A Reference Guide

BASIC DRAWING
 I see a green shape and a brown shape.
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Mode of Thinking

Why is it that your friend is "artistic" and you're not? It's because your friend is using a different part
of the brain than you are. Your friend can "see" things differently than you can because they are
interpreting what they see in a different way than you are. They're looking at the world in terms of
shapes, lines, colors, and the relationships between these things. What we'll be doing here is trying to
get you to see things in this way. It's not like you'll be seeing things better or worse than you do now,
but you will be seeing things in a different way. This way of seeing is the way artists see, and it allows
them to translate the three-dimensional world around them into a two dimensional drawing. Hopefully,
after looking through this website, you'll be seeing like an artist and drawing what you see in a way
you enjoy.

Have you ever noticed that when you get into doing something that you really enjoy time just seems
to slip away? "Time flies when you're having fun?" For example reading a good, compelling book, or
listening to your favorite music? This happens because you're in the " visual" or "creative" mode of
thinking. This mode of thinking disregards time and converts what you see into pictures and feelings in
your mind. When reading a book, your visual or artistic mind takes the words that your logical mind
sees and translates them into a picture that you see in your mind's eye.

Would you say that you're better at math than drawing? This is because you're more comfortable with
the logical, step by step, time centered, areas of your mind. Every normal human being has two
modes of thinking: The logical, symbol mode and the visual, artistic mode.

We use both modes all the time. We use each mode separately, and we use both modes together. We use
each mode to interpret the other mode. Your logical see a tree! mind cannot put to paper a self
portrait because it keeps telling you "This is the ear, draw the ear." and "here is the left
eye, draw the left eye" Then "No! That does not look like the left eye!" happens. Whatyourvisual mind will
do is "Here is a sweeping curve that intersects with this shadow." and "These two shapes combine to
create a highlight in the negative space". The fact that it's a left eye doesn't matter to your artistic mind.
Your visual mind doesn't see a left eye, it sees lines, shapes, and lights and darks that combine to make a
whole picture of a left eye. In order to "draw what you see" you will have to learn to draw lines, shapes,
and lights and darks that combine to make a whole drawing. Your logical mind, that labels everything it
sees, will not be a part of the drawing process.

Drawing Tools

To start to draw you're going to need a few materials. Drawing is simple enough that you could use
any writing implement and any drawing surface, but if you're going to take the time to learn, you
might as well get some decent tools.

Pencil

Everyone needs a pencil to start off drawing. Pencils come in a wide variety of hardness depending on
the clay to graphite mix. There are two general types of drawing pencil, soft and hard. This refers to
the softness or hardness of the graphite in the pencil. Each is used for different techniques in drawing.
9H is the hardest (lightest) and 9B is the softest (darkest). Also the pressure you use will affect the
lightness and darkness of the pencil on the paper. You will acquire your own specific style as you
practice. A 2B pencil will give you a great tonal range to start with.

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Grading and classification

Many pencils across the world are graded on the European system using a continuum from "H" (for
hardness) to "B" (for blackness), as well as "F" (for fine point). The standard writing pencil is graded
HB. According to Petroski, this system might have been developed in the early 1900s by Brookman, an
English pencil maker. It used "B" for black and "H" for hard; a pencil's grade was described by a
sequence or successive Hs or Bs such as BB and BBB for successively softer leads, and HH and HHH
for successively harder ones. As of 2009, a set of pencils ranging from a very hard, light-marking
pencil to a very soft, black-marking pencil usually ranges from hardest to softest as follows

9H 8H 7H 6H 5H 4H 3H 2H H F HB B 2B 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 9B
HARDEST ► MEDIUM SOFTEST
TECHNICAL DRAWING FREEHAND DRAWING AND GENERAL LAYOUT FREEHAND DRAWING

How to Hold a Pencil Correctly

The pencil should be positioned so that there is equal pressure between the thumb, the side of the middle
finger and the tip of the index finger. All fingers are bent slightly. This is called a "tripod grip" or "tripod
pencil grasp".

