal or extemal pressure and
and recognized code.
thermal loads etc. must be considered. Stresses developed by various
2. The need for special state regulations for such vessels has been
loads must be calculated separately and then combined with shell or head
significantly reduced.
stresses caused by internal pressure at their point of application. These
3. More economical vessels can be designed and manufactured as a requirements must be met whether or not a fatigue analysis is required.
result of advances in technology with respect to working stress
levels, design, inspection and quality control procedures.
4, Restrictions and imposed on the use and initallation of vessels Fatigue Analysis
made under Division 2, since the basis for the vessel design de_
Paragraph ADl60 of the code covers the evaluation of service con-
pends on a specific service for a fixed location and thus are par_
ditions to establish the need of a vessel fatigue analysis. In general this
paragraph deals with the cyclic conditions of the vessel and is divided into
ticularly applicable to the vessels used by the chemical and other
process industries.
two parts, Condition A and Condition B, covedng the integral parts of
vessels including integrally reinforced type nozzles or attachments. It is
further subdivided into Corditions AP and BP, which cover non-integral
Design Criteria of Division 2
(i.e. pad type) nozzles or attachments.
Division 2 permits higher working stress levels at the expense of a
Condition A is an evaluation based stdctly on pressure and tempera-
significantly more detailed stress analysis, which is based on maximum
ture cycles. There is no limit to the pressure cycles where the pressure
shear theory, on more stdngent material testing and more careful quality
variation stays withirl 20% of the design pressure. Cycles rangtng over 207o
control. Equivalent margins of safety are maintained despite the higher
of the design pressure are to be included with the cycles of differential
working stress leyels. It permits application within the ASME code, of
temperature between adjacent points, as described by the code, with a limit
technology that was previously applied only to pressure vessels designed
of t,000 cycles for the life span of the vesseL.
outside the scope of Section VIIL
Condition B is evaluated if requirements of Condition A are not
This division depends on a detailed indentification of those stress
satisfied. Condition B compares cycles, determined in Condition A, with
conditions that actually exist, rather than on simplified rules and arbitrary
fatigue allowables as discussed in Appendix 5. In regard to pressure, tem-
stress limits. Tresca's ma.:rimum shear theory is used as the analytical
perature or joined materials of different coefficient of thermal expansion,
principle, so that limits are based on actual stress intensity rather than on
if either Condition A or B are met, a fatigue analysis is not required.
arbitrary stress.
Conditions AP and BP evaluate non-integral (i.e. pad type) nozzles or
In addition to detaited stress analysis fatigue analysis is very impor_
attachments only. Condition AP is related to Condition A except that the
tant for yessels to be manufactured in accordance with Division 2. Requtre_
pressure cycles are unlimited if the pressure variation does not exceed 15%

228
229
 I )USI(;N Otr ptl(XjUSS t:,euIpMENT ASMt, ( ()l)t1' SIa('l loN vlll, l)lVlSloN 2

of tlle design pressure. Condition Bp is related to Condition strcss analysis plus drawillgs showing compliance with the code requlre-
B except lbr
some required value adjustment as discussed
in code. If either Ap or tsp mcnts. Both the design report and the stress report must be prepared and
satisfies the requirements, a fatigue analysis for
these type of nozzies or ccrtified by a Registered Professional Engineer experienced in the field of
attachments is not mandatory. pressure vessels.
If a fatigue analysis is required, the code provides design
methods in
For high alloy materials two sets of stress values are not given for the
Article 5-l (Appendix 5) for vessels and Article 4_6 (Apfendix 4) for sam€ material at the same temperature, as in Division 1. Therefore, under
fatigue evaluation of pressure stresses in openings. Division 2 rules, the vessel engineers cannot make a choice of stress Yalues.
For Division 2 vessels, the standard hydrostatic and pneumatic tests
Comparison of Division 2 to Division I are similar to that required by Division 1, except that the design pressure is
Drurjion 1 utilizes safety factor of 4 on the tensile strength multiplied by 1.25 for hydrostatic test and 1.15 for pneumatic test instead
^. .. whereas
Division 2 uses a safety factor of 3 on the tensile ,tr"ngtL of 1.5.
materials below the creep range.
f;'"I_ort df
. SoT: matedal specifications used in Division I do not meet the Applications of Division 2
intent of Division 2.
Structural quality plate such as SA_2g3 has been Division 2 can be used economically for vessels with internal pres-
omitted, and 5A-36 is not permitted for pressure part
use per Olvision Z. sures exceeding 3000 psi, vessels with lesser pressures where exceptional
In regard to testing the materials, Division 2 more specifically
_
lo.cations from which test coupons may be taken
defines savings in material costs can be realized, or vessels with fluctuation tem-
Ultrasonic e*"_inurron perature cycles. ln other words. it is used for vessels which are of suffi-
or plates and torgings over 4 inches in thickress is mandatory.
ciently rigorous duty or are sufficiently complex so as to require more
Many of the carbon steels in Diyision 2 have stricter
limits of application. Some materials used in vessels
l# temperature comprehensive calculations and more sophisticated procedures with which
operati"g i"'_ib" f to construct safe as well as economical vessels.
yl .h"* to qualify by impact testing, as opposed to the ruies given
by Design in accordance to Division 2 results in thinnervessel walls, thus
Division I for the same condition- besides saving material cost it permits the use of larger vessels whose use
There are several design differences between the
I- rules.are^ has been precluded earlier by transportation or installation limitations.
_ two codes. Division
formulated on the principle stress theory, which has
simplicity Thinner wall usually results in the reduced temperature gradiant,
as its chief attribute. The Division 2 rules
by contrast, are for_utui"O on and thus in lower thermal stresses, and an economical design in application
Tresca's maximum shear theory, which giu.,
fu, U"tt", ," that might otherwise defy the designer's ingenuity and surpass the capa-
"fnr""i_",i""
but require more" complex computations. bilities of materials currently available for pressure vessels.
th,.,.::p"r]T.tl .resutts,
aqorrlon, the Division
In
2 rules take into account all of
bending effects, Uniform strength can be easily attained throughout the metal thick-
secondary stress effects, fatigue, and so forth,
whereas Oiuirion i ignore, ness after proper heat-treatment for thin wall vessels. This also results in
such considerations,
improved mechanical properties such as ductility and toughness Thus,
Regarding non-destructiye examination and fabrication,
there are design in accordance to Division 2 leads to much safer vessels even though
two basic differences between the two codes. Division
the so called fully radiographic vessels. ln those
2
"ifo*, "rly
i", the ratio of ultimate tensile strength to working stress may have been re-
cases *t duced.
is not used, there are requirements for other "re,aOiograpty
method of examinatioln s'ucn
,r,
ll: *: of ultrasonics, dye penetranr or magnetrc particle.
The yarious Limitations of Division 2
aoqlrronat requirements or restrictions that appear
in Division 2 relative ro Division 2 does not provide rules for vessels operating at elevated
fabrication are all directed toward the prevention
of brittle fracture and on temperatures. At present the break off point is where creep begins to con-
the existence of structural or metallurgical notches
or discontinuities. trol.
2 requires a complete design report t" p."p"rJ Vessels whose pressures are low enough to require a thickness
_., ?rloto"report musl
lnrs desrgn
iy irr" ur"r.
include operating informarion including cvclic governed by fabrication minimums do not justify Division 2 requirements,
duty and materials of construcrion. on rhe orher
rland. irr" iJri?"'", unless the nature of thefu operation requires attention to pulsating pressure
required to submit a stuess report which contains
complete cal"ulutionrlnO " causing fatigue or some oth€r peculiar problem relative to the safety of

230
 | )DSl(;N ()tr Pt{(x)tss TQUIPMENT
tllese vessels.
The rules of Division 2 cover vessels, only to be installed at
a fixed
location for a specific service. Thus neither the location nor
the servrce
can be altered during the useful life of the vessel.
REFERENCES
1. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, ,,pressure Vessels,,,
Division l,
ASME, New York, N. y., 1983.
2. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, ..pressure Vessels",
Division Z,
Alternative Rules, ASME, New york, N. y.. 19g3.
3. LeCoff, J., "Safer Pressure Vessels Using the New ASME Code,,.
Svm-
posium on Loss Prevention, part VI, pressure Vesels,
AICHE iixty_
. Seventh National Meeting, AICHE, New york, N. y., 1970.
4. Macleod, L. M., "Comments on Division 2 Vessel Design,,,
Hydrocar-
bon Processing, December 1969, pp. 125-126.
5. Witkin, D. E., *A New Code Worth its Weight in Metal,,,
Chemical En_
gineering, August 26, 1968, pp. 124-130.
232
l1
MECTIANICAL DESIGN OF SELF'SUPPORTED STEEI.'
STACKS
Introduction
The demand for stacks of greater heights to conform to
increasingly rigid air pollution control standards has emphasized the
need forJmore thorough understanding oftheirdesign criteria Guyed
stacks are cheapcr but the main disadvantages of guyed stacks are the
amount of land required and the interference of the guy wires Thus, in
rcfineries and pelrlchcmical plants, self-supporting stacks are desired
from thc slandpoinl of plant appearance and safety'
Design Crlteria
Assuming the slack has been sized on stack draft requirements,
rvind and earthquake moments should be calculated at various levels-
The greater of the wind or earthquake moments should- be used for
desig;. The stack then should be checked for wind induced vibratior It
shoJd be pointed out thal stackvibrations induced by earthquake are
infrequent in occurcnce but the wind induced vibrations can occur
every day or more and many times during the day depending upon the
location.
Wtnd Loads
Winds apply force to the lallvertical shcks causingthe stackto be
loaded as a canlile'vcr beam which is fixed at the base' In this case, the
bcnding stress induccd by the cantileverbeam action is zero at the top of
thc stack and a maximum at the base. The bending stress produces a
comDressivc axial slress on the downwind side of the stack and a
corrcsponding lensile stress on lhe upwind side
Static forcc, rcpresenting the wind load due to drag may be
obtaincd using thc standard wind pressures on the vertical projected
arcas of the stack for various height zones as recommended by the
applicablc building codesr'2 Wind pressures must be multiplied by a
drag cocflicient (shape factor) associated with the exposed cross-
sectional shape 6f the stack
ZJJ
 DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN OF S1EEL STACKS

Rccorrmcndcd drag cocfficients3 are 0.6 for a smooth I'lallbrms also conlributc lo additional overturning momcnt which can
cylinder,
1.0 fol a rrrugh cylinder (smooth cylinder with ladder und clctcrmincd as follows:
plat[ulms. crc.), and 1.2 fora cylinderwith spoilers (verric"L"il"ll"f
"ae'". Horjzontal arca of platform (Wind pressure based on location of
pl;rlcs atlachcd tolhe outside of rheshell). This
recommendalion nray plltlorrn) (Actual hcighl of platform above base) (.5)
rcsult in conservative results, thus the applicable codes should
be Alle l ltrc momcnls duc to all the platforms are calculated' these
re[crrcd to, if accuratc results are desired. l o.^urrfo.-
*lrrJ tolai"" shoulclbc adclcd toM*,dclcrmined above, to get the total moment atthe
thc lurcc L-,f tht wind on the prqiected surface of rhe .1".k (.f;;;;;?
bzrsc. Similar-lv, lhc momenl at any point above base can also be
dramctL'r Iimes height) may be considered to act at the
average height of calculated on thc samc principlc.
a distancc. This force times lever arm gives the bendine
riome"nt Diameter used in calculation of wind load:

Da =
MOMENT@BASE: M,
(For values of P. see map and table on pages 12 and 13')

M*:- X- X- x-
x- x- x-
x_ x_
- X- X-
-x x- x- x-
-X X- X .5
PFt
PF"
- x- x- x .5
'.-Pr PFz x- x- x .5

FL LB. TOTAL =

FIC I TYPICALWIND LOADING DIACMM FOR STACK

Fieurc I
shows the typical wind loading for a stack The effective DEFINITION OF TERMS
diarrctcr of stack can be obtained as follows:
Natural Frequency of Vlbration
D6 : Effective diameter of stack, ft.
= Outside diameter of stack + insulation + allowance for Thc oeriod of vibration I is thL. time necessary to complete one
ladders, platforms, and piping, etc. (allow 1 to 2 ft) cycle o[ oscillation and is the reciprocal of the natural frequency of
vibration/. Thc nalural frequcncy is equal lo the circular frequency o
Fol st:rcks wilh strakes or spoilers, the effective diamerer should dividcd bv 2n. The circular frequency of a single degree of freedom
bc cqual 1o slack diameter plus twice the spoiler projectio[ slr'r.rclure is proponional to the square root of the stiffness divided by
Now, referring to Fig. l, we get lhc mass. Thc equation is:

Mry = Overturning moment at the base, ftJb. , = ,lv^, where [ = stiffness, and : me$s
= (D,) (P,) (H) (h) + '?
(Dd Qz) (H) (h,) + I
(D) (P) (H,) (hz) ;

234 235
 I)ESIGN OF PIIoCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN OF STEEL STACKS

Erplcssing rruss ars l,V/g and stiffness as A(force over deflection). we
gcl
- I lFr
' 2r tlWL
Mode Shapes
The dcflccted shape ofa s1n:cture for any single mode
isalwavs thc samc for that slructure, regardless of the magnitude ofthe
vibration. In othe| words, though the amplitude of the displacement
changcs with timq the relation between displacements throughout the
heighl rcmains consrant The distribution of accelerations for a single
modc of vibralion lherefore remains constant Knowine the mode
shapc and thc maximum vibralion al the top, the maximum vibration at
anv levcl above the base can be directly obtained for fiat mode The
modal displacements for a typical smoothed response spectrum will
decrcasc as rhe modal period decreases from the lower to the hieher
modcs. Thc modc with the longesr period is called the first, or
fundamcntal, mode and the mode with shorter periods (higher
frequcncics) are called the higher modes The typical shapes of first
thrcc modcs ofvibration for canrilevered cfinder are shown in Fig 3.
:,tr| Vodu lrd Modc
I'I( i 1 \IODIi SIIAPES FOR A CANIILEVERED CYLINDER
Damping
A pcrfcctll' claslic systcm, set into vibralory motion, would
conlinuc 1() vibratc forcver if the vibrations were not stopped by an
eulside' forcs However, no system is perfectly elastic, and the vibratorv
molion will die out due to loss ofenergy resulting from internal strains.
This Ioss of cnergv is called damping Damping is generally expressed
as a perccntage of "critical damping', the damping which would srop
rlrc vibr rrlot.,r tlrolioll ilt otrc swing a{tcr frec vibralion stafls Thc firsl
sm:rll pclccnlngcs ol dilmping greatly reduce peak responses because
pcirk |espo|tscs arc gcncrally associated with shon response time
clunrlions ;rnd, thcreforc, involve liule energy. Damping represenls
cncrgy losscs Irom manv sourccs and' therefore, can be of a number of
tvpcs as rclzrled to vibration.
ofvibralion Seismic Loads
Anolher environmcntal factor that must be considered in the
clcsign of tall stacks are seismic stresses produced by earlhquakes To
pr"ri"nt tull .,u.k. from toppling underanticipated possible earrhquake
it,rcc., a tall stack must bc designed to wilhstand these forces The
cfftct o[ seismic forccs is somewhat similar to wind loads in that the
slack again is loaded as a verlical cantilever beam fixed at the base'
Therc is a difference in the load distribution in the case of wind loads as
compared 10 seismic loads but in both cases the vertical column is
cxposed to bending which produces axial tensile stresses on one side
and thc axial compressive slresses on the other side
There are both horizontal and vcfiical shifts of the eadh crust
Juling th,' carlhquakc. Vt'rrical shihs arc oI small imponanct i n large
sllcks bccausc oi thcir stability to forces in the vertical direction The
horironlal shifting of the earth's crust is the cause of major concern
wilh lall slacks. This shifting might be compared to a sudden
displaccment of thc foundation underneath the standing stack
Bccausc of thc ineflia of thc staclq this produces bending similarto that
produced by a [orce pushing against thc side ofthe stack and results in
sending thc stack into a hannonic vibration.
T"hc sway of thc stack will produce a maximum velocity as the
stack passcs t-hrough vertical cenler. Also, the maximum velocity of
s',vay will be at the top of thc stack with zero velocity al the base
As the
sta& rcaches the limit of its deflection, the kinetic energy of molion is
I wrnsfcrrcd 1oslrain cnergy of thc shell causing reversal of direction and
lhc slzrck rvill srvav back and forth unlil the energy is dissipated An
cxprcssion for pcriod ofvibration I can be derived by equating the total
strain cncrgy slorcd lo the kinclic encrgr of motion as the slack movcs
Thc Jck thus will have a charactcrislic period of vibration and
thc [r-equcncv ol vibration will be a function ofthe mass of the stack and
rhc sla;k dimcnsions and thc modulus of elasticity of the material of
cor.rslrLrclioll. It tlic period of vibralion o[ the stack is large, the stack
cln bc corrsiclclcd to bc flcxiblc and although it may sway appreciably,
\\'ill bc irblc lo rcsisl lhe scismic forccs much bctterlhan a stmcture with
r srritlt pcriod o[ vibralion. Rigid structure havc short periods of
vibr:rtior.r and are morc susceptible to seismic deslruction than flexible
slruclures.

