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Principles of Refrigeration

MAE 554
Professor H. Ezzat Khalifa
Syracuse University

P-h Chart for R134a (SI Units)

1
Psychrometric Chart (ASHRAE)

Psychrometric Processes

Air Conditioning Humidify


Systems Cool &
Dehumidify Air
Cool Heat

Cool & Dehumidify

Dehumidify

2
A/C System Psychrometric Processes

Coil temperature Outdoor Air


must be cooler than
room dew point (DP) Room DP
to dehumidify the air Coil Inlet

Room Return Air

Coil Exit Room Condition Line

Reversed Carnot Cycle


T

TH

TC

3
Carnot Cycle Performance
30.0

Sat Cond T, °C
25.0 20.0
30.0
40.0
20.0
50.0
60.0
COPc

70.0
15.0

10.0

5.0

0.0
-40.0 -35.0 -30.0 -25.0 -20.0 -15.0 -10.0 -5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0

Cold-Side Temperature - TC, C

Reversed Carnot Vapor Compression Cycle


T

TH

TC

4
Reversed Rankine Vapor Compression Cycle
T

Superheat Horn
Increased Work

TH

TC

Ideal Practical Vapor Compression Cycle


T

Superheat Horn
Increased Work

TH

Throttling Loss
In Work

TC

Throttling Loss
in Refrigeration

5
Simple Vapor Compression Cycle

3 2

4 1

Single-Stage Vapor Compression Cycle

P ΔTSC

PC

PE

ΔhWo

ΔTSH
ΔhE ΔhW h

6
Ideal VCC Performance
10 25

R22
Ideal VCC
8 20
10 CFM
Compressor Cond.
Sat. Temp., ºC

Capacity, kW
6 15 35.0 COP
COPC

50.0 COP
35.0 Q
4 10 50.0 Q

2 5

0 0
-40.0 -30.0 -20.0 -10.0 0.0 10.0
Evap. Sat. Temp., C

Comparison of Ideal VCC with Carnot Cycle


1.0 1.0

0.9 0.9

Cond.
Relative COP

0.8 0.8 Sat. Temp., ºC


35.0
50.0
0.7 0.7

0.6 0.6

0.5 0.5
-40.0 -30.0 -20.0 -10.0 0.0 10.0
Evap. Sat. Temp., C

7
P-h Diagram for Real Vapor Compression Cycle

2d
PD
3
PC 2

PE 1a
4
PS 1
1b 1c

Effect of the Gas Specific Heat Ratio, γ

8
Two-Stage VCC with Flash Economizer

5 4

3
2

7 8 1

P-h Diagram for 2-Stage VCC with Flash Economizer

P ΔTSC

ΔhW2
5 4
PC

7 3 2
PI
6

PE
8 1

ΔhW1

ΔTSH
ΔhE h

9
Two-Stage VCC with Subcooler Economizer

5 5 4

3
2

7 8 1

P-h Diagram for 2-Stage VCC with Subcooler

P ΔTSC

ΔhW2
7 5 4
PC

3 2
PI
6

PE
8 1

ΔhW1

ΔTSH
ΔhE h

10
Optimum Intermediate Temperature for 2-Stage VCC
2.4

2.2
COPC
2.0

1.8
COP C, COPCr

1.6

1.4
COPCr

1.2

1.0 Geometric-Mean
Intermediate
0.8

0.6
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Intermediate Sat. Temp., C

Comparison of Two-Stage and Single-Stage VCCs


10

R22
8
Ideal VCC
Cond.
Sat. Temp., ºC
6 35/COP 1
COP C

50/COP 1
35/COP 2
4 50/COP 2

0
-40.0 -30.0 -20.0 -10.0 0.0 10.0
Evap. Sat. Temp., C

11
Performance of Multi-stage VCCs
1.8

R22
1.6
Ideal VCC

1.4
Relative COP C and Capaity

1.2

1.0
Rel. COP
Rel. Capacity
0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
1 2 3 4
Number of Stages

Cascade System

High-Temperature Refrigerant

Low-Temperature Refrigerant

4 1

12
Desirable Characteristics of Refrigerants

• Thermally stable
• Safe (toxicity and flammability)
• Low cost and widely available
• Compatible with materials of construction
• High performance
– High latent heat
– Low compression superheat
– Low throttling losses
– High heat transfer properties
• Environmentally benign (ODP and GWP)

