AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

I. Background
A. The nervous system is divided into 2 anatomical divisions:
1. Central nervous system (CNS)- composed of the brain and
spinal cord
2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS)- includes neurons located
outside the brain and spinal cord (nerves that enter or leave
the CNS)
a. Efferent division- neurons carrying signals away from the
brain and spinal cord to the peripheral tissues
a-1. somatic system- involved in the voluntary control of
functions e.g. skeletal muscles involved in locomotion;
single myelinated motor neuron originating in the CNS
travels directly to skeletal muscle without mediation of
ganglia
a-2. autonomic system- involuntarily regulates everyday
needs and requirements of the vital bodily functions sans
conscious participation of the mind; coordinates the
regulation and integration of bodily functions by exerting
its influence thru rapid transmission of electrical impulses
over nerve fibers terminating at effector cells via
neuromediator substances; composed of efferent neurons
that innervate smooth muscles of the viscera, cardiac
muscle, vasculature, and exocrine glands, thus controlling
digestion, cardiac output, blood flow, and glandular
secretions:
a-2.1. sympathetic
a-2.2. parasympathetic
a-2.3. enteric
b. Afferent division- neurons which bring information from the
periphery to the CNS; afferent neurons provide sensory
input to modulate the function of the efferent division thru
reflex arcs

II. Anatomy of Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

A. Efferent neurons- carries nerve impulses from the CNS to the
effector organs; two types:
1. Pre-ganglionic neuron- cell body located within the CNS;
emerge from the brainstem or spinal cord and make synaptic
connection in ganglia (aggregate of nerve cell bodies located
in the PNS which function as relay stations between the
preganglionic and postganglionic neurons)
2. Post-ganglionic neuron- cell body originates in the ganglion;
generally non-myelinated and terminates on effector organs,
 e.g. smooth muscles of the viscera, cardiac muscle, exocrine
glands
B. Afferent neurons- important in the reflex regulation of the ANS,
e.g. sensing pressure in the carotid sinus and aortic arch;
signalling the CNS to influence the efferent branch of the system
to respond

C. Sympathetic neurons- originate from the CNS and emerge from 2

different spinal cord regions
1. Preganglionic neurons- come from thoracic and lumbar
regions and synapse in 2 cord-like chains of ganglia that run
parallel on each side of the spinal cord; short
2. Postganglionic neurons- axons extend from the ganglia to the
tissues that they innervate; usually long
D. Parasympathetic neurons- preganglionic fibers arise from the
cranium and sacral areas of the spinal cord and synapse in
ganglia near or on the effector organs; preganglionic fibers are
long, postganglionic fibers are short
E. Enteric neurons- collection of nerve fibers that innervate the
gastrointestinal (GI) tract, pancreas, and gallbladder; functions
independently of the CNS and controls motility, exocrine and
endocrine secretions, and microcirculations of the GI tract;
modulated by both the sympathetic and parasympathetic
nervous systems

III. Functions of the sympathetic nervous system

The sympathetic division has the property of adjusting in response
to stressful situations (trauma, fear, hypoglycaemia, cold, exercise)
A. Effects of stimulation of the sympathetic division:
1. Increase heart rate and blood pressure
2. Mobilize energy stores of the body
3. Increase blood flow to skeletal muscles and the heart while
diverting flow from the skin and internal organs
4. Dilatation of the pupils and bronchioles
5. Affects GI motility and bladder and sexual organ functions
B. Fight or flight response- changes experienced by the body during
emergencies; triggered by both direct sympathetic activation of
the effector organs, and by stimulation of the adrenal medulla to
release epinephrine and norepinephrine which enter the blood
stream and promote responses in effector organs containing
adrenergic receptors; sympathetic nervous system functions as a
unit and often discharges as a complete system; its diffuse
distribution of postganglionic fibers makes it involved in a wide
array of physiologic activities but is not essential for life
IV. Functions of the parasympathetic nervous system
A. maintains essential body functions such as digestive processes
and waste elimination, and is required for life
B. opposes or balances the actions of the sympathetic division and
is generally dominant over the sympathetic division in “rest and
digest” situations
C. not a functional entity and never discharges as a complete
system
D. discrete parasympathetic fibers are activated separately and the
system functions to affect specific organs

V. Role of the CNS in autonomic control functions

- Autonomic nervous system requires sensory output from
peripheral structures to provide information on the state of
affairs in the body
- Feedback is provided by afferent impulses from the viscera and
other autonomically innervated structures that travel to
integrating centers in the CNS (hypothalamus, medulla
oblongata, spinal cord) which respond to stimuli by sending
efferent reflex impulses via the ANS
A. Afferent impulses are translated into reflex responses without
involving consciousness; e.g. fall in blood pressure causes
pressure-sensitive neurons to send fewer impulses to
cardiovascular centers in the brain prompting a reflex
response of increased sympathetic output (to the heart and
blood vessels) and decreased parasympathetic output to the
heart which eventually results in a compensatory rise in blood
pressure and tachycardia
B. Stimuli that evoke feelings of strong emotion modify the
activity of the ANS

VI. Innervation by the ANS

A. Most organs of the body are innervated by both divisions of the
ANS, e.g. vagal parasympathetic innervation causes bradycardia
while sympathetic innervation causes tachycardia, but one
system usually predominates the activity of the organ
B. Adrenal medulla, kidneys, pilomotor muscles, sweat glands
receive innervation only from the sympathetic system

VII. Chemical signalling between cells

Involves neurotransmission, release of local mediators, and
hormone secretion; all neurotransmitters, most hormones and local
mediators are too hydrophilic to penetrate membranes thus their
signals are mediated by binding to specific receptors on the cell
surface of target organs
A. Local mediators- chemicals that act locally and are rapidly
destroyed or removed thus do not enter the bloodstream and are
not distributed throughout the body; e.g. histamine,
prostaglandins
B. Hormones- travel throughout the body and exert their effects on
broadly distributed target cells
C. Neurotransmitters- specific chemical signals released from nerve
terminals between nerve cells, and nerve cells and effector
organs; release is triggered by action potential (leads to
depolarization) at the nerve ending; uptake of Ca 2+ initiates
docking of synaptic vesicles and release of the contents then
neurotransmitters diffuse across synaptic cleft (synapse) and
combine with specific receptors on the postsynaptic (target) cell;
acetylcholine and norepinephrine are the primary chemical
signals in the ANS:
1. Acetylcholine (cholinergic)- mediates the transmission of
nerve impulses across autonomic ganglia in both sympathetic
and parasympathetic nervous systems; neurotransmitter at
the adrenal medulla; involved in the transmission from the
autonomic postganglionic nerves to effector organs in the
parasympathetic system; involved in the transmission at the
neuromuscular junction in the somatic nervous system
2. Norepinephrine/epinephrine (adrenergic)- mediates the
transmission of nerve impulses from autonomic
postganglionic nerves to effector organs in the sympathetic
system except sweat glands