236 237
 DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT
DESIGN OF STEEL STACKS

In thc casc of tall flexible stac( the force producing acceleratron 'Ihickncss l,can bc irssumecl lo bc lhickness at lhc top ofstack for
oI the stack during rhe sway varies wirh the velociry
at rh."n;";;;i;*r". Fig..1(b) irnclin crirgc of thc t <tp a ncl bot tom thicknesses of stack for Fie.
Since this velocity increases from zero at the base to the
maximum ar -l ( c).
the 1op, tht: flexible stack should be considered to be load.a
u, r.i.ngt" Tlrc lundzrmcnlal Ircqucncv of a stack having varying cross
wilh the mean located a1 twothirds the heighl of the "
sack The scclion or ntulliple diamclors can;rlso be found by the Rayleigh-Ritz
resuhing stresses induced bythe sway from seisilic shifis
u.", oi co,r."", nrclhod of suntm;rlion. In lhis ci.rse', the slack height is divided inro a
in lhc revcrse order and are zero at the top of the stack because
the top ls nunrl)cr of sccliorrs. II wl - - , is thc rveight of each section and rr - - -
n()1re'strained and increase 10 a maximum at the base ofthe
stack where is the lcsulting clcad loacl dcllcctit.rn at lht: center of each seclion
thc accumulated forces are a maximum. Seismic
Ioads forthe stackcan produced whcn stack ncls irs horironlal cantilcver bearr! then6:
be calculated as follows:
I wlxt+w2x2+---
Fundamental Frequency of Stack Vibratlon --..------------
^ l|rxr' + w2x2' + ---
Foracantilevered cylindrical structure of uniform cross-
Thc first mode period [or-all tvpcs of stacks can also be calculated
sectioq as shown in Fig 4(a), the fundamental period ofvibration by using the ;rpproximalc rclalionshipT:
is given bya
Where ! = rrr31t T=
T: wIl
3.)Z _ nur'tr
8 Dr

Substituting for F, /, and L we ger:

H
?=765(,0)-6(#l
l+
Thc reciprocal of period Igives the natural frequcncv ofvibration
/ staek in cps.
c-r[
Thc abovc equation can also be used to calculate the period for
lapered slacksas shown in Fig. 4(b) and ( c) by using slraighr cylinder of
cquivalcnt sriffness. The diameter D. and the hcight i. of the
cquivalcnt cylinder are given by the following equationss:

D. (a)
For Fig 4(b):
H. l?". u"(;?d)' FIC.,r - COMMON

Factors Affecting Stack Frequency

o" = o,tou
Frce standing stacks have always been observed lovibratedurine
voncx cxcitation a1 a frequency and wilh a mode shape associatedwiti
For Fig 4(c): the fundamcntal mode In addition, the shape of the dynamic force
H.=Hm amplitude of nearly constant frequency over the height of the stack
implies that the dynamic response will be almost enlirely due to the

238 239
 DESIGN OF PR@ESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN OF STEEL STACKS

conlribution ofthe first mode only. Thcrefore, itis recommended Base Shear
that all higher modes be neglected in thedynamic analysis and that
the frequency and associated critical wind velocity of the F
fundamental mode only be considered
Thc cffccl of rhe following should be included in the de
lcnninirtion ol thc fundamental frequency of the stack V_F,
Gunite Lining
Thc conrribution of gunite lining if used should be included rn
thc crrlcul;rlion of both thc mass and stiffness 10 obtain an accurare
cslimalion of thc fundamcntal frequency ofthe slack In calculations
lbr lined stacks, the section properties ofan equivalent steel seclion mav
bc calculated using a suilable value for lhe modular ratio e s.
(r) S.isnric L!.ding Diig,am (b) Scjsmic Shcrr Dirgnm

c FIC.5, SEISMIC LOADING AND SHE"{R DIAGR,AMS FOR STACK

."
E: ofa
The base shearis the totalhorizontal seismic shearat thebase
Howevcr, if the gunile lining is not integrally compacled with the stack The triangular loading pattem and the shape of the stack shear
stack shcll, lhc nalural frequency for the unlined stack can be used in diagram duc to that loading are shown in Fig 5(a) and (b). A portion f,
calculations. Linings dccrcasc lhe natural frequency and damp the of lolal horizontal seismic force Vis assumed to be applied at the top of
;rmplitudcs of vibration. But, the lined stack will be resonant at lower rhc stack per UBC (Uniform Buildihg Code). The remainder of the base
wind r,clocitics. shcar is distributcd throughout the len$h ofthe stack including the top
Thc natural frequency of a stack lined with bricks or blocks is nor Thc UBC base shear formula is given by
vcry diffcrenr than thc unlined shell, because the degree of composite
V:ZI KCSW
aclion bclwcen rhe shcll and linine is small
Base Flexibillty Wlrcre
7,:.187 5 for zonel, .37 5 for zone2, .7 5 for zone 3, and 1.0 for zone
,l (rcfer to Fig. 3,4 or 5 of Chapter 9 for determining the proper
,For slacks supporled on structural members, many framrng
con[iguralions, though designed to safely resist the static wind loadino s{jismic zone)
can bc shown 1o reduce the fixed base fundamentaL f;";;;.; - = 1 .067
= tC should not be morc than O.l2)
substantially.s Translational and rolational spring constants can be " tS J-f fi
calculated using standard structural analysis procedures and in-
.S:1.5 if l'( 2.5 and
corporalcd into frequency calculation. For stacks supported on
normal sprcad footings and pile foundations, an investigattn into the
|.2 + .24(n -.048(7)'z. if T> 2.5
(.S should not be less than 1.0)
cffcct ofthebase flcxibility suggests that these types ofsupports are very
nearly fixed. Approximate translational and rotational soil sprino Thc product of C.9 should nol exceed 014.
constanrs can be calculared based upon methods currentt"";i;;i: Now; tht: total horizontal force 4 al top of the stack is given b3r
using csrimates of the dynamic modulus of elasricity (obtained from a F, = O.07TV (F, should not exceed 0.25n
scismic sun,ey of the sitr:) and the poisson,s ratio of the soile Sincethe
:0,for?<0.7
foundalion flexibility will gencrally affect the fixed base frequency by (lverturnlng Moment at Base
Iess lhan I 1<l 2 pcrcent, these tlpes of foundations can be treatei Thc ovcnuming moment is the algebraic sum of lhe moments of
as
Ilxccl, sincc this effect is relatively insignificant in comparison with all t hc forccs above the base. The ovenuming moment at the base of
olher cstimated parameters. stack duc to cadhquake in ftlb. can be expressed as:

240 241
 DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN OF S]EEL STACKS

ME = IFF + (v _ F) (2Ht3\) 1000 Anchor Bolt Chalr

Allowable Shell Buckling $tress Following calculations are based on the anchor bolt chair shown
Thc axial loads and overturning moments are assumed to be in Fig 7.
rcsisted entircly by the steel shell Gunite lining if used is nor
considered to bc structurally reliablq or to have any significant value in
WHEN THIS OISTANCI:
prcventing shell buckling Initially, some thicknesses at each section EECoMES 1t/!" 0R
N.. WASHEB WiSOLT HOLE
arc assumed The maximum allowable compressive stress in theshellrs Y." LARGER THAN 8011- IESS USE (1) {"
CUSSET OETWEEI{
rlrcomn,cnded to be rhe smallest of the following: SEE CHART fOR SIZE
SOLTS
L"
(a) One-half of the material yield stress at the desisn
I'-'mpcralurc, or S.: Y/2 \
(b) Thc allowablc compressive stress considerins local
shcll buckling as dercrmined from rhe followins
TYP.
empirical relationshiplo ' TOP
Ai{0
for t"/d ratios less than 0.00425 BOT.

0.56 t"E
s.=
d(r + .oa4E/Y [,tusr
PILOT IN TOP
For higher r"/d ratios, the allowable compression stress E SOTTOM

used is that calculated for t"ltl : .00425. As SHO' N BASE & TO

n. RTNGS
I 40 P|PE AIOToR
SOLT GUIDE.SEE
Stack Weight CHART CONT. FILLE]
W€LD TO TOP A}IO
Corrosion allowance (if required) is added to the thicknesses 8AS€ LI E 80TT0M RI.IGS
zrssumed above and uncorroded weight (including lining ifrequired) ar
thc botlom of each section is determined

ANCHOR BOLT CHART

Stack Plate Thickness
Stack plate thickncss requircd to resist the greater of wind or Anchor Anchor
carlhquakc moments at each level is determined for the following bolt bolt Plate a b
rclationship: dia. guide wash€rs Min.

314 &718 2 1l2x3112Sq. 2 r12 ) | l) 8

1 tolli4 2 ll2x 4 ll2 Sq. J 1 t l) 8

| 1l2x4112Sq. ) 111 8
Corrosion allowance (if required) is added to the thickness 318 ro 1 314 2 r12 3
dctcrrrincd above and resulting thickness is rounded off to the hieher | 718 to 2 114 3 3l4x4ll2Sq. 3 ) tl) 8
l/16 inch. This is actual srack rhickness al rhe level u;der 5
2 r12 J 112 314 x Sq. 3 r12 3 10
considcration.
After required plate thicknesses are determined at each level they 2 314 5 112 314 x 6 Sq. 4 ll
arc comparcd with corresponding assumed lhicknesses in uncorroded 3 4 314x6 Sq. 4 1tl) ll
condilions. If therc is any deviatioq correct weighls are calculated
bltsed on ncw thicknesses and procedure is repeated until the two
thickncsscs coincide. ITI(;. 7 , ryPICAL ANCHOR BOLT CHAIR FOR STACKS

242
243
 DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN OF STEEL STACKS

Calculating Number and Size of Anchor Bolts

The number o[ bohs is assumed initially, based on a multiple of
lbur with about 18 inches o[ bolt spacing Total tension in each bolt is
dctcrmined from the relationship:
tya
'
: 48(M)_ wt
N(DEd -N
Q---
*l a

.:
'."
=

If SB is the maximum allowable stress of anchor bolt material in

-
psi, lhc rcquired boh arczr .r1 lhe root of the thread is given b5r

o^ =Y!
sd

Calculating Base and Top Plate Thicknesses FIG. 8 ' VON KARMAN VORTEX STREET

Dimcnsions tt b. and c, in inches corresponding to actual bolt

diamclcr arc dctermincd from Fig 7. Now, bearing pressure pb in psi
on concrcte foundalion is calculated from the follov.ing formula:
_ 48(m W,
" r(D61)'c r(D6l1c
The value of P, is limited to 750 psi maximum for 3000 lb concrete
I Sucrion Effccr Tolva.d

and 500 psi maximum for 2000 lb. concrete. +l '*'*'*''*7

AI
-n
If the calculatedPb exceeds the above limit, the value of c is

@i'
modified so that P6 falls within the allowable limit.

Base plate thicknessf, is calculated from the following relationship:

/ J'b
ap \12 I

t" = " |\,ffi)

6 I
whcre , :cr *b FIG' 9 - EFFECT OF VORTEX SHEDDINC ON A STACK

In theory vortices are shed inlermittently from each side of

the
For top plate thickness ?a, the following formula is used:
atu"L, pr"ssure drop across the cylinder as they are.released
""l,"ing;
-,': | t(w")o \rtz i"n" p."t""i""Jr.',ttbution ani the bending momenl caused due to this
r.-,n".I* p."t""." distribution is shown in Fig 10' The
change in
\4(2oJoo)r/
;;;;;"'p;;t""s a lateral force, which must be resisted bv the
frequency of wind
Dynamic Wlnd Design cantilevered columrl At resonance that ig when the
1o the natural frequency of the cvlinder
the
When a cantilevercd cylindcr is subjecled to steadywind there is a ;;.il; lorr".pond"
ccnain velocity al which the cylindcr begins to oscillale in the direction io*"t .tl .attt. -aximum which the resonance takes
The velocity a1

lransverse to that of the wind This phenomenon reportedly exists when
eddies, created as wind contacls thc stack or flows close to it, are shed
from the chimney sulface. Thc vortices commonly referred to as the
Von Karman effecl, are similarlo thr: watereddies formed when we row
a boar The flow is depicted diagrammatically in Fig 8. The effect of
vonex shedding on a stack is shown in Fig 9.
ot.." i" d""ienur"d as the critical wind velocity Equating the Von-
L"r-un uorrit ,hedding frequency at the top lo the nalural frequency
and solving for the critical wind velocity we get:
fD-

244 245
 DESIGN OF PROCESS TQUIPMENT
DESIGN OF STEEL STACKS

w MUST be performcd
20 Vibraliun analvsis
=h
,to < W - < 25 Vibration analvsis SHoULD be performed
HD,'
w Vibration analvsis NEED NOT be performea'
25 <
V-Oz
Analysig if required, should be carried out as described below
If, lao = Wind velocity at 30 feet height' mph
y-' at the 1op of lhe slack is
itr"n irt. maxim,lm r'ind velocity
given by
to'
V* = Vzo(Lt3D)o

and the maximum gust velocity = 1'3V.

Bending Mom.nl DiagEm gusl
Ifcritical wind velocity, % falls within range ofthe maximum
corroded stack
FIC. IO PRESSURE DISTRIBUIION AND BENDINC MOMENI DIACRAM u"to"lty,-th" rtu"t -ust bec'he&ed further' In that case'
FOR A STACK DUE TO MDIAL WIND
*"ighi -"* be equal to or greater than 15 times the wind force at
.riii.ut u"to"itv ot u" a fot-ul4 the ratio' Kt should be less
The value of Strouhal number N,, depends on the Reynolds ""p."s."d
than 1/15.
number, however, il is recommended that a Strouhal number of 0.20
for all Relnolds numbers be used for stack design plugging for K, =P,p,L. _ O.\Ulp,s E
.vv'-"

Strouhal number in the above equation and modifying the equation 10 For lined slacks l4l can be used in place of W" in order to reduce
get an expression for critical wind velocity in miles per houl we get
vibralion. Design modifications are required if K1. in the above
p.
v'" _- f (ffi) 60 = 3.47 tD- cquation exceeds 1,/15.
.213\7760
Various orher relationships available to calculate the critical wind Static Deflection
pressure
vclocity Yl in mph, are as followsT: The computed d)'namic loading is applied as a slagnant
amplitude at the 1op is
1o the stack Assuming it to be a cantileverbeam,
,,," = fD,(60)
--fr- approximated by,

D" _
P"D,LL;(LD3 , where Iz : rr3t
also
'
",^(*)' Dynamic Deflection
Al a critical wind velociry the structure vibrates at resonant
and finally V" = JE (*) f."q,r.'n.v, rU"s the amplitud'e ofvibration is magnified
greatly' The
'..,t ^tti which is a ratio of dynamic amplitude to static
auri.-i.1o"ffi"i"nt,
CAI\MLEVER VIBRATION iaa", lt the magnification factor' This is a function of the
-and
Analyzing Procedure
^'-of "Af"d
iitil" tirir.*". of the soil several other factors' The amount of
Now, the following criteria as recommended by Zorrilla 1r can be ri"tlJa.n"oio" must be multiplied by the magnific^ation factor to
magmncanon
uscd to establish need for vibration analysis of sracks wi th H^ /H ratio determine dlnamic deflection Approximate value-ot
not cxcecdins 0.50; a.i".t i". iirf.*nt types of stacks as suggesred DeGheno and
by
Longr2 are listed in Table l.

246 247
 DESIGN OF STEEL STACKS
DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

Ovalllng Vlbratlon
TABLE I - MAGNIFICATION FACTORS In addition transvcrsc (cantilever) vibration' unlincd stacks are
t<.r

tt ncxural vibration in the planc of the ring as a result

of
li,-,Ui..i"a
SPREAD FOOTINGS
ON SOFT SOIL
SPREAD FOOTINC ON
MEDIUM SOFT SOIL
PILED FOUNDATIONS ^frr ,n"aai.g Thc frequcncy of rhe lowesl-mode, of flexural
fiPE OF STACK (BEARING BELOW (BEARINC BETWEEN
AND SPREAD FOOTINCS
ON STIFF SOIL
""ra"* that oiovalling orbreathing for an unlined circular
steel shell
!.500 psl) Li00 rnd 3,000 psl) AND ROCK "ib.^ti,rn
"' , .5gr, J-"
30 tt - 6OD2
l0 90
given by
Now lhc voncx shedding frequency is
0'2vr
rv- D ,-
Maximum Allowable Deflectlon
is 66 fps as .
Maximum dcflection at the top of the stack should not exceed six where Vr, the wind velocity for vortex shedding
bi"t"v woodruff for most economical and
inches per 100 feet of stack height ;;;;;;& tv and
;;;i;"k design as far is vibration is concerned at each level using
Darnplng Excesslve Vlbratlon notn rn"."i."quencies should be calculated
voftices form
the .<-,rrcsponding thickncsses and diameters Becausc
The following methods of modiS'ing design are recommended if it has been suggested thar the
an cxcessive amplitude of vibration is expected: ;i;;,.d"t eitf,er side of thc stack frequency'
or,^llin* fi.ou"n.y will bc rwice thar of the vortex shedding

1. External atlachmenls (such as piping ladders and ii ;;; il J;ii.; /. < 2/" ovalling rings are required al that level
platforms) may be properly distributed around the uih"t-it"
"'-- thc stack is frce from ovalling vibration'
S".tiun modulus of thc rings' whenever required' can
be
stn.rcture which helps to reduce or nullifu the effect of
pcriodic eddy shedding *''-'
dctcnnined as follows:
c.iii"ot*i"a velocityV.in fpm,at the section under consideration
,, _ 60f,p'" -
2. Refractory lining may be added to an unlined 2N,
of
stmcture or the thickness or density of refractory of a whcrc N",' the Strouhal number, is 0 2 over a wide range
lined structure increased which adds to the mass and Reynolds numbers.
consequently increases the structural damping No*, rtt" section modulus of stiffeners at section under
.r..li.']."ii."' ".. be found from the formula used by MoodyT
7
3. If possible, modifying the dimensions of the structure . - (1)(tof v"\z Dz (H,\
J-=_s.
can also help in damping by increasing the critical
wind velocity above the maximum gust velocity. grealer than S''
Stiffeners having section modulus equal 10 or
lhe length of the section
shoull bc provided at spacingl{' throughout
4. The paltern of vortex shedding can be modified by
.rna", .ontia"*tlon. if stiffeners are required for more than one
winding helical strakes around the perimeter of the
.".ti.". Jiff"*", sizes and spacing should be used for economy' if
shell at a pitch of about five times the diameter of the
possiblc.
chimney. The height of rhe strake should be abour having
Ahcrnalively, it is recommended3 that for unlined stacks'
onetenlh of the diameterand manvtimes, strakes are
criticai wind vjocity for ovalling vibration of- 60 mph or less
only required around the top one third of the slackr3 should be provided to stiffen the shell
A patented device of this t5,pet't has been successfully
.ir.,r-f"."ntiul sriffening rings
used on stmclures to avoid the formation of vortices
;;;-;h"t raisc the ovalling vibration frequency Stiffening rings VIII'
Jesiencd for a uniform external pressure of 1 5 psi using Section
and thus cxcessive vibration.

249
248
 DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUTPMENT DESIGN OF STEEL STACKS

Division I <-rf thc ASME Codcts rules, arc rccomnlcnclcd to avoid thc (4 basc ol l2-lt. dia scction: 12,046,570 ft-lb
occurence of ovalling vibration due to voncx shcdding (q) basc o[ l0 [t dia seclion:5,818,910 ft-lb
@ basc of 6 ft, 8 in. dia- section : 1,088,410 ft-lb
Example Problem Assuming corroded thicknesses as follows:
Design a200-foot high, free standing multilplc-diameter, unlined 0.625 in. for 12 ft dia section
SA-285 Grade C stack as shown in Fig I l. Corrosion allowance: 0.5 in. for lO-ft dia section
1/8 inch. Operating temperature of stack: 400"F. 0.25 in. for 6 ft, 8 in. dia section

Allowable Compresslon Stress

F.--3,.0" BA.
->l 12 ft. diameter section
t"ltl : 0.6251L44 : 0.00434 > 0.00425, therefore
0.56 (0.00425) (27.6) Ltr
(1 + 0.004(27.6)1f/30,000)
= 14,035 psi

Similarl5,, for the 10-ft dia seclion

t.ld = 0.51120 = 0.004167
S. = 13,761 Psi
6 ft., 8-inch. dia. section
t"td = o.25t8o = 0.003125
S. = 1032a psi
Total Uncorroded stack weights
Weighls at each level are calculated by adding the corrosion
allowancc 1<.r lht-'thickncsses assumed above After adding about l5
pcrcent of the calculated weight to account for piping plalformg
ladders, etc., we gel:
W @ basc of l2-ft dia section 178,000 lb :
W @ base of lO-ft dia section 86,000 lb :
l,1l @ base of 6 ft, 8-in. dia- section 23,000 Ib :
Requlred Plate Thlckness
12-ft. dia" scction
_
., 178,000 (144)
----------------
+ 48 (12,046,570)
r(r44)2 14,035
= 0.6605 inches > 0.625 inches as assumed.
Thcrcforc, totalthickness:0.6605 40.125:0.7855 inchesoruse
I th ick plate for bottom 8 feet of l2-foot diameter section
3/16 inch
Wind momcrrts al 8 fect above bottom of l2-fL section
FIG. I I . EXAMPLE PROBLEM FOR SELF.SUPPORIED MULTILPLE DIAMETER STACK : I 1,136,950 ft- lb
t, : 0.6116 inches
Moments Total thickncss: 0.61l6 + 0.125 :0.7366 inches.
Geographical location of the stack did not require moment Thcrcfon:, 3/4 inch plate is sufficient for rest of l2-foot diameter
calculations due to earthquake Total calculaled wind momenls are. sccllon.