Refrigerant Classification
Refrigerants

Pure Mixtures

Natural CFC HCFC HFC Zeotropes Azeotropes

Ammonia R12 R22 R134a R407C R502

Propane R114 R123 R32 R290-R600a R507

Propane/Iso-Butane
Iso-Butane R11 R125 R410A*

CO2 R143a R404A*

*Near-Azeotropes

Used in or considered for Refrigeration

13
Mixture Phase Diagrams

Sat. Temperature P2

P1

Tsat

Liquid Mole-Fraction Vapor Mole-Fraction

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Mole Fraction, x

Mixture Phase Diagrams

P2
Sat. Temperature

P1

Tsat

Liquid Mole-Fraction Azeotrope Vapor Mole-Fraction

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Mole Fraction, x

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NIST Refrigerant Properties

ASHRAE Refrigerant Safety Classification

Low/No Toxicity High Toxicity

A1 B1
No Flammability R11, R12, R22, R125, R134a, R407C,
R123, R764, R21
R507, R404A, R410A, R744

A2 B2
Low Flammability
R32, R142b, R143a, R152a NH3

A3 B3
High Flammability
R170, R290, R600a, R1150 R1140

Refrigerants marked in Red are ozone depleting substances that are no longer
used in new equipment.
Refrigerants marked in Green are natural refrigerants that have low GWP,
as well as no ODP.

15
Refrigerants: Methane Group

Refrigerants: Ethane Group

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ODP and GWP for Various Refrigerants
Refrigerant ODP GWP Refrigerant ODP GWP

CFC-11 1.0 1.0 HFC-125 0.0 0.84


CFC-12 1.0 3.05 HFC-134 0.0 0.25
CFC-13 N/A N/A HFC-134a 0.0 0.25
HCFC-22 0.051 0.370 HFC-143a 0.0 1.2
HFC-23 0.0 N/A HFC-152a 0.0 0.029
HFC-32 0.0 0.130 R500 0.78 2.39
CFC-113 0.87 1.300 R502 0.245 5.10
CFC-114 0.74 4.150 R503 N/A N/A
HCFC-123 0.016 0.019 R410A 0.0 0.49
HCFC-123a 0.016 0.019 R507 0.0 0.96
HCFC-124 0.018 0.095

ODP (Ozone Depletion Potential), and GWP (Greenhouse Warming Potential) are
calculated relative to CFC R11.

Refrigerant Comparison

Refrigerant CO2 R12 R22 R134a R404A R410A C3H8 NH3

Natural? Yes No No No No No Yes Yes


Flammable? No No No No No No Yes Yes
Toxic? No No No No No No No Yes
Relative Cost 0.1 - (1.0) 4.0 5.0 5.0 0.3 0.2
Volum. Capacity 4.8 0.6 (1.0) 0.7 1.2 1.5 0.9 1.0
Critical Temp.(F) 88 234 205 214 163 158 206 270
P @ 70F (psia) 852 85 136 86 165 216 125 129
ODP 0 1.0 0.05 0 0 0 0 0
GWP (100yr) (1.0) 7100 1500 1300 3750 1730 3 0

(1.0) means reference value

17
Refrigerant Pressure-Capacity Relationship
1.0

Volumetric Capacity @ ARI [Ton/cfm]


0.8
R22 & its Best Fit
R410A
near neighbors R123
R11
R245fa
NH3
0.6 R114
R22 R600a
R404A/R507 R12
Propane
R407C R134a
R290
0.4 R22
R407C
R134a R717
R507
0.2 R410A

0.0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Pressure Difference @ ARI [psi]

Comparison of Simple Cycle EER


EER Relative to R22
1.10

1.05

1.00

ARI
0.95
CHEER

0.90

0.85

0.80
R22 R134a R290 R407C R507 R410A

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Relative ARI Capacity [Same Displacement]

Capacity relative to R22


2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

Relative Compressor Displacement [Same Capacity]

Displacement relative to R22


3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

19
Low Temperature Capacity Comparison
1.0
Capacity Relative to ARI

R22
R507
R134a
R410A

0.1
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Saturated Evaporator Temperature [F]
SCT=130F; SH=20F; SC=15F; No LSHX; No Quench

