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Lecture 1
Introduction
The goal of this course is to provide a basic introduction to the mechanical properties of materi-
als. As we will see throughout the course, it is the microscopic structure, or “microstructure” of a
material that determines its mechanical properties. In this lecture, we will define what constitutes
mechanical properties and discuss some important classifications of materials. We will develop
some basic vocabulary, and will begin to discuss why it is so important to understand the
relationship between microstructure and mechanical properties

Mechanical Properties
The mechanical properties of a material characterize its response to mechanical forces. In
general, when we apply a load to a solid, it’s dimensions change and we call this response
“deformation.” Deformation, and thus mechanical properties, can be divided into three
categories:
Elastic: If the material eventually returns to its original dimensions when we remove the
load, we refer to the deformation as “elastic.” Elastic deformations are said to be recoverable.
Plastic: If the material retains some permanent deformation when we remove the load, we
refer to the deformation as “plastic.” Plastic deformations are not recoverable.
Fracture: If the material separates into two or more pieces under the applied load, its
dimensions really change and we call this dimension-changing process “fracture.” Actually,
any process that involves propagation of a crack (even before the part separates completely)
is a fracture process. Deformations due to fracture are also not recoverable.
The time scale on which deformation occurs is important. Elastic recovery may be instanta-
neous, or it may occur over a period of time. As long as the material returns to its original dimen-
sions on its own when it is unloaded, we consider the behavior to be elastic. By comparison,
plastic deformation is always time dependent—that is, it occurs over a period of time. Permanent
deformation that accumulates over longer times (generally anything more than a few seconds) is
referred to as “creep.” Fracture processes may be very fast, for example when a crack runs
through an overloaded brittle material, or very slow: In a process known as “fatigue,” a crack
may move through a material in small incremental steps due to low amplitude cyclic loading. In
our study of mechanical properties, we will examine elasticity, plasticity and fracture at both
short and long time scales.
It turns out that there is a hierarchy in understanding these properties. Although one can
understand the fundamentals of elastic deformation without knowing much about plastic defor-
mation or fracture, background knowledge about elastic properties is necessary to understand
plastic deformation, and knowledge of both elastic and plastic properties is necessary to under-
stand fracture. Thus, we will focus first on elastic properties, then on plastic properties and
finally on fracture properties.

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original object

apply load

remove load

elastic: plastic: fracture:

original permanent separation
dimensions deformation
recovered

Figure 1.1: Types of deformation

A basic Vocabulary of Mechanical Properties

We need a basic vocabulary to talk about mechanical properties. We will define these terms
more precisely later. For now, you should know:
Stiffness is a measure of a material’s ability to resist elastic deformation. The opposite of
stiffness is compliance. A rubber band is very compliant (not very stiff). A diamond is very
stiff (not very compliant).
Strength is a measure of a material’s ability to resist permanent deformation, whether due to
plastic deformation or fracture. The opposite of strong is weak. The words hard and soft are
equivalent to strong and weak, respectively, with respect to plastic deformation. Some steels
can be very strong, styrofoam is very weak.
Ductility is a measure of how much the material can deform plastically before fracture. The
opposite of ductile is brittle. Many metals are ductile. Silicate glasses are generally quite
brittle.
Toughness is a measure of how much energy (work) it takes to fracture a material. For
maximum toughness, one would like lots of deformation at a high load (i.e. high ductility and
strength). Brittle materials are not very tough because they don’t deform very much. Ductile
weak materials (like lead) are not very tough because they don’t support high loads.

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Be careful with these definitions! In particular, people often mix up strength, stiffness, and
hardness. By these definitions a spring that deforms easily (but elastically) at low loads may be
said to be compliant, but not weak or soft.