250 251
 DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUTPMENT DESTGN OF STEEL STACKS

l0-ft. dia. section, r, = 0.4652 in. Cantllever Vlbratlon

lbtal thickness = 0.4652 + .L25 = .59O2 in. ft''
D, = 1.385 fr., W = 146,550 lb, H = 200 ft. and lla = 15
Thereforq 5/8 inch thick plate as assumed is sufficient for the l0-foor
diameter section. H6lH = 0.075 <0.5
6 ft, 8-in. dia section tt 0.2606 in. > 0.25 in. as assumed- w _ 146,550 _
= t3.44<20
Thereforc, use 7/16 inch plate for bottom 8 feet and 3,/g inch plate for HD: 200(7.38sr
rcst of 6-fr-rot, 8-inch diameter secrion.
Thcrefore, vibration analysis must be per{ormed'
Also, 3/8-inch rhick plate is used for ropmosl3-fool diameter sectiorl Iry,: 123,550 lb' L" = 185 + 't '5 -- 192'5 lt'
Sincc ther e is no apprcciable change in thicknesses, the weishts based
on rcquir('d thicknesscs arc'almosl Ihc samc as assumed T-
'
L.648(192.5F - = 1.5?4 seconds
7.385 v27.6(lo)
Anchor Bolt Chair Design f: 117'574 = 0'6353 cPs
Assuming (40) 3-inch diameter bolts, the total tension in each bolt V" = 3(0'6353) 7'385 : 14'08 mph
ts
Vgo = 98 mPh
48,\1,?'0a7.,s7!l 178.000
w_ _ /rnn\0.143
'= 40(1s3.62s\ 40
__ Rq 64o rh
v- = e8l'+*l = 129 mph
\JUl
Sp :
15,000 psi :
Thus, the bolt area required a1 the rool of the thread Maximum gusr velocity : 129(1 3) 168 mph
chcck tor K'
Since y" fails within maximum gusl velocilv'
89,649
r5,000 = 5.9766 in.2 < 6.324 in.2 -. = --nm]Fif-l,so-
K'
0.00?7(7.38s)'21!09) --' 0.0053 < t/t5
Thcrcfore, (40) 3-inch diamercr bolts are suflicicnt From the
chan on Fig. 7, corresponding to a 3-inch diamererboll a:4 in., b: 3.5 Therefore, the stack is frec from canlilever vibration'
in. and c: I I in. minimum, lhcrclore e: a * b: 7.5 in.
Static Deflectlon
Now
P" = t(0.00238) (1.467y (14.0s)'zi2
: 0'5017 psl ,
48(72,046,570) 178,000 r = 0.355 in, r : 44'3lin' Therefore I: : 3l)' O^ ---
n('l4 355
* >
Al456r5irrj .rr+s^exl rr = 824 psi 750 psi
= 97
'025
in''
o.su| e.3ss) (|w.r't (nf =
Trv 13 in.
: 0.4153 in.
P6 698 psi < 750 psi D": aQ1.qrffgl,ozs)
Thcrcfo rc,

Dvnamic Deflection
""*i:il;;;niii"ttion factor of 30' we ge1 dvn;rmic deflection -
and 0.4153(30) : 12 5 in. ).12 in' li:nits whenallowing
BuL il is assumed lo oe wtthin allowable
hcight ul stacr
- fu(8ri49)6 aboul 7-inch d.'flection per 100 fect o[
= 1 64 in ' Use l'75 in'
": Vq-rqoooli= Ovalllng Vibration
NJtural frequency of free ring is given by
: :
Outsidc dia. of basc
Insidc dia of basc: 160.625
t45.625 + 2(7 .5\
:
160.625 in.
1.su,\E t.su,Jn@ 6$.11
B<.rlt circlc din. : l -53.625 in.
- 203) 134.625 in.
i=--ffi-=----1y,F-: D-

252 253
 DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESICN OF STEEL STACKS

al 3-li. dia., D. Slalic stack dcllcclit.rrt, it.t.

Dt Oulsidc diamctct' a1 lop ol slzrck li.
= 18.4361 cps l Distancc bctwccn thc outside of the stack a1 thc basc to outside of
and lhc ring in.
0.2(66\ Modulus of clasticiry for stack material, psi (30 x 106 psi for
"
"- = 4.4 cps,2f" : 8.8 cps < carbon steel)
f,
Modulus of clasticity for stack material psf (43.2 10" psf for
-3
EL
carbon slccl)
Similarlv, thcse frequencies were calculated foreach thickness ar E2 Modulus of elasticity for lining material, psf.
each diamctcr; and/, at cvery level was compared 10 2te al the same Natural frequ.'ncy o[ slack vibralion.cps
lcvcl. It was found thar 21, excceds rhe t al 6-fool g_inch diamerer Nalural frcquency of ovalling vibration at level under con-
section only, thcrcfore rings were required to stiffen thal section. sideraliqn, cps
Using threc sliffeners in the 6-foot, g_inch diameter sectiorr as f, Vortex shedding frequency al levcl under consideration, cps
shown in Fig I 1, wc get fl, : I 7.5 ft Criricalwind velocity at F Force on slructurc', lb
the section
under considcration is F Total horizontal seismic force al lop of the slack lb
Acccleration due to gravity, ft/ scc.'z (32.2 h/sec.'\
@(3.7J14)9.6666
v"- _ = 3733.3627 fpn It Width of Von Karman Slrcel fL
2(0.2\
ht,.,z Lenglhs from centroid areas to point under consideration, fL
Thc required section modulus of the rine is H Total height of stac( fi
0)$0f '(3733.{4):6.666)'z1'7.s Ht,z,z Hcight zoneg ft
s_
-' - lR rSn = 0.4158 in.3 Hb Height of conical section(s) of stack ft
Use 5/8 in. x 2-in. flat bars as circumferential stiffeners in this sectioIL
H. Equivalcnt height for tapered or multiple diameter stack ft
H Stiffening ring spacing ft.
H" Height of slraight section(s) of stack ft
1 Occupancy imprtance coefficient (use l 0 for stacks)
I1 Moment of inertia of stack fta
NOMENCI.ATTJRE t2 Moment of inertia of lop half of stac( in"
Distance between the oulside of the stack at the base to the bolt K Horizontal force factor (use 2.0 for stacks)
circle in K1 Ratio of wind force al crilical wind velocity to weight of stack
AB Bolt area required at the root of the thread in.2 Effective lengh of stack ft (can be assumed equal 10 straight
b Distance between bolt circle to outside of base ring in lengrh plus onehalf of conical length)
Width of base ring in nt Mass of struclure, Ib-secr/ft-
Z Numerical coefficient (should not be more than 0.12) M Grealer of wind or eanhquake moment a1 level under con-
cr Lift coelficienr (usually nken as 1.0) sideration, ft-lb.
d Internal stack diameter at level under consideration, in Ms Eafthquake moment at level under consideration, ft-lh
D Inlemal stack diameter at level under consideration ft M- Wind moment at level under consideration" fr-lb.
Dr Stack mean diametel ft N Number of bolts
Dac Bolt circle diameler, in. N,, Strouhal number (0.2 over a wide range of Reynolds number)
Dt' Outside diameter at bottom of stack fL Pr,z,e Wind pressures for height zoneq psf
Dot Oulside diameter at bottom of stack iIL Pb Bearing pressure on concrete foundation, psi
D. Equivalent diameter for rapered or multilple diameter snck ft P. Unit wind pressure al critical wind velocity, psf
Dl Average internal diameter of top half of stack ft PF1,2 Wind moment due to individual platform at level under
consideratiorl ft-lb.

254 255
 DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN OF STEEL STACKS

Average internal radius ot top half of stac( in

r\ Stack mean radius, ft
s Numerical coefficient for site structure resonance
,ts Maximum allowable stress of anchor boh material psi
REFERENCES
s" Allowable compression stress in plate material at level under
l. "Minimum design loads in buildings and other str-uctures," ANSI
consroerauon, psr
S- Required section modulus of stiffeners, in.3 A58.1, 1982.
.Srr Allowable tensile stress of stack plate material psi "Uniform building code," International Conference of Building
t Average corroded plate thickness of top half of stacl in. Officials, Whittier, California 1982.
tr Stack plate uncorroded thickness, fL 3. Stalev, C.M. and Graven, G G, "The static and dynamic wind design
to, Assumed corroded plate thickness al level under consideratiort of steel sracks,"ASME Paper No. 72-Pet-30.
in. Frecse, C.E., "Vibration o[ vertical prcssure vesselq" Journal of
t6 Uncorroded plate thickness at bottom of stack, in. Engineering for Industry Series B, Trans ASME Vol 81' No l'
I, Required corroded plate thickness at level under consideratiorL Fcbnrary 1959, pp. 77-86.
in. Gaylord, 8.H., Gaylord, C.N, "structural Engineering Handboo("
T Fundamental period of vibratio4 seconds McGraw-Hill Book ComPanY, 1 968.
Dickey, WLand Woodruff G.8., "The Vibration of Steel Stacks,"
TB Base plate thickness, in.
Procccdings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, VoL 80,
T7 Top plate thickresq in
y Total seismic shear at base of stack lb. Scparale No 540, Nov 1954
Vr Wind velocity for vortex shedding fps
'1. Moody, G.B., "Mechanical design of rall stacks," Hydrocarbon
Processing 48, No 9, September 1969, pp, 173-178'
73e Wind velocity at 30 fee! mph
Critical wind velocity for cantilever vibratiorl mph Marrone, A. "Vibrations of slacks suported on steel structures,"
% Proceedings of the ASCE Vol 95, No. ST12, December 1969, pp'
Y"1 Critical wind velocity for cantilever vibration, fps
283t-2844.
V" Critical wind velocity for ovalling at level under consideratiorl
9. Parmaleg RA, " Buildingfoundation interaction effects," Pro
fpm
ceedings of the ASCE VoL 93, NO. EM2, April 1967, pp 131-152' -
V. Maximum wind velocity at the top of stach mph 10. Donncl-L LH., "Results of experiments with very thin cylindrical
w Stack weight per ft of height lb./ft. shells under axial pressure," Transactions of the ASME Vol 56,
w1 2 Weight of individual section of stack lb.
1934.
W Total corroded stack weight including lining lb. E.P., " Determination of aerodynamic behavior of can-
Wr Total operating weight of stach kips lt. Zorrill4
tilevered stacks and towers of circular cross sec1ion," Transactions
Wp Total tension in each boll lb.
of ASME, Paper No. 71-Pel35
W" Corroded weight of shck excluding weight ofpans which do not
t2. Dechetto, K, and Long W' " Dlnamic stability design of stacks and
contribute to stiffness, lb
towers," Journal of Engineering for Industry Series B, Trans ASME,
Wt Total uncorroded stack weight, lb.
.rr.2 Dead load deflection of individual section of stack ft
Vol 88, 1966, p 462.
13. "British Standard Specifications for Steel Chimnels," B S'
4076:
I Yield stress of plate material at design temperature, psi
1966, British Standard Institution, British Standards House, 2 Park
Z llBC seismic faclor
Streel London, Wl.
P Mass density o[ air (0.00238 lb-sec']/fra)
14. Scruton, C. "Note on a device for the suppression of the
vorter
to Circular frequency of stack vibratiorl cps
excited oscillations o[ flexible structures of circular or near-circulal
). Stiffness of structure. lb.,/fr
section with special reference ro its application to tall stacks "
A Deflection of structure, ft National Physical Laboratory Teddington, Middlesex, England'
Aero Note 1012, APril 1963.

256
 DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

15. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Seclion VIII, .,pressure
vesselg" Division l, ASME New York N.y. 1983.
16 Tang S.S., "Shortcut method for calculating tower deflectio4,'
Hydrocarbon Processing 47, No. ll, November 196g. rl. 230.

12
VIBRATION ANALYSIS OF TALL TOWERS

Wintl inducBd vortices ale formed on the surface of tall structures

such as heater stacks and plocess towe$. The change in pressure associated
with shedding of these vortices can generate forces required to proiluce
instability an-<l can'even result in structural failures' Thus, after the self-
suppoiting structure has been designed as a static structwe, it must also
be

i"vestlgated regaraling its possible behavior under vibration conditions'

ihis chapter extends Zorrila'sl method by establishing simplified
graphical data in
relationships from his data. It also presents some of his
tabular form for quick vibration inv€stigations of self-supporting vertical
cylindrical, cantilevered structures such as towers and stacks' Criteria' as
recommenied by Zorrila, is used to estiblish a need for such analysis'
If
the structure is foun<t to be susceptible to vibmtion, the amPlitude of
vibration (maximum dynamic deflection at top of the structure) can also
be easily determined. Methods of ilamping excessive vibmtion are recom-
mentled-. .l sample calculation is included to demonstrate the use and
accuracy of the technique presenteal.

Analvzing procedure.
lnat-yiing aU ttre towers and plant or refinery for vibmtion
stacls in a

would be time consuming process. The following criteria is used to investi-

gate vibmtion possibility in a structure:

,outorurion analysis MUST be performed

$ =
20< 25 Vibration analysis SHOULD be performerl
#<
w Vibration analysis NEED NOT be performed
25< ffi
258
 jsl(;N ()t, t,tr()Chss TjQUtPMENT
| )t
VIIJRATION ANALVSIS oF TALI, 'TOWERS

if required, should be carried out as described below.

Analysis,
Natual frequency of vibration. The natural frequency of
vibration, TABLE l-Frequency of bare structures for unit
/r, of a bare structure in its fundamental mode for unit uit e ot
lOlLzj value of (D/L2) (r0)4
(10)a can be read from Table 1 corresponding to ,6, the
uncorroded thick_
ness at the base of the structure_ This table is an extension
of a graphical
presentation by Zontla based on the calculation
of natural vibration lie_
tr,Thickness, in. fi, Frequency, cps
quencies of several structures bry a computerized
technique using the 0.25 0.37 5
method proposed by Major.2
0.3125 o.4Q26
_-. Thus, the natural
(Wlll"
frequency of vibration for a bare structure
0.3 7s 9.4284
= 1) based, on actual value of (DlL2) (tO)a is given bf
o.43'7s 0.444
f = (ft) (D lL2) (1o)4 0.5 0.4642
lvhen refractory linings, insulation, ladders, piping, platforms, o.5625 o.474
_ in_
te-rnal trays, operating liquids, etc. are considered to o.62s o.482r
iontribuie to stiffness
of.skucture (l|lws > 1), the frequency of yibration will be o.68'7 s 0.494
reduced con_
$oerably. tn that case, determine the correction factor CF, 0.75 0.5
corresponding
to the ntioll/Wsfrom Table 2. Intermediate values should- 0.8125 0.512
be interiolated.
The natural frequency of vibration is given by 0.875 0.523
0.93',7 5 0.533
f = (ft)
(10)a (c F) (D lL2)
1.0 0.5 5
Logarithmic decrement, 6 is the log of the mtio of
_ successive ampli-
tudes of a damped, freely vibrating structure and i,
mearur" of the
structural ability of the stack or tower to dissipate energy" TABLE 2-Correction factor for frequency
during vibration.
For a particular structure 6 depends on ih" typ. oi
the lining used. The value of6 can be selected fromiable "onrtr"u"tion "na Correction faclor Cp
3 as recommenO_ Ratio of weights I//It4
ed, by-Zorrila based on the reported average
values of several ,t*atur"r.
Stability investigation. The wind tunnel test3 shows the O.p"ni.n." l_0
of- oscillations on structural damping. Further staUitity lnvestigitions
1.0
for 1.12s 0.9
structures can be made as follows: t.25 0.85
Calculate the damping factor Dp from the relationship |.3',7 5 0.8
t_) o.79
Or=# 1, .7 5 0.'135
2.O 0.69
A check for stability
can be made according to the following criteria 2.5 0.6
proposed by Zorrila on the basis ofactual 3.0 0.5 5
behavior of several case-histories
consid€red: Dp,3 0.75 unstable 3.5 0.5
4.O 0.465
0.75 <DF < 0.95 probably unstable
4.5 Q.435
0.95 <DF Stable 5.0 o.4
If, the structure is not found to be stable, calculate the critical 5.5 0.3 85
wind
velocity from 6.0 o.37
tt" = 3 f D,

260 261
 l)l1st(;N ( )ti I'l(( x:tlSS Ij(ltJ ,MtrN.t
vll!l{Afl()N ANAI.YSIS ()l: lAt.l. lowlilts

4.'llrc prttcrn ol'vortcxslrcddirlS canbe modit'iod by winding lrelicrl

strakes around thc perimeter of the shell at a pitch of about five times the
diarnoter of the chimney. The height of the strake should be about one-
teoth of the diameter and many times, strakes are only required around
the top one-third of the stack.4 A patented device of this types has-been
,u""arifully used on structures to avoid the formation of vortices and thus
cxcessive vibration.
Limitations of the technique. The application of the technique
presented should be restdcted to cylindrical steel cantilevered structures
lraving fairly uniform distribution of non-stiffness masses and wrtn L"lL
ratios less than 0.50 ,(DlL2) (lO)4less than eight, Illl/s ratios not exceed-
lng srx.
Maxim[m wind velocity at the top of the sfuucture
can be determmed EXAMPLE
"
trom
V* = V3o (Ll3o)o.r43 Analyze the stuucture shown in Fig. 2 (Chapter 13) for cantilever
vibration. Calculate the maximum dynamic amplitude at the top of the
Using a gust factor of l_3, the-
maximum gust velocity = l.3ll, structure, if instability is expected.
cantilever yibration, the instability is
. .In
velocity at or near the cdtical wind u"to"ity
usuitty inifiaiei at a winO
Calculations.
of tne-itru","* ,", O,r,.
cdtical wind Zc, is greater than the maximum g"r, The example under consideration has been described in Chapter 13'
^yelocity,
r,rru..,lt" it free from vibration; otherwise, the amphtlude "af""ny,,na Complete analysis for cantilever vibration was also performed- It is re-
should be calculated as described below. of villtron peatedhere to compare the results and check the accuracy of the technique

. Vbration amplitude. The vibration amplitude or presented.

dynamic deflection Z at the top of tne
,tru"tur"
the maxinum vibration possibility. D, = 7.385 ft' w = 146,550 Ib, L = 2oQ fr'
t""..i."f
the following relationship; ""n ",fr"fr". and.L" = l5 ft., L"lL = I 5/200 = 0.075 < 0.s.
w _ 146,550 rJ LL \z. 4u
ta -rr nn
):t'"' (o oo243) LD.' = zoo0.385Y --
w 6 D-00)-6
If the structure is found to l Therefore, vibration analysis MUST be performed.
the desisn musr be m";r,J;"- ;;#.;:",',1l.jil1J:;: :-fi lll""iT,r",,lil,;. Natural frequency of vibration. 16 = 0.8125 in , from Table l,11 =
Damping excessive vibration..ff," foffo,oing 0.512 cps
rn"ih;;r';f;ffi;,r,
design are recommended if an excessive ,.plit"d;; ;;;;;", ir'"_#"a, Also,D = 9.36?5 ft., therefore (Dp2) (10)a =
t. External attachmenrs piping,ladd"J;;;;j;,;;;:;;"y (9.367 sl20o2) (r})a = 2.34t9 18
,be__properly distributed (such as
tlls = 123,s50 lb ,Wlll"= (146,5501123,5s0) =
around the structure which t.,"fp, to ,"0,i".
nulJify the effect of periodic eddy shedding. _ |.1862 < 6
z.
.,. . Ketractory lining may be added to an unlined structure or the From Table 2,C" = 9.9155
thickness or density of refractory
of a lin"d,trr"t; i;;;;;, ;;;*, Therefore / = (f1) (D lL2) (r])a (.Cp) =
to lhe-mass and consequently increases 0.512 (2.3419) 0.87ss = 1.0498 cPs
the structural damping.
-,iu.?ur"
possible, modifying the dimensions
,. .r. ]t
h€lp in damping by increasing the cdtical
or ir.. ._ urro Logarithmic decr€ment. From Table 3, for an unlined welded struc-
wind verocity auou" tr,e ml*i ture 6 = 0.03-
mum gust velocity.

zoz
263
 I )tis t(;N ()tr pt(()cLSS DQUtPMENT VII}I{ATION ANALYSIS oI;'I'ALI,'I'OWljI{S

Stability investigation. The damping factor DF is V. Critical wind velocity, mPh

,/1, Maximum wind velocity at th€ top of structure, mph
n =_ w6 _
u" =ffiffi
146,550t0 n?)
l,/ Total corroded weight of structure, lb
TL, = = 0.4031 < 0.75
Therefore, the structure is unstable.
Ws Corroded $,eight of structure excluding weight ofparts whlch do no1
contribute to stiffness, lb
The critical wind velocity is
Z Maximum amplitude of vibration at the top ofstructure, in.
Vc = 3 fL = 3(1 .0498) 7 .38s = 23 .2583 mph 6 Logarithmicdecrement
Z3s = 98 mph
REFERENCES
vu, = ho (Ll3o)o.143 = 98(200/30)0.143 = 129 mph
l. Zorrita. E. P.. "Determination of Aerodynamic Behavior of Cantilevered
Maximum gust velocity = 1.3(129) = 168 Inpil
Stacks and Towers of Circular Cross Section," Transactions of ASME
Since I/" ( maximum gust velocity, the dynamic amplitude Paper No. 71-Pet-35.
_ must be
determined. 2. Major, A., "Vibration Analysis and Design of Foundations for Machines
Amplitude of vibration. The maximum dynamic deflection is
and Turbines," Collet's Holdings Ltd., London, and Akaddmiai Kiadd,
f 5l/ 2 Budapest, 1962.
L= (0.00243) 3. Scruton, C., "Wind Effects on Structures," Proceedings of the Institution
Wt(l0fo of Mechanical Engineers, 1970-?1, Vol. 185 23/71, February 1971.
_ (200 ) " (23.2583 ) '( l0 )-6 (0.00243 4. "British Standard Specifications for Steel Chimneys." B. S. 4076: 1966,
- 146-;5so-(oo-tiis-t- = Izeb rn'
)

British Standard Institution, British Standards House, 2 Park Street,

which is within allowable limits if 7in. London, W.1.
deflection/IO0 ft. of structure
height is allowed. 5.Scruton. C.. "Note on a Device for the Suppression of the Vort€x-Excited
Comparison of results. There is an appreciable difference in natural Oscillations of Flexible Structures of Circular or Near{ircular Section
frequency of vibration and thus the critical wind velocity as compared with Special Reference to its Application to Tall Stacks." National
to Physical Laboratory, Teddington, Middlesex, England, Aero Note 1012,
the earlier method. However, the dynamic deflection of 12.96 in. seems
to be reasonably accurale as compared to I2.5 in. calculaled Aoril 1963.
earlier,
tt may be concluded that this technique is quite accurate and much
less time consuming when compared to other conventional methods.