Low Temperature EER Comparison


1.0
EER Relative to R22 @ ARI

R22
R507
R134a
R410A

0.1
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Saturated Evaporator Temperature [F]
SCT=130F; SH=20F; SC=15F; No LSHX; No Quench

20
Discharge Superheat Comparison
300

Discharge Suoerhear [F] 250

200
R22
R507
150
R134a
R410A
100

50

0
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Saturated Evaporator Temperature [F]
SCT=130F; SH=20F; SC=15F; No LSHX; No Quench

Total Equivalent Warming Impact (TEWI)

Medium Temperature Refrigeration


From DoE's ORNL Report, 1997

21
Fluid Comparison - R134a vs. R744 (CO2)

R134a R744 (CO2)

Region of
Region of
Operational
Operationa
Interest
l Interest

R134a R744 Other CO2 Properties:


Critical Point 214 F 88 F High throttling losses
Low Pressure 10-50 psi 110 - 500 psi Solid CO2 (Dry Ice) at -80F (70 psi)
High Pressure 100-250 psi 750-2000 psi Transcritical Cycle (typical)
Much Higher heat transfer potential (2-3x)
Temperature ‘glide’ on heat rejection HX

Refrigerant-Lubricant Viscosity

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Vapor Compressors

Classification of Vapor Compressors

Positive Displacement Machines [PD]:


• Reciprocating Piston, Rolling Piston, Scroll, Screw,
Sliding Vane …

Rotodynamic (Turbo) Machines [RD]:


• Radial, Mixed-flow Centrifugal; Single and Multi-stage

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Positive Displacement Vapor Compressors

Compressor Application Range

Centrifugal [HVAC]

Screw [HVAC]

SH Recip [HVAC]

H Recip [HVAC]

Scroll [HVAC]

Rotary [HVAC]

0.1 1.0 10.0 100.0 1000.0 10000.0


ARI Capacity, Tons

24
Positive Displacement Compressors

Piston (Reciprocating)

25
Comparison of P-V Diagrams
Clearance Volume

Pressure

Up to 60%
More Capacity

Recip. Refrig.

Recip. AC

Scroll/Screw (AC & Refrig.)

Volume Displacement

Piston Compressor Volumetric Efficiency


1.0

n = 1.15
Theoretical Volumeteric Efficiency

0.8
C

0.000
0.6 0.010
0.015
0.020
0.030
0.050
0.4 0.070
0.100

0.2

0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Pressure Ratio

26
Rolling Piston (Rotary) Compressor Pump

Typical Rolling Piston Compressor

ASHRAE Handbook of Systems and Equipment, 2004

27
Hermetic Scroll Compressor

Scroll Compressor

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Scroll Compressor Operation

Scroll Operation (DTU)

Typical Scroll Compressor Performance

ASHRAE Handbook of Systems and Equipment, 2004

29
Twin Screw (Lysholm) Compressor

Single Screw Compressor

ASHRAE Handbook of Systems and Equipment, 2004

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Typical Screw Compressor Performance

ASHRAE Handbook of Systems and Equipment, 2004

Over/Under-compression Loss
100%
Percentage Over/Under-compression Loss

80%

VR
60% Under-compression 3.0
3.5
4.0
5.0
40% 6.0

20%

0%
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Relative Discharge Pressure (P d/P d*)

31
Screw Compressors
Efficiency Improvement
2.0 1.0

1.8 Close
Close leakage
leakage gaps
gaps &
& reduce
reduce oil
oil injection
injection 0.9

1.6 0.8

Isentropic Efficiency
1.4 0.7
Relative Loss

Pump Efficiency
1.2 0.6

1.0 0.5

0.8 0.4
Leakage Losses Flow & Viscous Losses
0.6 0.3

0.4 0.2

0.2 0.1

0.0 0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Male Rotor Tip Speed [m/s]

Sliding Vane Compressor

32
Centrifugal Compressors

Centrifugal Compressor

33
Typical Centrifugal Compressor Impeller

ASHRAE Handbook of Systems and Equipment, 2004

Ns-Ds Diagram for Single-Stage Compressors


From O. E. Balje: Turbomachines - A Guide to Design Selection and Theory, Wiley, NY, '81