Classes of Materials
We will divide the materials that we look at into four groups: metals, ceramics, polymers, and
composites. Each of these groups of materials has a characteristic set of behaviors and uses1.
Metals, ceramics, and polymers are distinguished in a very fundamental way by the nature of
their atomic bonding. Composites are combinations of different materials. Some general features
of these groups of materials can be summarized as follows:
Metals are characterized by metallic bonding. Metals are very stiff, and can be made very
strong. The strength of a metal depends very much on defects (errors in its crystal structure)
and can easily be controlled. Because they are ductile, metals generally fail in a very
forgiving way, providing plenty of warning (plastic deformation) that a failure is imminent.
In addition, metals are very easy to form into desired shapes by casting, plastic deformation,
cutting, welding, and fastening. For these reasons, metals are very widely used structural
materials. Disadvantages of metals include high specific weight, poor performance at high
temperatures, and corrosion.
Ceramics are characterized by ionic and covalent bonding. Ceramics are very stiff and hard,
and retain these properties at high temperatures. Ceramics don’t corrode so easily and also
have lower specific weight than metals. However, ceramics are brittle and tend to fail
catastrophically by fracture without warning. Furthermore, ceramics cannot easily be made
into desired shapes by cutting, plastic deformation, or welding, and require special care in
fastening.
Polymers are made up of covalently-bonded chain molecules which may be connected to
each other by weak forces, or ionic or covalent bonds. Polymers are generally very compliant
and have advantages in very low specific weights, low price, and the ability to form complex
shapes easily. Polymers can also be made to be tough. Polymers have the disadvantage of
being relatively weak, can’t be used at high temperatures, and may degrade over time.
Composites consist of two or more different materials that are combined specifically to take
advantage of certain features of each one. For example a composite consisting of light,
strong, stiff, but brittle carbon fibers in a tough, light, compliant, but weak epoxy matrix
makes a composite which is light, stiff, tough, and strong. The mechanical properties of
composites cover a very wide range.
Note that almost all materials can be classified according to this scheme (some notable
exceptions include graphite and ice, which include weak bonds, but are treated here as ceramics).
However, other classification schemes are often used . For example, “semiconductors” is an
important class of materials due to their electrical behavior. From a mechanical properties point
of view, semiconductors such as silicon and germanium are ceramics. “Biomaterials” is another
important class of materials lumped together because of their origins or applications in biology.

1
Indeed, the history of the development of each of these classes of materials is very interesting as well. We will not
be able to cover this in ENGRD 261. However, if you are interested, please consult the references on the reading
list.

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Most biological materials are polymeric, or ceramic. For example bone is a composite consisting
mostly of collagen (polymer) and hydroxyapatite (ceramic).

The Relationship between Microscopic Structure and Mechanical Properties

As we will see, in order to understand mechanical properties of a material, we must first
understand the details of its internal configuration on a microscopic scale. We divide this into
two categories: At the atomic level (about 0.1 to 10 nm), the way that atoms are bound to each
other in a material plays the key role in determining its stiffness and also whether it is basically
brittle or ductile. On a somewhat larger scale, the strength of a material is very sensitive to how
atoms are organized in the material—in the range of about 10 nm to about 1 mm. The features of
the material on this scale make up what is known as its microstructure2.
Does an engineer building km-long bridges really need to know about the details of the
materials he or she uses on the atomic scale? The answer is yes! The mechanical properties of
materials are fundamentally determined by their microscopic details. Furthermore, in many
cases, those properties can be dramatically changed by changing the microstructure. These
changes can be beneficial, for example when a certain process treatment is used to dramatically
strengthen the steel girders in a bridge by intentional manipulation of the microstructure. These
changes can also be deadly when, for example, those same girders weaken and fail due to
unintended changes in microstructure caused by environmental factors. As engineers, we must be
aware of the relationships between the microscopic structure and the mechanical properties of
materials. In fact these relationships are the main theme of this course!

Atomic Bonding and Structure

At the atomic level, we will be interested in two topics: the nature of interatomic bonds,
which determines the most basic characteristics of the material (and for which we need to know
just a little about the structure of atoms); and the way in which atoms or molecules are locally
organized in the material. Of particular interest in the latter, is the tendency of atoms to group
together in periodic arrays called crystals. The effects of the crystalline nature of materials on
their mechanical properties are so profound that we will devote some time to learning about
crystalline structures; how they are constructed and the notation that we use to describe them.
For now, we will make do with a simple definition of a crystal as an array of atoms which is
periodic in three dimensions. Of course, many materials are non-crystalline. Materials without
crystalline order are referred to as amorphous.

Microstructure:
Although materials are often crystalline, materials composed of perfect single crystals are
exceedingly rare. One can think of microstructure as the deviations from this perfect state. The
key elements of the microstructure of a material may be classified into three categories:
Defects are “mistakes” in the crystalline structure. Examples include vacancies (atoms
missing from the periodic structure), interstitials (extra atoms in-between periodic atom
positions), dislocations (line defects which move to produce plastic deformation and which

2
Note that the term “microstructure” is often used to include atomic-level structure although, strictly speaking, it
does not apply to atomic bonding or the way that atoms are locally organized into crystals.