NOMENCLATURE
Correction factor for frequency
D Average internal diameter of structure, ft.
D- Damping factor
D, Ayerage internal diameter of top half of structure, ft.
Natural frequency of vibration of strucrure, cps
Natural frequency of bare structure based on unit vafue of (DlL2)
(10)4, cps
Z Total length of structure, ft.
Lc Total length of conical section(s) of structure. ft.
t6 Uncorroded plate thickness at the bottom of structure. in.
I/rs Wind velocity al jO feet, mph
dfii 'il-ii" "tigtttty modified version ofvolume
author's srudv: Analyze To*er vibration Quicker"
56. Nb. 5 {May. 1977) Copyrighted Culf
ilft"lia-i ny&*itrton Processin1
with permission.
itblishing Co. Used

264 26s
 13
DESIGN OF RECTANGULAR TANKS

The chemical plocess industries use vessels of various shap€s and

sizes to store, accumulate or process gases, liquicls and solids'
While a cylindrical shape may be structurally best for tank construc-
tion, rectangular tanks frequenuy are preferred-even though these require
laiger quantity of matedal for eonstruction than do cylintlrical tanks of
"the same capacity. On occasion, special piocesses or operations may make
cylinclrical tanks imPractical. When several separate cells are needed, rec'
tangular tanks can be easily fabricated and arranged in less space than
the
cylinrirical ones of the sarne capacity. This is especially helpful when
tanks or vats are needed insirle a building'
We will discuss the complete design technique* fol flat+urfaced
rcctangular tanks that contain nonpressurizeilliquids. These exert a varying
horizontal pressure against the side-walls, as shown in Fig' 1' The walls of
the tank act as plates having suitable edge conditions (i.e', the edges are
free and supported). Such plates are analyzed under certain assumptions
by using the theory of bending for thin plates.2
The data as originally presented by Wojtaszak" in glaPtucd rorm'
and later represented by Roark and Younga in tabular form are used
for
analysis. In oriler to apply these data,the following assumptions are made:
(l) iectangular plate has a uniform thickness, (2) allowable deflection of
the plate is held to within about one half the ptat€ thickness, and (3)
Poisson's ratiofor the material is 0.3'
To obtain the required rigidity for a lighter€age plate, stiffenen are
recommended. This can lower fabrication cost considerably' A sample
oroblem will show how to use the technique.

*The currcnt Aflsrican Petroleum Institute Standaral fot tank designrdo€s

not include a t€chnlqu€ for snalyzing the rectangular confiSrtation'

267
 I )tjst(;N ()lr pllo(:uss IQUtpMtNT
DESI(iN OI] RIiCTANCUt,AR TANKS

l)esign procedure wil.hout stifreners

_ We begin by calculating the maximum plessure against the side_wall
due to the weight of the contents from:
Ratio, a/b 0.5 0.667 1.0 1 .5 2 o 2,5 3.0 3.5 4.o
p= 0.433Hs (t)
Tanks without stiffeners have their top edge free, and the
remaining Constsnt, p o.'l1 0.16 o.2o o.2A 0.32 0.35 0.36 0.37 O37
three edges supported. Flat-plate formulas can be directly applied
for this
edge condition to determine stresses and deflections.
constanr, a 0.026 0.033 0.040 o.o5o 0.058 0.0&l 0.067 0.069 0.070
We calculate the ratio afb (that is, the height, a, of the tank
to the
larger of the length or width dimension, b), and read the
correspondmg Sourcs: Modlfi.d from Raf.4
values of constants B and a from Table 1. Intermediate
values should be
interyolated. TABLE CONSTANTS FOR RECTANGULAR PLATES' SIMPLY SUPPORTED
1.
The maximum bending stress in the plate is given by: ALONG I'HREE EDGES
(FREE ALONG TOP EDGE AND SUBJECT TO HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE)
s^"" = ppb2/Q)z e.)
Stresses as recommended by the ASME Code for pressure
_ vessels5 The thickness determined from Eq. (3) should be rounded off to the
may .be increased_rrhen used for designing tanks under hydrostatic
pressure. next higher sixteenth of an inch, and a cofiosion allo\Mance (if required)
I he r_nax-imlm allowable working stress is considered
to be approximatety must be added to this value in order to get the minimum required total
one third of the ultimate tensile strength of the steel. (This
is a factor of plate thickness. However, in no case shall the corroded thickness of tank
safety of 3, which is also common for static structural
lo;ds on steel) For plate be less than 3/16 in-
:iTqli:ity, a more appropriate value of allowable bending stress, s_*, of Maximum deflection of corroded plate is given by:
18,000 psi for plates and stiffeners is recommended by young.6
The. required corroded-plate thickness, tr, can be founJ Y^". -- aPba/E(t")3 (4)
. * by rearrarg_
ing Eq. (2): Maximum plate deflection should be limited to one half of the
. nPe
(3)
corroded-plate thickness. Ifthe final plate thickness seems uneconomical,
or maximum plate deflection exceeds one half of the corroded-plate thick-
ness, a top€dge stiffener shouldbe added, and an analysis for this condition
made.

Design procedure with top-edge stiffeners

FIG. I . PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION IN RECTANGULAR TANK
All edges of the tank may be considered supported if a top€dge
stiffener ofsufficient size is added. For this type of beam(supported attop
and bottom, and carying a varying load that increases uniformly to one
end), the bending moment at top and bottom edges is zero. However, this
type of loading results in reactions R 1 at the top edge and R 2 at the bottom
edge, as shown in Fig. 2. The magnitudes of these reactions are:
R, = pan/6 (5)
R, = patn/3 (6)
Reaction R1 is assumed to be a uniformly distributed Ioad per unit
length of top edge, and the beam alo4g that direction is considered to be
fixed at both ends. The maximum deflection of the beam? with this
type of loading is given by:

268 269
 ',TANKS
l)Lst(;N oF PR(XlllSS EQUIPMENT Dtisl(;N olr Rlic rAN(iul'AR

Rrbn Adding horizontal stiffeners

Y^o, .
= 3B4EI^i. (7) "*'i?iff"t." ln",.ur. ttt. rigidity of the entire plate by in-creasittg
the

Neglecting the moment of inertia of the plate itseli momentofirlertiaofthecombinedsectionThus'theplatethlcknesscan be

we find the ,.Ou..O .onriO"rably by adding more stiffeners'
A large stiffener can
minimum required moment of inertia of the top_€dge stiffener l. rt'
by equating added horizontally all around tne taJ, "J
f""*O " O \statce of.a/
the deflection
-calculated
from Eq. (7) to the maximum pt"t" .-OSilii', frorr the top of th€ tank in order to produce "
the minimum
defleclion, taf2, o( "ttowaUte the stiffener'
to i"rOint ."rn*, in the plate, both above and below
_ Rlba
Tiere is no simple iormula for analyzing such a configuration'
€xcept
2 3g+El,'.i, (d' width' m' of the plate The
by using bbam formulas that consider a unit
the stiffener'
maximim bending moment is negative and occurs at
We get Inin by rearranging Eq. (8):

,
tni"
R.bn
(e)
= lsrE;.
A stiffener having a moment of inertia greater than or equal to
1,nrn
should be provided around the top edge of the tank.
The size of stiffener
should be recalculated if therc is any change in tank_plate
thickness. How_
ever, angles less than 2 112 il. X 2 112 in. X ll4 in. should
not be used.
Fo-r plates, supported on all four edges. we determlne
-
v,lues of F-rectangular
and a (correspondin g to the ratio sf b) frorn T"bl" Z .
ttre
We inter-
polate for intermediate yalues, lntermedrare
stiffener

Rario,ah 0-25 0.286 0.333 0.4 0.5 0.667

constanr, B 0.024 0.031 0.041 0.056 O.O8O 0.1t6
Constant, a 0.00027 0.00046 O.OOO83 0.0016 O.OO35 O.OO83
N4aximum Pressure, P
lMaximum Pressure, P
Aetio,ah 1.0 1.5 2.O 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
consrant,, 0.16 0.26 0.34 0.38 0.43 o.47 O,4g ON
REACTION FORCES FIG' 3' REACTION FORCES ON SIDE
FIG,2.
OF TANK HAVING TOP-EDGE AND
Constanr, a O,O22 0-043 0.060 O.OZO 0.078 0.086 0,091 SIDE OF TANKHAVING A
INTERMEDIATE STIFFENERS
TOP.EDGE STTFFENER
Sourcs: Modifiod from B€f.4

TABLE 2. CONSTANTS FOR RECTANGULAR PLATES, SIMPLY SUPPORTED

ALONG ALL EDGES (SUBJECT TO HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE)
Its magnitude8 is given by the following equatlon:
M^a' = O'O]l47Pa2m (10)

We calculate the corroded_plate thickness and maximum deflection We determine the required thickness of plate by using the simple
-by using Eq. (3) and (4),
respectively. If the maximum deflection is greater bending equation:
than one half the corroded-plate thickness, or if final ptutu
tti"t,"-"r, ,ttt s^M = 6M''",/ (q),
looks uneconomical (taking into consideration the cost of material
ancl
fabrication), more stiffeners should be added horizontally
o, uo,i"uliy, ., (l l)
in- a combination of both. Then, an analysis for horizontal anO verticaf
stiffeners should be made.

270 2'.1|
 'fANKS
t)tisl(;N ot' PRocEss EQUIPMENT DESICN OII RIJCTANCUI.AR

the toP
Addition of this horizontal stiffener changes the magnitude of reac- tNrk. 'l'ltc resultant stilfening eflecl should not bc uscd to resize
tions Rl andRz. Italso results in an additional reaction, R3, at this r,rlgc stillbner, due to the extreme complexity of this analysis'
location, as shown in Fig. 3. The magnitudes of these reactions are:
R, = O.O3}pan (12) "' 'Tft"analysis for the tank is to consider a section of the plate
lh.rriurr
utl'i"f method of analysis
Rz : 0 l5lqam (13) of the stiffeners ln
llrving a width equal to the distance between centers
R" = 0.320pan in the analysis The com-
( 14) if,ir rlo"*t, only one stiffener is to be included
The intermediate stiffener can be sized from Eq. (9) by usingR3 rl it,,'.J t..,t"" *iil b" u, shown in Fig' 4' The moment of inertia for this
place of Rr. The top+dges stiff€ner can also be resized,if desired, by using rcction can be found from:
the newvalue ofRl-as given by Eq. (12) in Eq. (9). ,_, _ Ar\ta\2 -+ ArAz(hiz (18)
For this configuration, maximum shear on the plate section occurs 12 At+42
at reaction R3. Its magnitude is:
Dimensions Cl and C2 in Fig' 4 are calculated as follows:
V*, = 0.l59pab (1s)
^ AjQ,,/2) + A-lh\+ \!./2tl (1e)
The method of considering unit-width of ptate produces a slightly
greater stress value than actually exists. For a more efficient design, vertical A1+ A2
(20)
stiffene$ are recommended wherever possible. C": C - C, ;ti
of I I - (8/ l5)
Maximum deflection in the plate occurs at a distance
Adding vertical stiffeners tq ili)"(t,-, g.5193a) from the 1op of the tank' Its magnitude can be
Adding vertical stiffeners along the length and width of the tank ({etermined from:
(2r) il
reduces dimension b. We recalculate the /ztio afb (using the larger value Y -- = o.oo652pla4 / EI
of , if the stiffener spacing on length and width is different). From Table
We now calculate the bending stresses in the
built-up section Maxi-
2, we find the constantsp and (r that correspond to the ratio a/r. We then outer fiber of the plate is:
mum bending stress, Sr, in the tr
calculate tr a'nd Ymax by using Eq. (3) and (4), respectively. If the maxi- (22)
mum deflection is not within allowable limits, we repeat the procedure by S, = M,,""Ct/ I
fiber of the stiffener is:
changing the value of b, or by increasing panel thickness for the determined And maximum bending stress, 52, in the outer Ii
value of r, until the deflection is within limits.
S, = M^""C2/ I (23)
Size of the vertical stiffener can be approximated by neglecting the
The design should be modified if either 51 or 52 exceeds the allow-
effect of the plate itself for the selected stiffener spacing. The plate sectron
may be treated as a simply supported beam at both ends, with varying load able value.
increasing uniformly to one end. Maximum vertical shear for this configuration is:
Maximum bending moment occurs at a distance of al(3)rl2 (or V,a, = pla/3 (24)
0.5114a) from the top of the tank. Its magnitude is: stiffener is stressed in horizontal
-Theweld joining the plate and
The
M*, = 0.0642qta2 ( 16) ,h""r. si"" of ttrir-*etd c"n be determined from the shear
forces' The
join a stiffener to the plate
By using the bending equation, we calculate the required section i"g ri* l*rtnuous fillet weld required to [ir
modulus, Z, of the stiffener fromi
"i*t"
may be found bY using:
(2s)
- M^", 0.0642p1a2
(17)
s,,", s,'",
fi
continuous-
A stiffener having a section modulus equal to or greater thanZ should If intermittent fillet weld$ are required' we calculate the
fillet weld size (expressed as a decimal)' and divide it by the actual leg srze
be selected. It should run from the top edge to the bottom edge of the

2-13
il
272

il
 t)tjst(;N otr p t{o(jtr.ss lQUIPMENT DESICN OT RBCTANCULAR TANKS

of the intermittent-fillet wetd.When expressed as a percentage, this will store a liquid whose specific gravity is l'26. Material of construction for
give the amount of intermittent weld per unit length. the tank is ASTM A-285 Grade C steel Corrosion allowance equals zero.
Let us assume that the entire surface of the bottom plate is supported.
We begin by calculating the maximum liquid pressure on the tank
Center of gravily {C,G.} o{ plate - walls by substituting into Eq. (1):
y' = 0.a33(6)(1.26) = 3.273 Psi
We then analyze the design for a tank without stiffeners. To do so,
we note thata = 72 in., b = 84 in., and alb = 72184 = 0.851. FromTable 1,
we determine the constants p and d by interyolation and find them to be:
F = O.tg: and a = 0.037. For the maximum allowable bending stress
(S,''o! = 18,000 psi), we calculate the corroded-plate thickness from Eq'
\'. \' (3) as:
u.u. of sflrrner
C.G. or stiffner rl '0. r 83(3.273)(84),
C.G. of combined sectionj
l8,000 = 0.485 in.
FIG. 4. TERMINOLOGY FOR COMBINED SECTION OF PLATE Rounding 1,. to the next highest l/16 in., we get 1a = 0.5 in. From
AND STIFFENER TOR A TANK WALL Eq. (4), we obtain the maximum deflection:

y _ 0.037(3.273x84_)4
1.608in.
Designing the bottom plate x 106(0.5)3 =
When the entire surface of the bottom plate is supported, a minimum
thickness of 1/4 in. is sufficient in almost all cases. However, corrosron Since Y,'i* should be <1l2ta ,I]ne deflection of 1.608 in. is ex-
allowance (if required) should be added to the minimum thickness. If the cessive. Consequently, a toPedge stiffener must be added.
bottom of the tank is to be supported by angles or beams, a special design To size the top-edge stiffener, we must find,a,,i,? for it by determin-
analysis should be made to ensure sufficient rigidity. ing R 1 from Eq. (5) and then 1-;, from Eq. (9).
R t= 3.27 3(7 2)(t) / 6 = 39.28 tb / in.
Summary of design concepts 39 28(B{)'
Actual analysis of a tank panel having stiffenen is very complex. / . -
'"-192(30x106x0.5) = 0.679 in.4
Several such tanl<s of various sizes have been successfully built, using
stiffeners designed in accordance with the tecnhique described in this We will select a structural member known as an equal-leg angle from
chapter. The distance betn/een yertical stiffeners has been used as the re- Ref. 7, and having a moment of inertia equal to or greater than the calcu-
duced plate-width to detemine the panel thickness (this may not be Iated value of 0.679 in.a The angle fitting these requirements has dimen-
exactly correct). sions of 2 ll2 in. x 2 112 in. x 114 in., and is fitted around the top
Therefore, to be more conservative and for additional security, a perimeter of the tank.
horizontal stiffener is recommended, along with vertical stiffeners for tanks Now, we check our design for a tank having a top-edge stiffener, by
7 ft. high or more. Theoretically, adding horizontal stiffeners would allow det€rmining the constants p and a from Table 2 for the fttio ofb = 0 857.
a reduction in size of the vertical stiffeners. For simplicity, a hodzontal The values arep= 0.141 anda=0.016. Substituting these values into Eq.
stiffener of the same size as the vertica.l stiffeners may be used withour (3) and (4), we get:
further calculations. The horizontal stiffener should be placed at a distance
equal to 0.5774 of the total height from the top of the tank. = 0.425 in. to : 0.4375 in. (i.e., /tu in.)
18,000
Fxample illustrates design method 0.016(3.273X84r
kt us design a rectangular tank 7 ft.long X 7 ft. wide X 6 ft. high to v- = 1.038 in.
30 x 106(0.4375)3

274 27s
 l )lisl(;N oli PltO(llrSS EQUIPMENT Dt]SICN OF RtsCTAN(iUI,AR 'I'ANKS

The deflection of 1.038 in.is still excessive. Therefore, additional

stiffeners are needed. Let us try adding vertical stiffene$ at a 42-in. spac_
ing along the length and width of the tank. For rhis spacing, a/, becomes
72142 = 1.714. From Table 2,we now find thatfi=O.294and a= 0.050.
Therefore:

= 0.307 in.
18,000
= 0.3125 in. (i.e., ,f,oin.)
0.050(3.273 r(42 )r
Y
= 30 x loloilr5F = 0 556 in'

Again, the deflection is excessive. Let us reduce the stiffener spacing {11 dimensions are inches
to 28 in., and solve for a rcw afb = 72125 = 2.571. From Table2, we FIG. 5. COMBINED SECTION OF PLATE AND STIFFENER
obtain new values forf = 0.387 anda = 0.071. Solving Eq. (3) and (4) for FOR TANKWALL OF PROBLEM
this condition yields:
0.387(3.273)(28)' From Eq. (17), we obtain the section modulus, Z, for this stiffener
= 0.235 in. as: z= 3o,5oo / l9,ooo = 1.694in.'
to = 0.25 in. (i.e., 1/4 in.) For v€rtical stiffeners, we will select an appropriate channel from
.. 0.07 t ( 3.17J )(t8 rr Ref. 7 to meet or €xceed the calculated section modulus' The required
r,,,, : 0.305 in.
channel has dimensions of 4 in. X I 5/8 in., and weighs 5'4 lb/ft' Its cross-
30 xr o,,-io25l =
section contains 1.56 in.2
The deflection is still excessive. Let us try 5/16-in. plate (i.e., ro = We must now perform a design analysis for the combined section, as
0.3125 in.). Deflection now becomes: shown in Fig. 5, to d€termine whether the maximum deflection is exceed-
ed. To find the area of the combined section, we add the area of the plate
,,
r,,,"
o.ol t( 3.213
)\'28)l (28 X 0.3125) and the area of the channel (1 56) to get a total area of 10 31
= 30 x ro,\ojl2r.r = u.rrb rn.
in.2 By substituting into Eq. (18), we can calculate the combined moment
The deflection is now almost equal to tal2, or 0.3125/2, and is of inertia as:
suitable. Since corrosion allowance is zero, let us use 5/16-in. plate for the 8.?5(0.3125)z 8.75(1.s6X2.1563)z
tank, with veftical stiffeners having a 28-in. spacing. /= 3.8 +
t2 10.31
We now resize the top-€dge stiffener. Neglecting the effect ofverti-
cal stiffenem, we calculate the required moment of inertia for the new
= 10.207 in.a

plate thickness from Eq. (9) as: where 3.8 is the moment of inertia for the selected channel about its major
axis, as found from the appropriate table in Ref. 7'
,
r-..=__ 39.28(84)1
__,.* We calculate Cl and C2 from Eq. (19) and (20), respectively:
t92(30 x 106 )\..,, _,/ =
1.087in.{

From Ref. 7, we obtain the size of the equalJeg angle meeting or

8.75(0.1s63) + 1.56(2.1563 + 0.1563)
exaeedng Imin. Dimensions of the resized angle are: 2 1 10.31
12 in. x 2 I li in.
X l12 in. = 0.4826 in.
To size the vertical stiffeners, we calculate maximum bendrng C" = - 0.4826 = 3.8299 in.
4.3125
momenr by using Fq. (lO). Hence: l=b=29in.
M^* = 0.0642(3.273)(28)(742 = 30,500 in-tb

276 277
 I)US I(;N ()I'I PI{(X]ESS EQUIPMENT tXlSl(;N oI RLICTANCUt.AR lANKS

We then calculate the maximum deflection by substituting into Eq. Therefore, wc will use a 3/ l(r-nr. minimum llllet weld for attaching
(2r): the stiffeners to the tank wall.
0.00652(3.273)(28X72)r
v 0.0534 in. Since the entire surface of the bottom plate is supported and since
30 x 106( 10.027) = the corrosion allowance is zero, a bottom plale ll4 iI'. thick will be suffi-
cient for this tank. The final arrangement of stiffeners is shown in Fig. 6.
,2u2in, X 21t2in. X 1/2 in. Top angle It is important to note that the weight of the tank and its contents must be
transferred to an adequate support structure (if elevated), and ultimately
Channel4 in. X 1sr6;n., 5.416711 to a foundation.