34
2-Stage Centrifugal Compressor

ASHRAE Handbook of Systems and Equipment, 2004

Polytropic Efficiency
0.850

0.848 η p = 0.85; γ = 1.1

0.846

0.844
Isentropic Efficiency

0.842

0.840

0.838

0.836

0.834

0.832

0.830
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0
Pressure Ratio

35
Typical Centrifugal Compressor Performance

Variable-Speed Control IGV Control – Fixed Speed

ASHRAE Handbook of Systems and Equipment, 2004

Centrifugal Chiller Part-Load Performance

ASHRAE Handbook of Systems and Equipment, 2004

36
Comparison of Chiller Compressors

ASHRAE Handbook of Systems and Equipment, 2004

Expansion Devices

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Short Restrictor Expansion Device

ASHRAE Handbook of Refrigeration, 2004

Thermostatic Expansion Valve

ASHRAE Handbook of Refrigeration, 2004

38
Constant-Pressure Expansion Valve

ASHRAE Handbook of Refrigeration, 2004

Float-controlled Expansion Valve

ASHRAE Handbook of Refrigeration, 2004

39
Thermally Activated Heat Pump Concept

ASHRAE Handbook of Refrigeration, 2004

Single-Effect LiBr-H2O Absorption Cycle

Condenser Generator
4"

6 3 4'

Solution HX

Pump

7 2 5

Evaporator Absorber

40
Practical Configuration of LiBr-H2O System

ASHRAE Handbook of Refrigeration, 2004

Mixture Phase Diagrams

P2
Sat. Temperature

P1

Tsat

Liquid Mole-Fraction Vapor Mole-Fraction

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Mole Fraction, x

41
Single-Effect LiBr-H2O Cycle Duhring Diagram

6 3 4', 4"
PC

Pure H2O; x=0 x=xw x=xs

Crystallization
PE
1, 7 2 5

TE TC~TA TG T

Double-Effect LiBr-H2O Absorption Cycle [1]

Condenser 4" Generator 2 Generator 1


8 6 7"

9 4' 3' 7' 6

Solution HX Solution HX

Pump Pump
10 5 2 8 4

Evaporator Absorber
3'

42
Double-Effect LiBr-H2O Absorption Cycle [2]
Condenser Generator 2 Generator 1
8' 8 4"

10 3' 3 4'

9"
4
9' 5

Solution HX

Pump
12 2 6'

Evaporator Absorber

Single-Effect LiBr-H2O Cycle Duhring Diagram

7 3 4, 6
PC

Pure H2O; x=0 x=xw x=xs

Crystallization
PE
1, 8 2 5

TE TC~TA TG T

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Pumpless Aqua-Ammonia System

Bubble Pump

ASHRAE Handbook of Refrigeration, 2004

Simple and Regenerative Reversed Brayton Cycle


T

2′ 2

3′ 3

6, 1′
5

44
Regenerative Air Cycle
Ambient air
Recuperator

Gas Cooler

Power Exp. Comp.

Conditioned
Space

Simple Air Cycle Performance


0.6

Load T emp.
ºC
0.5
22.0
12.0
0.4 2.0
-8.0
-18.0
COP

0.3
-38.0
-58.0
0.2 -78.0
-98.0
-118.0
0.1

0.0
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0
Expander Pressure Ratio

Ta = 35 ºC; εR = 0.9; η′E = 0.88; η′C = 0.87; δP/P = 0.05; ΔTA = 10 ºC

45
Regenerative Air Cycle Performance
0.6

Load T emp.
ºC
0.5
22.0
12.0
0.4 2.0
-8.0
-18.0
COP

0.3
-38.0
-58.0
0.2 -78.0
-98.0
-118.0
0.1

0.0
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
Expander Pressure Ratio

Ta = 35 ºC; εR = 0.9; η′E = 0.88; η′C = 0.87; δP/P = 0.05; ΔTA = 10 ºC

Comparison of Air Liquefaction Cycles


12000

10000

8000
kJ/kg Liquid Air

6000

4000

2000

0
Revrsible Linde Linde + VC Dual- Dual- Claude
(Ideal) Precooler Pressure Pressure
(-45 C) Linde Linde + VC
Precooler

46
Rotary Magnetic Refrigerator

47

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