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are so important that we will devote at least two lectures to them), and grain boundaries
(boundaries between regions having the same crystal structure but different orientations).
Phases are regions of different crystal structure, composition, or both within the same
material. In steel (an alloy of iron containing small amounts of carbon), for example, it is
possible to produce at least five phases:
a) α-Fe (Fe in a body centered cubic crystal structure)
b) γ-Fe (Fe in a face centered cubic crystal structure)
c) Fe3C (a compound containing Fe and C having an orthorhombic crystal structure)
d) martensite (a distorted body centered cubic-tetragonal structure)
e) graphite (pure carbon in a hexagonal crystal structure)
One of the reasons steel is such a useful engineering material is that its mechanical
properties can be altered drastically by producing different combinations of these phases.
Engineers rely strongly on phase diagrams to tell them what phases will be in the equilibrium
microstructure of a material of a particular composition at a particular temperature. As part of
this course you will learn to interpret phase diagrams.
The Morphology refers to the spatial arrangement and distribution of defects or phases. For
example, the two phases α-Fe and Fe3C can be produced in many morphologies in steel,
including:
a) Pearlite: lamellar alternating plates of α-Fe and Fe3C. The thickness of the plates
can be changed by heat treatment.
b) Spheroidite: spheres of Fe3C in α-Fe. The size and spacing of these carbide
spheres can also be changed by heat treatment
Two steels having the same amounts of the same phases in different morphologies can have
very different mechanical properties.
The specification of the defect structure and the phases and their morphologies constitutes a
complete description of the microstructure of a material.
Except for changes in the relative amounts of different phases, the elastic properties of
materials are not much affected by changes in microstructure. The elastic properties are often
said to be structure insensitive3. On the other hand, plastic deformation and fracture are very
sensitive to the microstructure and are said to be structure sensitive properties. A number of
demonstrations will be made in class to emphasize these points. The important conclusion to be
drawn is that the microstructure of a material can be altered by thermomechanical treatments and
that, unless one knows the changes in microstructure that have been produced, one cannot predict
the changes in plastic deformation or fracture properties which result. It cannot be overstated that
understanding the connection between microstructure and mechanical properties is critical to
understanding the mechanical behavior of materials.

Mechanical Properties in Engineering Design

So how important is it to learn about mechanical properties? Since virtually every engineered
object must support loads, it is very important! The mechanical properties of the available
materials dictate the design of virtually every engineered object. Good knowledge of mechanical

3
By “structure” here, we mean “microstructure.” Atomic structure has a big effect on elastic properties!

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properties is important at every stage of the engineering process: design, fabrication, operation,
and disposal.
Part of the design process is selecting the right material for the job. Suppose you want to
produce a new component: a widget. Many considerations go into a design decision, as shown in
the much simplified flow chart for this process below. The widget has to meet certain physical
requirements: it has to be able to sustain prescribed loads, at prescribed temperatures, for
prescribed times, under prescribed conditions. A suitably clever design4 and a candidate material
are selected by an iterative process in which the mechanical properties of the materials under
consideration determine, in a very fundamental way, aspects of the design. For example, a bridge
made of stone and masonry must be built in such a way that every part supports only compres-
sive loads, since these materials cannot support tensile loads. On the other hand, a bridge made
of steel can be constructed of parts that support load in a variety of configurations. For example,
cables loaded in tension may transfer the load of the roadbed to towers, which then transfer this
load in compression to the foundations. The forms of bridges, as the forms of most things, are
determined by the materials from which they are made. Reliable knowledge of the mechanical
properties of the materials used is thus an indispensable part of engineering design.
Once a design based on a certain material has been proposed, fabrication is the next hurdle.
You’ll have to determine whether the part can be made and made economically. If the part has to
be formed by plastic deformation, cutting, or machining, the mechanical properties of the
material will determine the feasibility and economy of doing so. Even if these conditions are
met, it is important that the fabrication process not degrade the mechanical properties of the
material. For example, grinding or polishing the surface of a ceramic object could introduce
cracks that lower the strength, and any process that heats a metal part may change its properties.
You will also have to consider the performance of your widget in operation. Of course it
must be able to do what it was designed to do, but you also have to consider whether it will do it
economically. One of the most common criteria here is weight. For example, airplanes made out
of steel would certainly fly and would be inexpensive to produce. But, the amount of fuel
required to operate such machines would be prohibitive. Another important consideration is how
a part will behave when it is overloaded. In some applications, like automobile bodies, this is a
primary consideration. You want the components of your car to absorb as much energy as
possible when it is involved in a crash. A super-strong car that did not deform in a crash would
subject its relatively soft occupants to fatal accelerations! In addition, you must consider how the
mechanical properties of your widget will fare over time. For example, many metals become
brittle when operated in an environment containing hydrogen. Many flexible and tough polymers
become brittle and weak with time.