NOMENCLATURE
d Height of tank, in.
,4 Area of uncorroded-plate section of width /, in.2
Ar Area of corroded-plat€ section of width /, in.2
b Larger dimension for length or width of tank, in.
C Distance from outer fiber ofplate to outer fiber of stiffener, in.
Cr Distance from neutral axis of combined sectionto outer fiberofplate, in.
C2 Distanc€ from neutral axis of combined section to outer fiber of
stiffener, in.
Elevation Side
E Modulus of elasticity (for carbon steel, E = 30 X 106), psi
ht Distance between center of gravity of plate section and the neutral
FIG. 6. LOCATION AND SIZE OF STIFFENERS axis of combined section, in.
h2 Dstance between the neutral axis of combined section and the center
of gravity of stiffener, in.
Since the maximum deflection is considerably less than one half of
h3 Distance b€tween center of gravity ofplate and that of stiffener, in.
the plate thickness (0.312512),the design is satisfactory.
Finally, we check the maximum bending stress, S1, in the outer fiber
I/ Height of tank, ft.

of the plate from Eq. (22), and S, in the outer fiber of the stiffener from
1 Moment of inertia of combined section, in.a

Eq. (23). These stresses are:

1, Moment of inertia of plate section, in.a
./2 Moment of inertia of stiffener, in.a
.5'r
= 30,500(0.482 6) / 10.0'27 : 1,468 psi lnrz Minimum rcquired moment of inertia of top-edge or intermediate
J', = 30,500(3.8299)/ 10.02'r ll,650psi stiffener, in.a
=
Since the allowable value is 18,000 psi, both bending stresses are well
/ Distance between sliffeners, in.

within the limit.

m Unit width of plate, in.
M,n ajr Maximum bending moment in the plate, in lb
We calculate the maximum vertical shear for our configuration from
Eq. (24), and find it to be:
r Number of continuous welds joining the stiffener to the plate.
p Maximum pressure against side-walls of tank due to weight of con-
v^", = 3.273(28)(12)/3 = 2,200 tb tents, psi
If we use a continuous fillet weld to attach the stiffeners to the plare, Rl Reaction at top edge of tank, lb/in.
we can d€termine the weld size by substituting into Eq. (25) and assumrng R2 Reaction at bottom edge of tank, lb/in.
that the fillet-weld shear, S*, is 10,000 psi, R3 Reaction at intermediate horizontal stiffener, lb/in.
s Specific gravity of tank contents
W=
2,200(8. i5)(0.3263) Sr Maximum bending stress in outer fiber of plate, psi
r 0,000(10.027X2) = 0.0313 in.
,S2 Maximum bending stress in outer fiber of stiffener, psi

279
278
 l)l;Sl(;N ( )lr Pl{(X;tiSS t)(.lUtPMLjNl

Smdx Maximum allowable bcnding stress in plate or slil.l.eDers, psi

S,, Allowable shear stress of stiffener-to-plate weld, psi
td Actual corroded-plate thickness, in.
// Required corroded-plare lhickness, in.
I/-o,
ll
Total shear on plate section, lb.
Lng size of continuous-fillet weld, in. t4
I-or, Maximum deflecrion of plate. in.
Z Section modulus ofvertical stiffener, in.3
AIR COOLED HEAT EXCIIANGERS
c Constant (s€e Table I and 2)
_
B Constant (see Table I and 2) PART A CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS

REFERENCES

1. "Welded Steel Thnks for Oil Storage, " 7th ed., API Standard 650,
American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C., November i980.
2. Timoshenko, S. and Woinowsky-Krieger, S., "Theory of Plates and
Shells," 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, N. Y., 1959.
3. Wojtaszak, I. A., "Stress and Deflection of Rectangular Plates," J. Appl.
Mech., Vol. 3, No. 2 (1936).
4. Roark, R. J. and Young, W. C., "Formulas for Stress and Strain," 5th
ed., Mccraw-Hill, New York, N.Y., 1975.
5. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII. "Pressure Vcs-
sels" Div. 1, American Soc. of Mechanical Engineers, New York, N.Y.,
1983.
6. Young, D., 'lBending Moments in the Walls of Rectangular Tanks,,'proc.
Am. Soc. Civil Engrs., Vol.67, 1683 (1941).
7. "Manual of Steel Consfucdon," 8th ed., American Institute of Steel
Construction, New York, N.Y., 1980.
Air cooled heal exchangers become altractive especially in
Iocalions where water is scarce or expensive 1o treat Although the
initial installed cosl ofan aircooleris usually greaterthan that ofa waler
cooler, the savings in operation and maintenance costs frequentlymake
the air cooler the more economical selection'
Air cooled heat exchanger consists of a bundle of bare or finned
tubes which are rolled or welded into headers Ambient air is moved
across the tube bundle by an induced or forced draft fan The warm
fluid circulating through the tubes, gives up paft of its heal to the air
which is then eipelled lo the almosphere above or around the unil's
circumference. Different tlpes of tubes, headers, and fans combine to
form a wide varicty of overall designs The aim of each is to carry away
unwanted heat as cfficiently as possible, with minimum maintenance'
vibration. and noisc. Two main groups of these exchangers along with
the advantages and disadvantages of each are discussed below
t

8. Blodgett, O. W., "Design of Welded Structures," The James F. Lincoln Induced Draft l}pe
Are Welding Foundation, Cleveland, August 1967. These are the types in which the lube bundles are located on the
suction side of the fan as shown in Figure 1.
Advantages
l. Easier 10 shop assemble, ship, and install
2. The hoods offer prolection from weather'
i. Easier to clean underside when covered with lin4 bugs, debris'
4. More efficient air distribution over the bundle
5. Less likely to be affected by hot air distribution
Dlsadvantages
Chapter l3 is a sligitly_nodified version ofauthor's study:'A method for Designing Rectangu- 1. More difficult to remove bundles for maintenance'
far Storagr 'Ihnls' published in Chenical Eneineerine (March 28, 1977). -Cop-yrighted-by
Mccraw-Hill. Inc. 2. High temperature service limited due to effect of hot air on the
fans

280 281
 DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT AIR COOIfD HEAT EXCHANGERS

3. More difficult to work on thn assembly, i. c., ad just bladcs due ro

heat from bundlc and their location.

.IG 2 FORCED DMFT AIR COOLED HEAT EXCI-IANCER

R COOLED HEAT EXCHANCER
Forced Draft \pe
In these tlpes, the tube bundlcs are located on the discharge ofthe
fan as showr in Figurc 2.
Advantages
1. Easy to remove and replace bundles.
2. Easier to mount motors or other drivers with shon shafts.
3. Lubrication, maintenance', etc. more accessible.
4. With reinforced straight sidc panels to form a rectangular box
tlpe plenum, shipping and mounting is greatly sim-
plified, permitting complete preassembled shoptested
units.
5. Best adapted for cold climale operation with warm air
recirculation.
Disadvantages
l. Difficult to shop asscmble, ship, and install.
2. More exposure to weather conditions.
3. Difficult to clcan from underside.
4. Less efficient air distribution over the bundle.
5. Greatly increased possibility of hot air recirculation.
Tubes
A bare tube is thc simplest and least expensive configuration But
its applicalion is limited because bare round surfaces do not have
sufficient heat rransfcr area A much larger tube bundle and heat
exchanger would be needed to handle the same duty Fins can expose
more tube sur{ace and thus result in
from eighl 10 lwenty times
dissipati,on of more hcat from a given diameter of lube'
Selection of mosl economical exchanger requires careful
consideration of many component variables. It is extremely imporlant
to use standard designs ifat allpossible. Tube and fin sizeand materials
are limited to what can bc manufactured economically' One inch O
D'
and thirty feet long tubes arc most common Fin height varies from '/2
inch to 7, i.r.h and fin pitch varics from 8 to I I fins per inch' Othertube
sizes can also be used if found economical for any applicarion
Bare rubes should be used where the process temperature ls very
high and whcre thc heat lransfcr rate on the process side is very low'
Where these conditions cxist, il is good practice to provide both bare
and fin tubes in onc sewice'. When the process inlet temperature is loo
high for the fin tubc, thc fir-sl pass may be bare tubes Likew]se, for rhe
last pass, where thc coolcd stream has a lransfer rate in the viscous
region.
Finned Tubes
Finned tubcs zrrc available in a wide range of shapes and
materials. Some of thc most popular designs are discussed below'
Each of these tlpes is dcsigned for a given temperature range

282 283
 AIR COOI.ED HEAT EXCHANGERS
DESIGN OF PR@ESS EQUIPMENT

depending on materials used and operating conditions. Each will give

maximum service for a given application when correctly used
Tension Wrapped Embedded Flns
This type of fin, as shown in Figure 3, is tighrly wound into th
groove to produce an inlerference fit on both sides andbottom toinsure
FIG, 5'SINGLE FOOTED TENSION WMPPED FINS
tight contact between fin and 1ube. This is good for design temperature
of up to 750'F. It has the disadvantage of an exposed bimetal contact
Double Footed Tension Wrapped Flns
and provides no protection for the steel liner. --- itrit typ", shown in Figure 6, is obtained in the same way as

fl"t^,und is also good for the same temperature range

ln
"in"rc}oot"a' toe ofrhe preceding fin'
;;i"";;il;;";i"f one fin [iri directlv upon the
iltr'"d;;i;;;if.tr more posil ive shield berween the base tube and the
"
atmosphere than the single footed t)?e

FIG. 3 . TENSION WMPPED EMBEDDED FINS

Extruded Flns
- This is the most expensive tlpe. It is produced by slipping an
aluminum tubeoverthe coretube, thealuminum fin is th".,
""i-d.dby
rolling the muff Extrusion operation builds up an inlerference fit FIG' 6 - DOUBLE FOOTED TENSION WRAPPED FINS
between the two tubes producing complete mechanical bond" This
Tension WraPPed Flns
design actually consists of a tube within a tube and the fins Drotect the --"- ftWound
Edee
i"..i^pf. tension wound type of fin and is shown in Figure 7(a)
surface of the core tube as is shown in Figurc 4. Il is go;d through
550"F design temperature. and(b). It is good for 300"F of maximum design temperature'

(b) On Knurlcd rubc

FIC.7 - EDGE WOUND TENSION WRAPPED FINS

Hot Dtpped Solder Bonded Fins

by soldering and then
FIG. 4 . EXTRUDED FINS These tlpes offins are attached to thc tubes
Its is limited to 250"F maximum design
aiop"a-ttoi ln tot"tiorr. use
Single Footed Tension Wrapped Fins temperature because of their constmction
This type, as shown in Figure 5, is good for design temperature of Headers
----
up to 350"F. Contact between fin and tube is obtained by applying H"^d". is important because they tie the exchanger
tension during finning The heel of one fin fits snugly againsi rheioe of
t"b., t-";;"; itilo a bundle. They also-provide accets to the,inside of
"on"truction
the preceding fin thus completely covering the base iube and shieldrns in the
tuU". i.i removal and' occasionaliy' for replacing a tube
against atmospheric corrosion. "*f"

285
284
 DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT AtR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS

bundle. ln an air coolcd heat cxchanger, tubc ends are bare of fins in
Manlfold \pe Header
order that the rubes can be roller expanded and/orwelded into headers.
This typc utilizcs cylindrical hcadcrs with U-tubcs as shown in
Various t,?es of headers along with their applications are discussed
Figure 10. iLese arc suirablc [orhigh prcssure applications' Chemical
below.
gpe Header cleaning and flushing conncctions may be added to handle dirty
Plug
streams in the cylindrical hcadcr This tJ,rpe cannot be used where
This is the most common type ofheader. It has plugs opposite the
periodic tube cleaning is ncccssary.
tubes to allow for tube rolling and cleaning Box t5pe headers can be
fabricated from side plates and two end plates using corner welds as
shown in Figure8 (a). In applicarions(such as lethal service, etc) where
extensive nondeslruclive testing is required, plates can be bent to,,C"
shapes and butt-welded togetheras shown in Figure 8 (b). Box headers
have been built with design pressures up to 3,000 psi

:OLD ryPE HEADER

Billet lype Header

This tlpe is shown in Figurc 1l and is also suitable for high
pressure applications. In this, a solid metal billet is drilled with flow
(a) Fab.icaied Bo\ T.We (b) 'C" Shapc Type passages. The bored fluid passages are manifolded inlo pipe or
FIC. 8 . PLUC TYPE HEADERS machined collecting chamberu depcnding upon the pressure

Cover Plate 1}pe Header

This type has bohed cover plate as shown in Figure 9 and thus
does away with the need for screw plugs. This should be spc.cified for
streams with fouling factor of.003 or more and where entrained solids
may settle ou1 in the bundles. Because of gasketed joint at the
coverplate, use of this type is limiled to design pressure oi350 osi and
temperatu rc o[ 400'F.

COVER PLATE TYPE HEADER

FIC. I I -,BILLET TYPE HEADER

286 287
 DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS

ground
Steam Coll velocity. In oil rcfinerics and chcmical complexes' to conscrvc
usually mounted above cxisling
Sleam coils are used 1o heat the fin tubes to prevenl fluids from space, air cooled heat exchangers are
solidification or freezing inside the tubes on stan-up, shutdowrr, or oine.u"k, with other equipment occupying the space underncath the
operating conditions. pip"auaL The piperack and air cooled heat exchanger structures are
Fans integrated
Moving air should be distributed as evenly as possible across the
tube bundle. Poor distribution can create areas of very little air
movemcnt resuhing in reduced cooling effectiveness ofthe finned tube
bundle and an increase in power consumption. Axial flow, propeller
tlpe fans are used to movc and distribute air across the air cooled heat REFERENCES
exchangers. In forccd draft the fan forces the air across the bundle
while in induced draft" it draws air across the bundle. Two fans arc 1. API Standard 661 , "Air-Cooled Heat Exchangers for General
usuallv provided forcach bay, This assurcs continuous operation wtrn Refinery Sewices", Second Editioq January, 1978'
onc fan out ofservicc. Also, at reduced loads and during coolerweatner,
it mav feasible to opcrale with one fan out of sewice as an aid to control
and for economy.
Fans may have fixed oradjustable pitch blades. However, most of
the fans in the air cooled heat exchanger application have adjustable
pitch blades. Adjustable pitch fans are either manually adjustable or
automatically adjustable Most automatic adjuslable pitch fans cause
fan pitch change by means of a pneumatically actuated diaphragm.

Mechanical Equipment
The fan drivers are electric motors, steam lurbines, gas or
gasoline engines, orhydraulic motors. The most commonlyused driver
for air cooled heat exchangers is the electric molor. Steam turbines are
sometimes installed as a back-up for electric motors in the event of
powerfailure and to permit variable fan speed control. V-behs and right
angle bevel gears are used as the speed reducer of these drivers.

