Sampling – the procedure through which we pick out, from a set of units that make up the object of

study (the population), a limited number of cases (sample) chosen according to criteria that enable the
results obtained by studying the sample to be extrapolated to the whole population.

Probability Sampling Techniques

A sample is said to be a probability sample when:

- Each unit has non-zero probability of selection;

- Probability of selection for all units is known; and

- The selection is completely random

1. Simple Random Sampling

o Simplest technique

o Each population member has an equal chance of selection

o “randomly pulling names from a hat”

2. Systematic Sampling

o Statistically equivalent to Simple Random Sampling because it produces a simple

random sample

o Done by scrolling the list of subjects and systematically selecting one unit at every given
interval

o N = population number/size

o n = sample size

o k = sampling interval

o k = N/n

3. Stratified Sampling

o Three phases:

i. Division of population into sub-populations (strata) using a stratification

criterion

ii. Selection of a sample from each stratum by means of a random procedure

iii. Pooling of all samples drawn from each stratum into one overall sample
 4. Multistage Sampling

o The population is subdivided into hierarchical levels, selected successively through a

process of ‘narrowing down’

o Sampling is carried out in two or more successive selection procedures

5. Area Sampling

o A variant of multistage sampling

o Adopted when no list of the reference population exists

o Illustration: Nation > Primary Areas > Chunks > Segments

i. Nation (US)

ii. Primary Areas (counties, group of counties or metropolitan areas)

iii. Chunks (medium-small towns, large city neighborhoods, rural areas delimited by
roads or rivers, etc.)

iv. Segments (city blocks or rural areas bounded by roads)

6. Cluster Sampling

o Used when the population can be subdivided into groups or clusters (i.e., families,
school classes, hospital wards, etc.)

o Clusters are selected, not individuals. All cluster members are considered as samples

Nonprobability Sampling Techniques

1. Quota Sampling

a. Used in market research and opinion polls

i. Population is first subdivided into a number of strata defined by a few variables

of which the distribution is known (i.e., sex, age-group, and level of education)

ii. Next, the proportional ‘weight’ of each stratum is calculated

iii. Finally, the quotas (the number of interviews to be conducted in each stratum)
are established by multiplying these weights by the sample size n.

b. Quota sampling is stratified sampling with the choice of the units left to the interviewer

2. Snowball Sampling
 a. Uses referrals from other subjects to identify subjects for inclusion

b. Begins with a small number of subjects who have the desired requisites, through whom
further individuals with the same characteristics are identified

c. Results in exponential increase of the number of subjects – snowball

3. Judgment Sampling

a. Samples are not chosen in a random manner but on the basis of their characteristics

b. Used in very small samples in order to avoid chance fluctuations that might excessively
distance the sample from the characteristics of the population.

4. Balanced Sampling

a. A variant of judgment sampling wherein units are selected in such a way that, with
regard to certain variables, the mean of the sample is close to the mean of the
population.

External Validity

- Also called generalizability

- Refers to the possibility of expanding any claims of causality from the group or sample being
studied to the population that the group represents – that is, the same effect will be found in
another group and/or in other contexts.

References

Folz, D. 1996. Survey Research for Public Administration. Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA

Simon, J. 1978. Basic Research Methods in Social Science: The Art of Empirical investigation. Random
House: New York

Somekh, B. & Lewin, O. 2005. Research Methods in Social Sciences. Sage Publications Ltd.: London

Corbetta, P. 2003. Social Research: Theory, Methods and Techniques. Sage publications Ltd.: London