4
Note that development of “a suitably clever design” is not trivial. A very important part of mechanical design is
determining how loads will be distributed in structures. We will not consider the mechanical properties of structures
in ENGRD 2610. For this, a course in mechanics, such as ENGRD 2020 “Mechanics of Solids” is highly
recommended!

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Physical
Requirements
load,
Choose Material Choose Design
temperature,
conditions

Fabrication Cost
Is material available? to

P ro p e rt i e s
How can it be formed into fabricate
the desired shape?

Operation Cost
Weight, reliability, failure of
modes, maintenance, use
M ec h a n i c a l

inspections...
Choose another material,

or modify requirements.

Disposal Cost
Can material(s) be of
a different design,

separated? reused? disposal

Does Is
N the component Y the part N
meet the physical economically
requirements? feasible?

Y
BUILD
IT!

Figure 1.2: A very simplified view of the design process

Finally, more and more attention is being paid to the fact that most engineered parts will at
some time face disposal. Here too, mechanical properties play a role. How will the structure con-
taining your widget be disassembled? Can it be cut? crushed? melted down? Can the materials be
reused, or did you, in the interest of improved mechanical performance, add elements that make
it difficult or impossible to recycle or dispose of the material economically?

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Failure Analysis:
Another important engineering area where knowledge of mechanical properties is critical is
failure analysis. Suppose that the inconceivable happens and your widget fails in service in a
way that you hadn’t anticipated, or worse, in a way that causes harm to its users. Your boss, your
customers, the users, their lawyers; all will want to know why. Detailed analyses of failures are
historically an important part of technological development. We indeed learn from our failures.
Examples which we will discuss include the recent (June 1998) high-speed train accident in
Germany which was caused by a wheel that came apart as the train was travelling some 200
km/hr, and the Challenger space shuttle explosion (January 1986) which has been attributed to a
joint failure in a solid rocket booster engine. These mechanical failures illustrate the need for
vigilance in understanding mechanical behavior.

New Materials:
Engineers very often find themselves wishing for a new material in order to accomplish certain
goals. “If only ...(the yield strength were higher, the specific weight were lower, it could operate
at higher/lower temperatures...)” is a common statement. Now, more than at any other time in
history, it is possible to consider development of a new material to meet your needs when exist-
ing materials are not good enough. This may not be easy. It may take many years and a signifi-
cant investment in research and development, but the results are often very impressive. One
recent success story: Ni-based turbine blades for jet engines. The efficiency of a jet engine
increases as its operating temperature increases. Few materials can withstand the high
temperatures, high stresses and corrosive environment in this application. Fifty years (!) of
development have produced metallic alloys that can. Development of new materials is an
ongoing process: Lighter, stronger, cheaper, easier to produce and dispose of materials which are
capable of operating in more extreme environments are always in demand! (And so too, are the
materials scientists and engineers who can figure out ways to develop them!)

Summary
To help you organize your thoughts, in ENGRD/MSE 2610, we will “fill in the blanks” relating
microstructure to mechanical properties in the categories shown in Table 1.1. You will have the
chance to obtain at least some basic understanding in each category, although some will
necessarily get more attention than others. For example, we won’t study plastic deformation in
ceramics much since ceramics are very brittle!

Elastic Plastic Fracture

Metals
Ceramics
Polymers
Composites
Table 1.1: Chart of topics to be covered in ENGRD/MSE 261

Cornell MS&E 2061 Lecture 1 ©2008 Shefford P. Baker