Plenum
The air plenum is completely enclosed space which provides for
the smooth flow ofairbetween fans and bundles. plenums are desisned
as a transition type or box type. The lransition type givcs rhelesr
distribution of air over the bundles but is usuallv used onlv on induced
draft because o[ slrucrural difficuhies with forced drah

Structure
The structure consists ofthe columnq braces, and cross beams ro
support the exchanger of a sufficient elevation above ground to allow
the necessary volume of air to enter below al a reasonable approach

288 289
 I)ESICN OI: PROCESS EQUIPMENT AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS

should bc used
However, fbr tube and plug platcs, thc ligament clliciencies
in both membrane and bending stress calculations For simplicity and
conservative design, ligament efficiency based on the
pitch diameter of
iiJ. in plugtnJ"t cai be used for both these plates for plug type-header
diameter in tubesheet
AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS Uoxes. foicoierptate type of headers, the tube hole
PART B _ IIEADER BOX DESIGN should be used for determining ligament efficiency'
or
I
Figure covers the design of the header box without Partition
in
stiffener located
stiffenei. Figure 2 shows the boi with single partition or
itr" ihe analysis of Figure 2 are also applicable to two unequal
""*".
compartments when ihe anatysis of both the compartments
are based.on the
partitions or
larger size. Figure 3 represents the box with two equally spaced
can be analy-zed
Introduction stiifeners. Cases of three or more unequal compartments
is based on the size of the
*ith th" pro."du.". of Figure 3 provided the design
-boltedThe technique for mechanical design analysis
cover and subject
of header box without largest comPartment.
to intemal pressure for alr cooled heat ex.t uneaaa
,,
discussed. The analysis is in accordance with Appendix
f.}, ofSection'VIfl Analyzing Procedure for Header Box of Air Cooled Heat Exchangers
Division 1 of the ASME Boiler and pressure Vessel
Code. r without Partition or Stiffener
The discussion is limited to very common configurations
of a header
box in which the opposite sides have the same wall
sides may have a wall lhickness different than thar
thiikness. f*o opoo.it" *t
of the othe, i*" Nl
sides. The walls are considered fairly thick and "ii"ri"
there is no rounjiii'"i,rr" t
comers. The tubesheets and plugsheets are considered pertoratea
Tor ttre
tubes and removable cleaning plugs.
I

I
iP
I
{ _L_
Design Criteria
I
I
The formulas given require solution by assuming a
thickness or thick_
nesses f9f t9q and bottom plates and tube und plug
plals and sotvlng fo. tfre
sh€ss which is then compared with an allowaLle;;ess
value. The a"ssumeo
thicknesses are used in the formulas to calculate both
membran" una U""Olng
stresses. Ail_membrane stresses generated by mechanical
loads are limited
ro rne alowatrte tensile stress values listed in the
appropriate stress tables of
the ASME Code. Any combination ofmechanicallyinduced."rnf.un"
otu,
bending stress. should not be greater than one and a fratf
times tfre Joae
atiowable tensrle stress-
are designed in accordance with Uc_34(c), Fdragraph Let Et = weld joint efficiency (from Thble UW-12 of ASME Code)
.^.ofTl"
(3) the"llflg":
ASME Secrion VIII, Division I Code. Ez= Ligament efficiency = (P - d) i P
Comerjoint construction is mostly used for header boxes of
air cooled
. )r (t2)3
L,' --
exclrT-C:js:The comerjoint weld efficiency can always (t,
IrT U"urrurn"Ju, ''I. = -:--.)-:-
1.0 per ASME Code. For locations other than
comers, ,rja ;oini r) 12
cies as given in UW-12 of ASME Code should be "ffi'"i"n
used in Jr"r, _uiyri.. H_-
c=lK:(Irll,)o
h

290 291
 DESIGN OI: PROCESS EQUTPMENT
AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS

Stress Calculations
Allowsble Stresses
Membrane Strtss
Top and Bottom Plates S =allowable membrane stress
=allowable tensile stress for plate material at
(S^) t, = Ph / (2trEr) design temperature
Allowable total stress = 1.5(S)
Thbe and Plug Plates Assumed thicknesses should be revised until all the calculated
stresses

fall within the allowables. Corrosion allowance, if required'

should be added
(S)t2: P}l/(2t2E2)
to these thicknesses to determine the final plate thicknesses'
Bending Stress
Top and Bottom Plates Analyzing Procedure for Header Box of Air Cooled Ileat Exchangers
with Single Partition or Stiffener
(s/N= - Pc fr.s ut-t,t (l + q2 K)
12 l1E1 L l+K
c (l + a2K)
.:Lf
/.S,)O: + Ph2
rr(l) (l + K)
12
"T_- I
Tbbe and Plug Plates
(s.tM=-r ph2 c
l-,. (t + q2K, I _l__]
12 l2E2 L

Ph2 c (l + ctz K)
12 I2(r) (l +K)
l+K J

"f-l
__r- I
Tbtal Stresses ll'l
Top and Bottom Plates ,,]=-
(s,)N = (S-) tr + (SJN, (sJQ = (S-) t, + (Sb)e _ HEADER BOX WITH SINGLE PARTITION OR STIFFENER
FJI]URE 2
Tirbe and Plug Plates
Let Ej : Weld joint efficiency (from Table UW-12 of ASME Code)
(s,)M : (S-) t2 + (SJM, (S,)O : (S-) t, + (Sb)e
F = Ligament efficiency = (p - d) / P
End Platos :
E Weld joint efficiency for Partition or stiffener
z = ft+ - 2.4 5.(maximum z = 2.5) (from Table UW-12 of ASME Code)
\ h/
(t')3 (L)l
C -
= 0.33 ', t2 -t2
''r:' "VsE,
/cPz H K = (12 | I)q
h

292 293
 DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS

Stress Calcutations End Plates

LI
Membrane Stress Z =(3.4 - 2.4!), maximum Z = 25\
n
lbp and Bottom plates
(s)tr : Ph C =0.33, b =H
@
4ttEt tIa - {z--t-!A-::?t1
I t+2K IJ V t""
lirbe and Plug Plat€s Allowable Stresses
(S)t, = P11 112rP", S =allowable membrane sfess
=allorrable tensile saess for plate material
Partidon or Stiffener at design temperature

: en Allowable total shess =

1.5(S)
(s^)tt fz_frO_S11
2 tou" L l+2K I Assumed thicknesses should be revised until all the calculated stresses
fall within the allorrables. Corrosion allowance, ifrequired, should be added
Bending Strtss to thes€ thicknesses to detennine the final plate thicknesses'
Ibp and Bottom platss
Analyzing
(s)N =a Pc lzu, zntl l+2a,K \l with T\vo
Z4ltEt L t lJ l+2K
(S)e :+ c I t +2a2K I
Ph2
12 Irfl) L l+2K I
Thbe and Plug Plates

(SbM =+ Ph2c fl+K(3-q2)l

r2\E2L 1+rK I
Ph'zc
(5,)e =* fL I + 2crK 1
12r2(l) ll21<-l
Ibtal Stresses
Tbp and Bottom platas
(,s,)N:(S-)tr+(sJN, (sJO=(s-)t,+(sJe . FIGTJRE 3 - HEADER BOX 1VTIH TWO OR MORE PARITTIONS
AND/OR STIFFENERS

lirbe and Plug Plates

(5,)M = (S^)q + (sb)M, (sJC=(s_)t,+(sJe Let E1 = Weld joint efficiency (from Table IJW-12 of ASME Code)
E. = Lieament efficiency : -
(P d) / P
Partition or Stiffener
fi = Weta joint efficiency for partition or stiffener
S, = (S..X+ (from Table UW-12 of ASME Code)

294
 DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT
AIR COOLEI) HEAT EXCHANGERS

: ()3
r,-t2 'lbbe and Plug Platcs
(S,)O=(S-)t2+(Sb)Q
t2 19,)M=(S,")t2+(Sb)M'
H Irortitions and/or Stiffen€rs
K =(Ir/tr)u ,!, = (s-)ta
h
Ilnd Plates
Stress Calculations
z :(t.q - 2.4H\, (maximum z= 2'5)
Membrane Stress \ h/
Top and Bottom Plates
PhFr C :0.33, ts : H
(s-/r,=-13-,{ 6+ K(ll - a2) )
2ttEt L ( 3+5K
3+5K ) Allowable Stresses

TUbe and Plug Plates .S = allowable membrane stless

(S^)tr = PH / (2t2E ) = allorvable tensile stress for plate matedal
at design temperature
Partitions and/or Stiffeners
Allowable total stress = 1.5(S)
6+K(ll-Ctr)l Assumed thicknesses should be revised until
all the calculated stresses
if required' should be added
3+5K
3+5K J f"[ *i;i;;;"u"*ables. Corrosion allowance
'
io ihese thicknesses to determine the final plate thicknesses'
Bending Stress
Tbp and Bottorn Plates EXAMPLE
/c l^r -r !
f.,, -
Pc
tu b,r - zn' ( J -i )c. l( Check the design ofa single pass plug type headerbox-for an air cooled
24 ItEl 3+5K )l h"at exchange. for
-100
psi intemal piessure at 400"F Allow 7re inch
for
material for all the plates The various
Ph'?c
/ 3+5q2K \ .orr*in ufio*-"".
(S)e =t Us;
SA-285-C
follows:
Uo* Parameters in uncorroded condition are as
12 r,(l) \ 3+5K I t
"uO"a .375 inches
ToD and Bottom Plate Thickness
Ihbe and Plug Plates
Tirbe and Plug Plate Thickness = 1.25 inches
(S)M:t Ph'?c 3+ K(6
fL - q")
End Plale Thickness = .5 inches
12 I2Ea 3 -5K 4 inches
Inside Header Width
(SlQ = t: Ph2 c ( JO' 12. 125 inches
12 Ir(l) Inside Header Height
\ J+JK
114.75 inches
Tbtal Stresses Inside Header Length
Top and Bottom Ptates 2.375 inches
Pitch of Tirbe Holes
(sl)N: (s-)tr + (sJN, (sJQ=(s_)tr+(sJQ Pitch Diameter of Threads
1.1875 inches
in Plugsheet

296
297
 DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS

SOLUTION 1z : Moment of inertia of unit wide tube or plug plate

(t )3
I
= = .1395 in.a/in.
t2
q. : Rectangular box parameter = !: o.rrt / 12.25 : .3367

*{ "
h

K : Vessel parameter = (I2 / Ir)ct =

f-l
I 18.7879

Stress Calculations

tl Membrane Stress
Top and Bottom Plates
(s^)t-Ph / (2trEr) :100 :1,960
*T- lhbe and Plug Plates
(12.25) /2(.3125)1.0 psi

FIC. 4 _ EXAMPLE PROBLEM FOR HEADER BOX WITHOLN PARITTION

(S^)tt =p11 1 (zhU) = 100 (4.125) / 2(1.1875\.5 :347 psi

Refening to Fig. 4, we have Bending Stress

Tbp and Bottom Plat€s
tt = .375 - .0625 = .3125 inches
,c ,a/ _ +
(rN:= Pc I l.5Ht tr (l + a'zK)l
tz = 1.25 - .0625 = t.1875 inches ta"E, l_'..' - t-K l
b = .S - .0625 = .4375 inches tl + .33672 (18.7879))lf
h : 12.125 + .0625 + .0625 = 12.25 inches "-' '-', _ 12.252
_ _+ 100(.rs625) | t.s,q.nsr,
12(.0025)r.0 L (1 + 18.?879) I
4 : 114.75 + .0625 + .0625 : 114.875 inches = -r 931 psi
H = 4 + .0625 + .M25 : 4.125 inches Ph2 c (1 + ct2 K)
(sr)Q :!
Materials of construction: SA-285-C 12rl1) l + K
Design conditions : 100 psig at 400"F r00(r2.2s)2 (.r562s)
(.1582) : -f 12,365 Psi
Er : 1'0 12(.0025)r

E2 = Ligament efficiency for membrane & bending stresses for tube

and plug plates Thbe and Plug Plates
= (p -d) / p = (2.37s - 1.1875) t 2.375 : .5 Ph2 c I rt + q,K)l
ts.tM : =- I 1.5 - -------------- l
1, : Moment of inertia of unit wide top or bottom plate 12 l2E2 L l+K
- (tr)3 : .0025 in.a/in. __+ 100(12.25\2 .59375 (1.5 _.1582)=+
14,284 psi
12 12 (.1395) .5

298 299
 DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUTPMENT AIR COOIJD HEAT EXCHANGERS

(S)Q
Ph2 (l +c2K)
c NOMENCLATURE
l2 120\ I + K Distance from neuFal axis to outside surface
(one-half of applicable

t0[/(12.25)2 .59375 thickness), in.

(.1582) = 'r 842 Psi 6on.*i O","..ining end plate thickness ( 33 for header box end
it
12 (.139s) 1
plate thickness)
lbtal Stresses Fi"f, a#."t tft .ads in plugsheet for Plug tyPe header and tube
"f
hole diameter in tubesheet for coverplate type header'
in .
Ibp and Bottom Plat€s of ASME Code)
F Weld joint efficiency (From Table IIW-12
= (S-)tr + (S6)N: 1,960 -r
(S,)N 931 = 2,891 psi Lisament efficiencY = (P - d) / P
(sJQ: (s"Jq + (sjQ = 1,e6i a E3 i;ld l;il;iil;v ror partition or stiffener (From rbble uw-12 of
12,365 = 14,325 psi
ASME Code)
Ibbe and Plug Plaies h Conoded inside header height, in'
h, Cormded inside header length, in'
(S,)M= (S-)t, + (Sb)M : 347 + 14,2U = 14,631 psi i Conoded inside header width' in'
plate' in a/in'
(S/9 = 6-)t2 + (Sb)Q = 347 + 842 = 1,189psi ;, i|;rrrerrt of inertia of unit wide top or bofiom
plaie' in "/m'
t'. Moment of inertia of unit wide tube or plug
End Plales Ii vessel Parameter
Z =Plpne parameter p Pitch of tube holes, in.

H
P Intemal design Pressure' Psr
at design temperature'
: (3.4 - 2.4 -)' (Z should not b€ geater than 2.5) S CoO" alowaile tensile stress for box material
h' psi
Sb Maximum bending sness' Pst
3.4 _ e.4't :
4.r25
: = 2.5918, (use 2.5) S- Maximum membrane stress' Psl
12.25
S, Maximum total stress, Psl
C : Plate coefficient = 0.33 il Conooea thickness of top and bottom plates'
in
11 Conoded thickness of tube and Plug plates' in'
t", Conoded thickness of end plates, in'
= ,. /cYz ..4 .-_
HVd= t25V/.33(rN)2.5 t', Conoded thickness of partition or stiffener, in'
" l38oo t'Ji i nnA pl?d! parameter (UG-34' ASME Code)
= .3189 in. < .4375 n., hence O.K. a Rectangular box Parameter. in'

Nlouable Stresses REFERENCES

Allorable membrane stress
Allowable total stress
1. Boilers and Pressure Vessel Code' section VIIr' "Pressure
= allorvable tensile stress per 1bble USC-23 ' ASME
V"*"ft", Division l, ASME, New York' N Y'' 1983'
= 13,80 psi
- 1.5 (alloxable tensile stress)

= 1.5 (13,800) = 10_,700 psi

Stresses are within allorable limits, thus the assumed thicknesses are
adequate.

300 301
 AIR COOLED HEAT EXCI{ANGERS

per bolt pitch

Minimum required bolt load for initial gasket seating
W^2 = B"b Y

pitch
AIR COOLED IIEAf, EXCHAi\IGERS Minimum required bolt load for operating condition per bolt
PART C COVERPLATE AND TLANGE w^, = 9g" P + 2bB"nP
-
DESIGN FOR IIEADER BOX 2

Therefore, required area of each bolt

A- = greater of 4w-"or w-,

l;
This section discusses the complete design
ofcoverplate and flange for
leader box of air cooled heat exchangen. Th. dir"urrion i, U"*A.1-n" be equal to or greater than
design criteria of ASME Section vIiI, oi"i.io, r-C"J"i The root area, Ar, of the chosen bolt size should
engineering practice.
*i*tiJ!*a
The bolt spacing, 8", can be assumed equal to 24 +- b3 to
obtain
bolt spacing should not
unUonn ioaO OistriUutiin on the gasket' However, the
not
U"i"o tft*,ft" rnl"imum required for wench clearance Also' it should
be greater than
6b'
2o + (n
+ .5)

Maximum available load Per bolt

W': Af"
FIG, I. DEFTNI ON OF SYMBOLS
Bolting Requirements Minimum required gasket width
Figure I N : AuS" / 28"
--* r*o'
defines some of the svmbols fo he rced in rhi. Y
^t"
tonsue and groove construction, ;; 'Jfl"ll1l"i:J,i,l*'l,tj,i,l*
o -* * T. , wl-!- The value of chosen N should not be less than N,,t,'
The effective gasket seating width will be
b = b", when b" < Ve inch tatW^be the greater of loads W^r all.d W*z'

b= Ybo
z
. when D" > Z+ inch *JLiHt" =ryt

302 303
 DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMEM AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGER9

Cover Plate Deslgn Ileader Flange Deslgn

End, Top and Bottom Plate

Cover Plate

FIG. 2, COVER PLAIE AND FLANGE ASSEMBLY FIC, 3. FLANGE AND END PLAIE ASSEMBLY

Refer to flange and end plate assembly in Figure 3, we have maximum

Cover plate and flange assembly is shown in Figure 2.
bending moment at flange end due to bolt load' IV,
Plate parametel Z, is M=WX
Moment of inertia of effective flange section about vertical centerline
Z=3.4 -{ g rt$eater than 2.5)
GI
/ b, *; b" \2
,=r; tb,3+zbtb\; )
Thickness of the cover plate can be deterrnined by

Section modulus of effective flange section about vertical

centerline
t":
( = Iu
G

br/z
-=- b3
Where C, the plate coefficient, is equal to 0.3.
Cross-sectional arsa of effective flange section
A = 2bttr
The greater of the groove depth or the desired corrosion allowanco
must be added to the calcula0ed cover thickness to obtain the final thickness.
Maximum bending sress in the flange section
Howeve4 the net coverplate thickness under the groove shall not be less than
Ft=MlS,"E
ffiho Maximum dhect stress in the flange section
SP Fd=WIAE
"G'

304 305
 DESIGN OF PRoCESS EQUIPMEM AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS

Maximum resultant stless in the flange .5 in.

50 psi
F,= Fu*Fo 25,000 psi
Flange thickness is adequate if the resultant stress falls within the allowable 25,000 psi
stress for flange material. 17,500 psi
1.5 in.
Example 2.0 in.
Check the design of bolted coverplate and flange for header box of air T: .125 in.
crytgO exghg_Se1 Aesigned for 50 psi at 329'F. % inch thick Vz inch wide .5 in.
,
soft iron doublejacketed asbestos filled gasket with tongue and groove
,
type
x= .84375 in.
of construction is used. The bolts are % inch diameter an d at{spaced 2%
7ffi
inches apart. Coverplate and flange material is 5.4_516_70 and Si-193-B7
De.rign Calculations for Cwerptate and trlong€ for Header Box of Air
bolts are used. The coverplate has %6 inch deep and %o inch wide groove
and Cooled Exchangers
end; top and bottom plates have t% inch deep and /z inch wide tongue. /r
inch
of corrosion allowance is allowed wherever applicable. Addi--tional data
required for evaluation is as follorvs:
Bolting Requirements
Basic gasket seating width
Longitudinal thickness of flange to b^ =
.5 +.t25
''---:---:=' ( : 5+ 5
maximum)
plate weld = .4375 inches
Total longitudinal thickness of flange = 1.25 inches = .3125 in. (.25 in. maximum)
Height of gasket load reaction = 16.5625 inches
lffgth of gasket load reaction = 153.9375 inches Use b" = '25 io'
Radial distance from gasket load
reaction to the bolt center = 1.15625 inches Effective gasket seating width
Total thickness of coverplate = 1.5 inches b = '25 in'
Radial thickness of flange ring = 2.0 inches
Radial distance from outside of plate Minirnum required bolt load for ioitial gasket seating condition per bolt pitch
to the bolt center = .g4375 inches W^z = B"b y
Solution
= 2.75 (.2s) 7@0

Ia this case, we have = 5,225 lb

a = .75n. Minirnum required bolt load for operating condition per bolt pitch
4: .4375 in. G
bz = l '25 n' W^r=18"P+2bB"mP
bz = 1.25 - 2(.4375) = .375 in.
B" = 2'75 n'
E=.8 =,'# Q'75)50 + 2 (.25') 2.7s (3.75) 50 = 1,397 tb
G = 16.5625 in.
Gr = 153 '9375 n' Required cross-sectional area of each bolt
hc = 1.15625 in. A^ = crealar of w,e I S" or W^, I Su

m = s.tJ tn. 5.225 | 25

'W : .2A9 in.2

306 307
 DESIGN OF PN@ESS EQUIPMENT AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS

Actual cross-s€ctional area of each bolt Header Flange Declgn

Ab - '302 in'2 Maximum bending moment at flange end due to bolt load, W
> A-, therefore, the chosen boft size is adequaie. Maximum
M=W
Since d = 6,388 (.84375)
available load per bolt
= 5,390 inlb
W, = AuSo
= .302 (25,q00) Moment of inertia of effective flange section about vertical centerline
= 7,550 lb
Minimum rcquired gasket width ,=r++zr,q(f,+f,)'
N^,,=Wrl2B"y
7,550 | 2 (2.7s)
= 1ffi
:
.1806 in.
Since N > N.,r, therefore, the selected gasket width is sufficient.
W- = Cre et of W*, md W^.
= 5,225 tb
= .3629 lll.'4
Flange design load per bolt
(A +AI Section modulus of effective flange section about vertical centerline
S"- M^+w)t2
'"
= (s,225 + 7,550)/2 =
Coverplatr Design
6,388 lb
=7,#?,'"
Cross-sectional area of effective flange section
Coverplat€ parameter

Z = 3.4
2.4G 2.4 (r6.s62s\ ^
- (rt
^
(Z trc/. $earer than 2.5)
r53.9375

= 3.1418 Use Z - 2.5 =ii,:i,:t,

Maxirnum bending sfess in the flange section
Fr = M lS^E
Coverplate thickness = 5,3W | .5806 (.8)
: ll,6Mpsi
t"=G
sp,c2 Maximum direct stress in the flange section
Fa: w t AE = 6,388 / 1.75 (.8I = 4,563 psi
:3(2.5)50 6(6,388) r.15625
- r6.56?s
17,500(2.7 5) (16.5625\2
= 1.2283 in.
Maximum resultant sfi€ss in the flange

3Aa
F" = Fr + Fa = ll,604 + 4,563 = 16'167 Psi
Mding inch for groove (includes % inch corrosion allomnce),
t" = 1.2?,83 + .1875 = 1.4158 inch < hence O.K.1.5, Since, the resultant flange stress falls within the maximum allowable
shess
the assumed
Net coverplal€ thickness under the gmove : 1.5 - .1875 = l.3l25inch> of 17;500 psi for flangi material at the design temperature,
.9596 inch, hence O.K. flange thickness is adequate'

308
 DESION OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT
AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS

NOMENCLATURE W-, Minimum required bolt load for gasket seating per bolt piich' lb
a Dianeter of bolts. in. X Radial distance from outside of Plate to the bolt center, in'
A Cross-sectioual area of effective flange section, in.2 ) Gasket seating shess, Psi
Ab Actual cross-sectional area of each bolt, in.2 Z Coverylalg parameter (UG-34' ASME Code)
Required cross-sectional area of each bolt, in.2
b Effective gasket seating width, in. RETERENCES
b" Basic gasket seating width, in. l. ASME Boilers and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VItr, "Pressure Ves-
br Longitudinal thickness of flange to plate weld, in. sels", Division 1, ASME, New York, N.Y'' 1983'
b2 Inngitudinal thickness of unwelded flange, in.
b3 Total longitudinal thickness of flange, in.
4 Bolt spacing, in.
c Constant (.3 for coverpla0e thickness)
E Flange !o plate joint efficiency
Fb Maxirum bending stress in the flange section, psi
Fd Maximum direct shess in the flange section, psi
F, Maximum rcsultant sffess in the flange section, psi
G Height of gasket load reaction, in.
Gr I€ngth of gasket load reaction, in.
hc Radial distance ftom gasket load reaction to the bolt center, in.
I Moment of inertia of effective flange section about vertical cen_
terline. in.a
m Gask€t facior
M Maximum bending moment at flange end due io bolt load, inlb
ff Width of gasket, in.
N^t, Mnimum required gasket width, in.
P Internal design pressure, psi
s" Allorrable stress for bolt material at atrnospheric temperatue, psi
s, Allowable shess for bolt material at design temperature, psi
,t" Allwable stess for cover material at design temperature, psi
s_ Section modulus ofeffective flange section ;bout vertical ce;terline,
ln,,
tc Tbtal thickness of coverplate, in.
.f Radial thickness of flange ring, in.
T Thickness of the gasket, in.
w Width of the tongue, in.
w Flange design bolt load per bolt, lb
wr Maximum available load per bolt, lb
w Greater of the loads Wtdr and W_r, lb
W^r Minimum required bolt load for the operating conditions per bolt
pitch, lb

310
 APPENDIX 1
Head
Derivation of ASME Coder Formulas for Shell and Pressure
Thicknesses of CYlindrical Vessel for Internal

THIN CYLINDRICAL SHELL

FIG. I. CIRCUMFERENIIAL FORCES ON A
DUE TO INTERNAL PRESSURE

pressure' P' as
Consider aunit shell leng$ of a thin wall vessel under intemal
force equal to (D (2n) ( l)
Ji.*" i" rle-"." r. m" Intemal pressure exerts a

and the wali thickness exerts a resisting force

of Z(t) 1(S) at the two cross
we get:
sections. Equating these forces,
?'PR = 2tS

thus,
,:PR
s
to modify the allowable
If a longitudinal weld joint efficiency, E' is included
stress, the formula becomes:

=PR
SE
or'
_ SEI
R

313
 DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT SHELL AND HEAD THICKNESS

This thin wall formula was used in the ASME Code until the 1942 Edition PN
when it was modified to more accurately calculate results for thicker t =- ol
walls 25E
due to high pressures and/or temperatures. The modified formula is:
PR This longitudinal stress formula was also modified in the 1942 Edition of the
t= ASME Code for the same reasons as the circumferential stress fonnula, it
sE - .6P
became:
o!

SEt
2SE + 0.4P

R + .6t or,

R - 0.4,
Spherical Shells and Hemispherical Heads
The same thin wall formula is obtained as for the longitudinal stress in the
circular shell,
PR
25E

FIG. 2. TONCITUDINAL FORCES ON A THIN CYLINDRICAL SHELL Modified formulas are:

DUE TO TNTERNAL PRNSSURE
For henrisPherical heads' For spherical shells,
The stress formulas for the longitudinal or axial direction are developed in PL PR
the same way. Referring to Figure 2, in order to maintain equilibrium in the t=
axial direction, the iniemal force exerted against the vessel end closures 2SE - .2P 2SE - .2P

must be resisted by the strength ofthe metal in the cross-section of the vessel
for seamless shells <ir by the circumferential weld joints for welded shells.
NOMENCLATURE
The pressure force is nD'P while the resisting force is rDrS. Equating
D lnside diameter of shell or head' in.
4
E Joint efficiency
these two forces, we get:
T Inside radius of dish, in.
nPD : P Internal design pressure, Psi
445 tDtS oB t =-
-Dp R Inside shell or head radius, in.
s Atlowable tensile stress for shell or head material at the design
Substituting D= 2R, the above equation becomes, t€mperature, Psi
. _PR r Shell or head wall thickness, in.
25
REFERENCES
Introducing E as the circumferential weldjoint efficiency, fte expression for l. ASME tsoiler ancl hessure Vessel Code, Section VIII, "Pressure Ves-
welded shell is: sels," Division 1, ASME, New York, N'Y., 1983.

314 3ls
 APPENDIX 2
Derivation of Formulas for Checking-
Thid;;il;; v"tlo"t ie"ett of Vertical Vessels
consider-
of vertical vessels are determined
The thicknesses at various levels
irie the follorring conditions:
i. Wind or earthquake moment
2. Vessel weight
3. Pressure
as
vertical vessel acts in the same manner
Assuming that the self-supporting moment are
u""4, *sultant stresses due to wind or earthquake
"-"*iir""*
shown in Figure 1.

FOR VESSEL
FIG. 1. STRESS DISTRIBUTION
IUS TO WIND OR EARTHQUME MOMENT

Mcrition of weighr -i {:::y.1:l'dil:,i;n:'J#ffit:;,:lH: l:

Fieue 2. Sress due to wetgnr wru will
iiil"t i*Jti"; ;tn act n Lnsion a"a stress due to external pressure
act in compressron.

317
 DESI(;N Otj I'tr(uss IQUtPMENt. TI tICKNIISS oF VERTICAL VESSI:I.S

s. = r.5 (10)6 (^) = *t

)
In any case, if S" (max) S., the value of r should be increased
and sresses
or equal to S.'
TENSION DUE TO rr,ouia U" recalculated until S. (max) becomes less than
WIND OR EA(THQUAKE
is given by the
TENSION OR COMPRESSION The maximum tensile stress at the point under consideration
greater of the following two values
COMPRESSION DUE TO
Pp
= -- (3)
WIND OR EAKTHQUAKE
S,(max) -
COMPRESSTON DUE 4t
TO VESSEL WEIOHT
or,
48M PD W
Sr(max)
rD2t 4t nDt
FIG. 2. STRESS DISTRIBUTION FOR VESSEL of
DUE TO PRESSURE, WEIGHT, AND WIND OR EARTHQUAKE In no case, should S,(max) be greater than S,(E)' the product 1ax11um
MOMENTS joint efficiency S, can be detemrneo- Irom
allowable tensile stress and the
The vessel must be designed for the most S".,ion Vut, Oiuition 1 of the Code for vessel material at the design
extreme condition. Therefore, the
vessel musr be checked for both the tensile and
;;;;;;;';;;r"r. temperature. 'SME
and
The.maximum compressive stress at the point
under consideration is qrven
It appears that extemal pressure will control the compressive stress (2)
by the greater of the following two values: int.'JJ pt"ttu." *ill control the tensile stress as is shown by equations
the above equations' the following rela-
w 48M_--L
PD -O i:) i"tp""tin"fv. Rearranging
S.(max) = nDt (l) tionships for thickness can be established:
-+- nD2t 4t For extemallY Pressured vessels:
oI'
w 48M+__-s_ w 15.3 M P.D (5)
J. rmax): Pl) +
nDt (2) zrD S. D, S. 45.
-+ TD2t
The maximum compressive shess must be less - 4t
Similady for intemally pressured vessels:
allowable compressive stress,which can be
than S., the maximum
-'--" 15.3M PD w (6)
computed ?"ffo*.,
^ ' U S,A 4SP nD S,E'
1. Calculate the value of A using th€ formula
Corrosion allowance, if any desired, should be added
to the calculated
A= 0.125 / (R"/ t) thickness in order to get the total minimum required
thickness'

, Rl",:i,ifol'::9h
chan in Appendix 5 of ASME code 1 section
vrr, NOMENCLATURE
ulvrslon I at the value of A. Move vertically to the applicable
tempera_
ture line. Rctor for extemal pressure design from ASME Code Section VIII '
3. From the intersection move horizontally to the right Division I
and read the value
Factor for extemal pressure design from ASME Code
Section VIII'
of B.
Division I
The value ofS" will be equal to.B. The allowable
compressive stress, S^, can D Outside diameter of vessel at point under consideration, in'
app.::xiTlted by-using the following relatio;rlrtp F Joint efficiency
lso-be
by Brownell and Youns2:
;, ;;;#il. Mornent due to wind or earthquake at point under consideration'
ft-
M
lb

318 319
 DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

P" Extemal design pressure, psi

Pi Intemal design prcssure, psi
R" Outside radius of vessel at point under consideration, in.
S" Maximum allowable compressive stress for vessel material at
design temperature, psi
S"(max) Maximum compressive stress in vessel at the point under consid-
eration, psi APPENDIX 3
S, Maximum allowable tensile stress for vessel material at design Derivation of Formulas for Anchor Bolt Chair
temperature, psi Design for Large Vertical Vesselsl'z
Sr(max) Maximum tensile stress in vessel at the point under consideration,
psi
1; Base Plate Thickness
t Corroded thickness of vessel at point under consideration, in.
The bottom part of the tower skirt is provided with a plate sufficiently
W Empty weight of vessel at point under consideration, lb
wide for disnibuting direct loads to the supporting beams or concrcte
Yp Yield stress of vessel material at design temperatue, psi
foundation as sho\Mn in Figurc l.
RETERENCES
1. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII. "Pressure Ves-
sels," Division 1, ASME, New York, N.Y, 1983.
4
II
2. Brownell, L.E., and E.H. Young, "Ptocess Equipment Design," First
Corrected Printing, John Wiely and Sons, Inc., April 1968.

OF TOWER SKIRT
FIG. I. DISTRIBUIION OF R)RCES ON TI{E BOT'IOM

The total compressive load acting on the base ring is the skirt
load at the base

and is given bY:

ws=
rz(M) + y" : 4UM)
+w"
n D2 rD trD2 rD

Assuming that the load is uniformly distibuted over its entire

bearing area
for anchor bolt lugs (if any)' sele€ting a unit length of
*lttt no tut
"i"ai "n
base plate, the bearing pressue on concrcte foundation can be expressed as:

f=+ D

320 321
 DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT ANCHOR BOUT CHAIR DESICN

The value of/should be limited to 750 psi for 3000Ib concrere and 500 psr ltpe Comprecslon Plate
a. Chalr
for 2000 lb concrete. The width of vessel base ring, D, should be modified The beam in this case is considered as simply supported at the ends, in which
/
until bearing pressure, falls within allorrvable lirnits. case.
Now, the base ring is trealed as a cantilever beam of span c, subjected 0o.the w.d
uniformly distributed bearing pressure/ The maximum bending moment for
such a beam occurs at the junction of the skirt and base ring for unit
circumferential length (l= I inch) and is equal to: :
where d gusset spacing, inches

.c. fc L€t tr
be the compression plate thickness, the maximumbending stress in the
M* = tlc (for / = l) beam is given bY:

I'et tB be the base ring thickness, the maximum bending stress in an

\---
't2
elemental snip of unit width is given by:
6

- 6 M^", 3fc Substituting for M-- ftom above' we get

"^= iw ,2
(for I = l)
6 W.d
.S=-or'4:
t^. 2
Rearranging, we get:

b. Continuous Ring Tlpe Compression Plate

rB-L
The formula for determining this thickness can be derived in the same
fashion as explained above, with the exception that the beam in this case can
be considered as fixed at the ends because ofcontinuous ring. Therefore, in
Where S,'o, should be limited to 20,000 psi maximum. this case

w.d
2. Compression Plate Thicknes M-*=;
Compression plate design is optional . Either chairs or complete lug ring may
be used. Such a ring is preferred when the spacing of external chairs
Now M* = 3u'-4
becomes so small that the compression plates approach a continuous ring.
As in the case of the compression plate, the maximum load on a continuous
" - c t,2 4r t,2

compression ring occurs on the upwind side of the vertical vessel where the 6
reaction of the bolts produces a compression load on the ring. This load
Rearranging, we get
produces a bending stess in the compression ring. As in the case of external
chairs, the vertical gusset plates hansfer this compression load to the base
plate.

In determining the thicknesses of these plates, the assumption is made that

each section of the plate acts as a beam between two gusset plates with the
bolt load acting as a concentrated load in the center. The thickness formulas The value of the maximum allorrable bending stress in either tyPe of
S*,
for both types of compression plates are derived below. compression plate, should not exceed 20'000 psi.

322
 DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT
ANCHOR BOLT CHAIR DESIGN
As can be seen from the design formulas, the top plate bolt will.bc
must be approximately 1.4 times as thick as a complite
of chair type lugs Assuming that the number o[ bolts is represented by N' each
lug ring. ftiil i, Ou" required io carry the stress over the portion ofthe circumference
reprcsented
to fixed-end beam action occuring in the co-ptete
iug rlng"type-a, ."r".aO as follols:
wrm slmple beam action for the chair olate.
TB"
3. Designing Foundation Bolts
The thickness of shell plate required to resist
the bending moment onlv. is:
Thus, the load to be carried by each bolt can be expressed as:

',_48M u, nB, 1 a8M _ % \= 48M

trD2S, rtR-_ \ t NB. -wE
N
By.multiplying-the shess. S,, in psi by the shell thickness,
N nB.z TB.
r, rhe stress Der
Incn oI cficun erence is obtained as follows:
Thus, the bolt area required at root of thread is,

- 48M
' ttD2 ^ -w"
^r_ Sa
The foundation or anchor bolts for a self-supporting
The bolt of area equal to or greater than A, should
tower are required to be adequate
resist the overtuming moment, M, resulting irom ti" -However'
*inO pr"rrii" uft", iormaly a smalt in"rease in determined size of anchor bolt is made in order
allowance has been made for the resistanci offered
by tf,. '*"igit to allow for corosion.
weigtrr is tJast "iif,"
tower._Obviously the resistance offered by the tower,s
eifec_
tive wher the-minimum weight is acting. The anchor
boltJsnoutO thereior"
De calcutated lor the condition existing when
the tower is empty and without
" NOMENCLATURE
insulation, platforms, erc. This weight will be designateJ
i;; i;
Bolt area required at root of thread, in
2
In order to determine the bolt stress, bolt circle B. can be
substituted in place ^B
of D in the above equation. The stress per inch of bolt b Width of vessel base ring' in.
circle;;";;;;" B" Bolt circle diameter, in.
can then be written:
of base
c Distance between the outside of vessel skirt to the outside
Dlate. in.
n(8.)2 d busset spacing, in.
D Outside diameter of vessel skirt. in'
The compressive stress per inch of circumference
tower is,
due to the weight of the fI Bearing pressure on concrete foundation' psi
Circumferential length of the skirt' in'
M Overtuming moment at the skirt base, ft-lb
wE
M,,_, Maximum bending moment at the base ring' inJb
Number of foundation bolts
Allowable bolt stress, psi (should be limited to 15,000
psi max-
s8
1".:1lll tensile srress n", ,Jl to be resisted by imum)
anchor bolts is, " ",.."*"rence s^- Maximum bending stress in the base ring. psi
( Maximum allowable tensile stress for vessel material at design
temperature, psl
Sheil plate thickness required to resist bending moment only'
in'
n(B)2 -Wt
TB"
t
tB Base ring thickness, in.

324 325
 DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUTPMENT

t, Thickness of continuous ring type compression plate, in.

Thickness of chair type compression plate, in.
b"
WB ^
Maximum tensile load per Uolt, tU
WE Empty weight of vessel, lb (for vessels with removable trays
the
empty weight should be determined assuming all the trays
are
rernoved)
W" Operating weight of vessel, lb APPENDIX 4
W" Compressive load at the base ring, lb/linear inch of circumference Derivation of TEMA1 Equation for Non'Fixed Thbesheet
Thickness or ASME Equation for Flat Unstayed
REFERENCES Circular Heads in Bending
l Brownell, L. 8., and E. H. young, .,process Equipment Design,.
First
Corrected Printing, John Wiely and Sons, tnc., ,Lprit 196g.- 1. ASME Equation

2. Marshall, V. "Foundation Design Handbook for Stacks and Towers ,,

O. , a. Without Edge Bolting
Peholeum Refiner Supplement, Vot. 37, No. 5, Mav 195g.

FIG. 1. INTERNAL PRESSIJRB LOADINC ON FLAT CIRCLILAR PLATE

I-et G be the inside diameter of the shell or the diameter of gasket load
reaction whichever is applicable and P be the intemal pressure on the plate.
The tubesheet or flat cover is a flat circular plate of constant thickness with a
uniformly distributed load of P throughout.
From the 5th Edition of Roark3, Table 24, Case 10a (simply supported)' the
maximum unit bending moment at the center due to intemal pressur€, 4 is
given by:
/G\t t3 + ul
M^^=p \r) ,6
where v= Foisson's ratio for tubesheet or cover material

Now. let t: thickness of tubesheet or cover

6M*
Bendine Stess S = a
Section modulus, /bc\
t-,
\6 / (using unit width)

326 327
 DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUTPMENT
NON.FTXED TUBESH EET THICKNESS

Plugging for M-o, from above, we get

and thus, the resulting equation for thickness becomes'

J- = -----ll-:- +
6PG2(3 vl 6PG2(3 + v)
or, tz = .3P .3(6.2)WG :G
645', t=G
[;
t=G t:_ For initial gasket seating, P = 0, thus
Vs
t:G tt.sw
For ASME formula, ter i9ll
= then t= G
CP V sG,
64
" s 2. TEMA Equation
b. With Edge Bolting a. Without Edge Bofting
TEIv.IA hL an ex_nression for equivalent
bolting pressure for fixed tubesheets
proouced by edge moment when tubesheets are For TEMA formula. let r
extended for boltins.
TEMA's expression can be derived as follows:
tubesheet thickness multiplier based on, wall thickness / I.D. Ratio' tor
For a uniform pressure on a circular plate of diameter, integral vessel or gasketed tubesheet thickness multiplier for gasketed vessel
G, the unit bending
moment at the center is: (generally F = l 0 for floating head and fixed tubesheet exchangers and is
equal to 1.25 for U-tube exchangers).

,","=#(3+v)G2 Thus TEMA formula becornes,

FG IP
for, v= 0.28, M^", : 0,0512 pd '=TVi
No% il grder.to calculate the equivalent bolting pressure due to edge The same formula is used for fixed tubesheet thickness, wittr or without edge
moment, the unit moment at the center should be
eqiaied to th. unit morn-en, bolting, except P in that case, is the effective design pressure as derived in
at the edge.
TEMA.
For a total moment, M, the unit edge moment rs b. Wth Fdge Bolting
FG lF* erM
M*= +
?TU
or, o.o5r2 pG2: L
ttG
o! M
G3
2 V; F, s6p-

Introducing the factor, 4 per TEMA, we have Floating head exchangers

6.2 M Plug F - 1.0, we get
F2 G3 .25P 1.55 M
t=G
For ASME bolted channel cover or blind flange with
edge bolting,
-+---:-
C=.3 U-tube €xchangers

M:Whc Plug f' = 1.25, we get

F=1 t=G

328 329
 DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT NON.FIXED TUBESHEET THICKNESS

Edge moment needs not be considered when the tubesheet is sandwiched W Flange design bolt load for the operating condition or Sasket seating'
betw€en flanges. as may apply, lb

TEMA recommends this equivalent bolting pressure for bolted fixed

u Poisson's ratio for tubesheet or cover material

tubesheets only where the maximum value of F does not exceed.1.0.

REFERENCES
Horveve4 there is no mention of value ofF to calculate equivalent bolting
pressure for U-tube exchangen. IfF . Standads of Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, 6th Edition'
= 1.0 is used then the equation for I
thickness of the tubesheet for U-tube exchangers with edge bolting will 1978. New York.
be:

2.42 M 2. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VUI, "Pressure Ves-
t=G sels." Division 1, ASME, New York, N'Y', 1983'
sG3
Fifth
3. Roark, R. J., and W. C' Young, "Formulas for Stress and Strain,"
However, for simplicity, it is recommended that the effect of edge bolting can Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1975.
be made the same for the flat cover equation of ASME, thus ive wi tave;
Floating head exchangers
'.25P 1.9 M
t:G
U-tube exchangers

t:G t39P 1.9 M

NOMENCLATURE
b Unit width of the tubesheet, in.
C A factor for flat heads depending upon the type of attachment,
dimensionless (see UG-34 of ASME Code)
F Ttrbesheet constant
G Mean diarneter of gasket at tubesheet, in.
hG Radial distance from gasket load reaction to the bolt circle, in.
M Tolal moment mting upon the flange for the gasket seating, in-lb
M",", Maximum unit bending moment at the tubesheet due to intemal
design pressure, inlb/in. of mean gasket circumference
P Iniernal design pressure, psi
s Code allowable tensile stress for tubesheet material at design tem_
peratue, psi
Effective tubesheet thickness. in.

330 331
 APPENDIX 5
Derivation of TEMA1 Equation for Pressure due to
Differential lhermal Expansion for Fixed lbbesheets
Consider a fixed tubesheet exchanger without o9ansion joint and a non-
deflecting, i.e. a tully rigid, tubesheet'
The differential thermal expansion between tubes and shell can be expressed
as:
41 = (o"e, - qe)
wherE,
c" O' = exPansion of shell

and,
c, O. = olpansion of tubes
Let e- and e, be the srains in the shell and tubes respectively. Notr, since the
tubes are secued to the shell through tubesheets, therefore the total elonga-
tion of shell will be equal to th€ total elongaton of [tbes or
cr" O"+ s" = c, Or+ e, (l)
The strains can be exPressed as

P,
Er = A" E"

and,

-PzA, E,

Norr, for equilibrium

Pt * Pr= O (no unbalanced forces)

or'
Pr=-Pz

JJJ
 DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT PRESSURE ON FIXED TUBESHEETS

Then, Equation (l) can be rewritten as, This is the exact derivation for Pr, however, TEMA has simplified the above
exprcssion by showing that the assumption
o-e-+A:
AE.
a. e- +
Pz
A, L, t"(D"-t) _ t"

: - (D" - u)2 (D" - 3t")

Substituting Pr Pz, we get
does not make significant difference in results.
: o,g, + P'
A, E, Making the above substitution and introducing factor,/ and F4 in Equation
(4), we get
or,
4J E,rs(a"e"- a,e,)
^
l"=
cr" o" - cr, o, = :+
A,E,
* :+
A" E,
e') ' (D"-3t")(r+JKFq)
o! which is the same as the TEMA equation. When there is no expansion joint,/
cr" O" - o' O, = e, - e" = l, and when the tubesheet is rigid, Fq = | .
Force P, can be expressed as uniform pressure, Pd, over an area of
tr (D- - 2t.)z ^-
4 NOMENCLATURE
P, : Pol lD" - 2t")z A" Cross-sectional area-of the shell, in.2
At Cross-sectional area of the tubes, in.2
Also, the shell cross-sectional area, A,, can be expressed as: d" Outside diameter of tubes, in.
A" : qt" (D" -t) D" Outside diameter of shell, in.
And tube cross-sectional area is given by, E" Elastic modulus of shell material at mean metal temperaturc, psi
A,= rN /, (d" - E, Elastic modulus of tube material at mean metal temperature, psi
t)
Fq lbbesheet flexibility factor per TEMA
Substituting for Pr, A", and A, in Equation (2), we get ,I Expansion joint factor per TEMA

t- a .f\
D */^ - 2t)2
'd "\so P, dD^ - 2r ))2 K Factor per TEMA
- N Total number of tubes in shell
4nN E, t, (d. - t,) 4i E" t" (Do - t") Pr Longitudinal force on shell, lb
P2 Longitudinal force on tubes, lb
Simplifying the above equation, we get
Pd Pressure due to differential thermal expansion. psi
P" (D^ - 2t"\2 - E" t- (D- - t") t" Shell wall thickness, in.
(c-g--c.e,)=- Ttrbe wall thickness, in.
4E" t" (D" - rr) N E, tt G" - t)
0r Coefficient of thermal expansion of shell, in./in."F
E-t-0- - t-\
Coefficient of thermal expansion of tubes, in./in."F
t-eta=K c,
N Ettr(d" - t) e" Shell mean metal temperature less 70"F
e, Thbe mean metal temperature less 707
Substituting r( and solving F4uation (3) for P" we have
EJ Snain in shell, in./in. of shell length
Strain in tubes, in./in. of tube length
=
r" (D" - t)44(a, o" - c,O,) (4)
Et
Differential thermal expansion between tubes and shell, in./in.
".'
A1
(D" - 2t")2 (1 + r0

334 335
 DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

REFERENCES
l. Standards of lirbular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, 6th Edition,
1978, New York.

APPENDIX 6
Derivation of TEMAr Equation for
Flat Channel Cover lhickness
The equation in TEMA is based on the maximum allorvable deflection of 7rz
inches. The effect of both the intemal pressure and the edge moment due to
bolt load is taken into account.

Deflection due to Internal kessure

FIG. I. INTERNAL PR.BSSIJRE I,OADINC ON FLAT CHANNEL COVER

L€t G be the diameter of gasket load r€action and P be the uniform intemal
prcssure on the plate.

From the 5th Edition ofRoark2, Table 24, Case 10a (simply supported)' the
maximum deflection due to the unifonnly distributed load, P, at the center
will be:

.Gj (5+u)
y" = Ptj)
& E(t)3 n+y)
l2(1 - vz)

_3PGa(l-v)(5+v\
256 E(ter3

According to Appendix S of ASME Section VIII, Division 13, the maximum

bolt stress anained due to manual bolt tighteligg will be,
:
sB 45
'm l\/dB

336
 DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT FI.AT CHANNEL COVER THICKNESS

which gives, u Gr
w=Aa(s,MDt/ia M l_l
\2 t 3MG2(l - v)
therefore, total edge -o.*, ", 28ft 3
(r +
2 E(t 3

: un *u"_
VE
lt(r-;t ')
:
The total edge moment due to bolt load = M. l44rc where W the total
The unit moment =M load = AaSr.

_ Mr _ Au (45,0W) hG Allowing %z inch for Ynn' we get

ttG t/d t"c)
.98 hG A ( G \_
1.98hcAB 2hcAB
('-'J
Thus, the deflection due to edge moment becomes,
\tr
- l:- \r^^/-
100 ./:
Vd"
h" (1 -
rstl"'
3AB (45,000) (G2) v)
u= fl-ff 1:i)'l
2 hc AB
\f$, 1nq zn1t,1t
for, v=.28 pressure as well as
The total channel cover thickness to resist the intemal
E= 25 (10)6 psi is,
edge moment due to bolt load

we have, Zh.A, t G \1t13

3ds (45,000) hc G) (72)
f ,cra
*
, = tp + tM =ls.lp $*, ffi t,oo4
t/$ 1"1212s1 tw 6,1
ol the
In order to incorporate 1982 supplement to TEMA' multiply
above
3PG4 (l - v)(5 + r) by r25(10)6lt/3.
v" = equation
we eet

For v:0.28
,s6 Ey,
LEI
E= 25 (10)6 psi
f
,=L- ,
1.425(G)4
t-E\/h I
P , 0.5 ft,: A" (10)6-lr/3
y" = Vtz inch
we have,
NOMENCLATIJRE
=
f z rco (.72) (5.28) 32 I r/r
'" L ,s6 (r5) tor -.l
AB
dB
Total cross-sectional area of bolts, in.2
Nominal bolt diameter, in'
Elastic modulus of the cover maierial at the design temperature,
psi'
E
| | c
=Ls?P\
\o1"' G Mean gasket diameter, in.
roo/I hc Radial-distance between mean gasket diameter and bolt circle, in'
M Unit edge moment due to bolt load, inlb/in. of mean gasket circum-
ference'
Deflection due to Edge Moment Resulting from the Bolt Load MT Total edge moment due to bolt load' in-lb
P Design pressure, Psi
Deflection at the center of the flat circular plate due to edge moment is, sB Maxinum bolt stress attained due to manual bolt tightening' psi
T Total channel cover thickness, in.

338 339
 DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

Channel cover thickness due to edge moment, in.

Channel cover thickness due to intemal pressure, in.
w Total bolt load, lb
YM Maximum channel cover deflection due to edge moment, in.
Yp Maximum channel cover deflection due to intemal pressure, in.
v Poisson ratio for cover materia-
APPENDIX 7
RDFERENCES Derivation of Formula for Calculating Nlowable
1. Standards of 'Ibbular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, 6th Rlition, Buckling Stress in Tall Cylindrical Towers
1978, New York.
If a cylindrical shell uniforrnly compressed in the axial direction, buckling
is
Roark, R. J., and W. C. Young, "Formulas for Stress and Strain," Fifth will occur at a certain critical value of the load' The critical unit compressive
Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1975. stress is given theoreticallY bYr:

3. ASME Boiler and hessure Vessel Code, Section VIII, "hessure Ves-
sels," Division 1, ASME, New York, N.Y, 1983.
Et
,\,{r _;t
However. theoretical formula should only be applied to very thin shells
where buckling due to axial compression occurs within the elastic range'
Experiments with very thin cylindrical shells under axial pressure showed
tttat in at cases failure occurred at a shess much lower than the theory
predicts. ln not one case was the ultimate stress more than 607o of the
theoretical. The ratio of the ultimate stress to the theoretical decreases as the
ratio r / t increases, i.e., the discrepancy between experiment and theory is
larger for thinner shells.

To explain this discrepancy, L. H. Donnel2 advanced a theory which takes

into account the initial displacernents from the ideal cylindrical surface and
investigates bending of the shell due to this initial imperfection assuming
that deflections are not small. He also assumed that the shells collapse when
yielding of the material begins. Taking initial displacement in the form of
waves of equal length in the axial and circumferential directions in combina-
tion with waves oi buckling symmetrical with respect to the Tlr-8ryL
found that the ultimate load fora given value ofthe ratio, E/ I
Vtz(t - 'z)
can be presented as a function of the radius thickness ratio' r / t'

On the basis of the existing experimental data, Donnel developed an empiri-

cal formula for calculating the ultimate strength of cylindrical shells under
axial compression. This formula takes into consideration the ratios r / randE
I
/ and gives ultimate buckling stress as:

3N 341
 DESIGN OF PR@ESS EQUIPMENT

" [o'u l-t'oY' ;lE,

I + 0.004 ,)

(l+ .N4 E rY) TNDEX

Neglecting the second tern in the numerator since it's very small compared
to .the first term, and using a factor of safety of 2. 14, we get the expression for
allo$'able bucklins stress as:

s= "
(t +
E+A
.oME tY)
Air coolers
fan. 288
plenum, 288
accessories extruded finned, 284
hot dipped solder bonded finned,
285
steam coil, 288 single footed tension wrapped
.56tE structure.288 finned,284
d(r + .w4E tY) Air cooler's cover plate design, 302 tension wrapped embedded finned,
flange design, 302 284
Air cooler's
headers, design, 290 Allowable shell buckling stress, 242
without partition or stiffener, 29'l Allowable stress in flange design
with single partition or stiffener, in hub of tapered flange, 83
NOMENCLATURE 293 in loose type flange, 83
with two or more partitions and/or radial in ring of flange, 83
d Intemal lower diameter, in.
stiffener, 295 tangential in ring of flange, 83
E Modulus of elasticity of tower material at operating temperarure , psi . Allowable stress in flanged and flued
Air coolers headers, ty'pes
lnt€mal radius of tower, in. billet type, 287 expansion joints
s Allowable buckling stress for iower material, psi. cover plate type, 286 defection stress, 174
t Tower plate thickness, in. manifold type, 287 pressure stress, 173
Yield point stress of lower material at operating temperatue, psi. plug type, 286 total sfiess, 174
oo Theoretical value of compressive stress, psi. AL cooled heat exchangers, types Allowable stress in pipe segment
cuk Ultimaie buckling stress of tower, psi. induced draft, 281 expansion joints
Poisson ratio of to\ver material forced draft. 282 deflection stress, 189
Air coolers tubes, types pressure stress, 189
REFERENCF^S bare,283 total shess, 189
double footed tension wrapped Anchor bolt chair for support of tall
1. Timoshenko, S., "Theory of Elastic Stability," McGraw-Hill Book finned,285 stacks, 243
Company Inc., New York, N.Y., 1936. edge wound tension wrapped derivation of formulas. 321
finned. 285 ASME Code
2. Donnel, L. H., "Results of Experirnents with Very Thin Cylindrical
Shells Under Axial Plessure," ASME Tlans., Yol. 56, 1934.

342
 lNl)l1X
tNt)tix
du( lo (lill.rctltilll llx)\crlrclll. l 7- llcirt cxclrunScr. lunctlons
flange design, 59 Checking strength ol'lcg support, 215 duc t0 intcrnal Prossulc, 172 chillcr,9
types of circular flanges, 60,61,62 Class B heat exchanger, definition, Flat channel cover thickness' condenseq l0
ASME Section VIII, Division Two 2l derivation of formula, 337 cooler, l0
applications, 231 Class C heat exchanger, definition, Floa(lng neao final condenser, 10

2l forced circulation reboiler, l0

comparison to Division One, 230
design criteria, 228
introduction, 228
limitations, 231
B class heat exchanger, definition,
Baffles, types
disc and doughnut, 25,26
orifice,26
segmental,24
Base plate design for leg supPort,
2r9
Bracing of leg supPolt, 219
Bolt data, table, 70
Bolt load, design, 69
Bolt spacing, maximum, 69
Bottom plate design lor rectangular
tat|,ks,214
Buckling of towers, derivation of
formula,34l
C class heat exchanger, definition, 2l
Calculation forms for flange design
with full face gasket, 132
lap joint independent ring tYPe,
124
slip on independent ring tYPe, 120
slip on or lap joint independent
hub type, 128
weld neck dependent type, 114
weld neck independent tyPe, 116
weld neck with rib area, 112
Calculation forms for flange MAWP
lap joint independent ring tYPe,
126
slip on independent ring tYPe, 122
slip on or laP joint independent
hub type, 130
weld neck independent tYPe, 118
Calculation form for ring tYPe
expansion joint design, 182
Class R heat exchanger, definition,
2l
Concrete, allowable compressive
stress, 244
21
Damping, definition, 236
Damping of excessive vibration, 262
Design of external bolting chairs for
stack support, 243
Dimensions of steel pipe, 22
Dynamic wind design for tall stacks,
244
Earthquake forces for vessels with
braced legs, 214
Earthquake forces for vessels with
unbraced legs, 211
Exchanger (see heat exchanger)
fhcings, for gaskets, 64,65
Fixed tubesheet design
miller's method, 161
Flange, ASME circular types
integral,60,62
Loose,60,62
optional, 61,62
Flange design, ASME method
deficiencies, 133
with full face gaskets, 106
Flange sfiesses, maximum
axial hub stress, 83
radial ring stress, 83
tangential ring stress, 83
Flanged and flued expansion joints,
allowable stress
deflection stress, 174
pressure stress, 173
total stress, 174
Flanged and flued expanison joints,
stress analysis
example design, 153
resultant stress, 150,151, 152 exchanger, 10
Floating head, shess analysis heater, l0
due io extemal Pressure, 150 partial condenser, l0
due to intemal Pressure, 149 reboiler, l0
Rrndamental frequencY of stack steam generatot ll
vibration,238 superheater, 11
thermosiPhon reboiler, l0
Gaskets vaporizer, I I
contact facings, 64,65 waste heat boiler, I I
factors, table for, 64,65 Hub flange rotatton
material,64,65 due to initial bolt tightening, 135
seating force, 63 due to intemal Pressure, 136
seating stless, 64,65 due to unequal radial exPansion ot
seating width, 66,67 the flange and shell, 138
methods oi reduction, 139,140
Heat exchange! definition, 9 Hub of flange, ProPortioning, 69
Heat exchangeq shell and tube
classification lntegral flange
fixed{ubesheet tYPe, 17 example design, 86
floating-head tYPe, 18 Inrernal pressure formulas. derivation
inside iPlit backing-ring tYPe, l9 ol 313
outside-Packed lantem nng lYPe'
l8 Le'g support, design for
outside-Packed stuffing box tYPe, uxial loading, 215
18 combined loading, 216
pulhhrough bundle tYPe, 19
eccentric loading, 215
U-tube, 17 wind or earthquake loading,
Heal exchanger. shell and tube design 216
ExamPle l, 28 Leg suppoil for vcrtical vessels 20T
ExamPle 2, 51 Lu-g rupp.,n for |ertical vessels' 195
Heat ex&angel shell and tube
fabdcation Map of seismic zones. 2 l2
baffles, 24 Map of wind Pressures, 208
duplex tubes, 25'26 Maximum allowable working pressure
ferrules, 27 for flanges, 100
flanges, 23 Miller's met[od for fixed tubesheet
shells, 21 design, 161
tube rolling, 27 Mode shapes for cantilevered
tubes, 25 cylinder,236
tubesheet and tube hole Pattem' 24

345
344

Natural frequency of vibration, 260
Nomenclature of heat exchanger
components, 14
Pass rib area in flange design,
84,85,86
Period of vibration, 235
Pipe segment expansion joints,
allowable stress
deflection sffess, 189
pressure stress, 189
total stress, 189
Pipe segment expansion joints. stress
analysis
due to differential movement, 186
due to intemal pressure, 186
R class heat exchanger definition,
Rectangular tank design
without stiffeners, 268
with top edge stiffener 269
with horizontal stiffeners, 271
with vertical stiffenen, 272
Restrictions on using leg support,
219
Resultant stress
in floating head, 150,151,152
Ring expansion joint, types
flanged and flued head, 170
flanged only head, 170
flat plated with ring, 169
Ring flange
example design, 97
Rotation of hub flange
due to initial bolt tightening, 135
due to intemal pressure, 136
due to unequal radial expansion of
the flange and shell, 138
methods of reduction, 139,140
INDEX
Seismic forces for stacks, 237
Seismic zone map of the United
States,2l2
Selection of approximate leg size,
2r0
Stack frequency, affecting factors
gunite lining, 240
base flexibility, 240
Standard flange specifications, 59,60
Stress analysis, of floating heads
due to extemal pressure, 150
due to internal pressure, 149
Stress in vertical vessel
due to lug support, 198
Thickness of towers, derivation of
formulas, 317
2l Tubsheet, derivation of equation,
327 ,333
Type designation of heat exchangers,
15
Vibration analysis of tall stacks or
towe$
Cantilever v ibrznon, 246,259
ovaling vibration, 249
Von Karman vortex street for a stack,
244
Vortex Shedding on a stack, 245
Wind forces for stacks, 233
Wind forces for vessels
with braced legs, 214
with unbraced legs, 207
Wind pressure map of the United
States,208
Wind pressures as functions of height
above ground, 209
346