The tripod grip uses the fingers to control the pencil, and for fine work, the hand can rest on the page.
Use a spare sheet of paper to keep your drawing free from smudges and skin oils. If more movement is
required, the wrist or elbow can be rested against the edge of the drawing surface, used as a pivot.
Drawing paper

Drawing paper is available in a large variety of materials, sizes and qualities.The planned purpose of
the drawing should determine the paper type and size best suited for the particular job.

There are number of aspects to consider when selecting paper:

Remember that sometimes you may need to use the eraser to remove mistakes or construction lines
that are not required in the final drawing. The paper must be strong enough to resist repeated erasing.

The material should resist ageing if the drawing is to be retained for a long period of time.

The colour and the tone of the paper should be chosen to give maximum contrast between the drawing
and the background.

The surface of the paper should be suitable for the type of drawing and marking pen to be used, ie
pencil or ink.

Paper can be either regular or see-through and is available in different grades. The thickness of a
sheet of paper is indicated by its weight, measured either in grams per square meter (gsm) or pounds
per ream (lb). For example, 80gsm means that one square metre of this particular paper will weigh 80
grams.

The normal range of grades used is:

greater than 150 gsm for cartridge paper 80

gsm for brown craft paper 60-65 gsm for

lightweight tracing paper. Standard sheet

size

The preferred or chosen range of standard sheet sizes are the ISO - A series. A limited range of paper
sizes offers a number of options for you to choose from. The following table indicates the name and
sheet dimensions.

Dimensions of standard sheets

Standard description Cut sheet dimensions (mm)
A0 841 X 1189
A1 594 X 841

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A2 420 X 594
A3 297 X 420
A4 210 X 297

A0

A1

A4 A4 A3 A2

A3

A4

Paper size

Fundamentals of Drawing

Learning to draw is one of the first activities a child starts with. Everyone has an artistic style inside,
which needs to be discovered. As a child we remember drawing what we see all around. With progress
of time we started drawing complex items. Here you can learn about the basics of drawing and the use
of colors. The first step to draw is to choose a good pencil. These are available in various degrees of
shades and hardness. You should draw by the wedge of the pencil instead of the point.

You can start making wire drawings by following a design of a wire and drawing it on paper. Next you
can try out blind contour drawing. This develops our eye-hand connection and observation skills.

With pure contour drawing you can draw the outlines. This drawing features the visible contours of an
object. Clean contour drawing is an important skill used by cartoonists. Later you can learn cross
contour drawing. Cross contour is essential in both value and line drawing. Through this drawing you
can create a three-dimensional effect by converting the outline into a form.

BASIC DRAWING

Drawing is one important form of visual art. Basic drawing means the diagrammatic representation of
any figure or object. It can be done on canvas, wood, paper or any other media. Basic drawing can be
done with any of the tools ranging from graphite, pencils, charcoals), pastels, pen and ink, wax colors,
crayons or markers. Basic drawings can be representational, depicting objects or scenes from the
dreams or imagination or observation of the artist. They may be realistic or resembling life to a certain
point.

The main aspects of a basic drawing include: Composition, Paper, Proportion, Color theory, Figure
drawing, Linear perspective, Sketch, Computer: It is the correct proportion of all these important
aspects which makes a successful basic drawing.

THE ELEMENTS OF DRAWING

Line is the most basic element of the drawing. And in it's most basic definition, it's what separates one
area of the drawing plane from the other. A single line will segment your piece of paper into "that area"
and "this area". The more lines that are added, the more
complex and numerous the separations become: light from dark, foreground from background,
positive space from negative space. Line can be uniform and all one width, or to be more interesting,
and to convey more information with a single line, a single line can be of varying widths.

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Shape

Shape occurs when the first line is drawn. The most basic definition of shape is the white area on the
paper. Shape is the information that is presented between two or more lines, or is the thing that is
enclosed by line. Shape helps define the object that is depicted as much as the collection of lines that
make up the object in the drawing. Incorrect use of shape will cause the drawing to "not look like what it's
supposed to be."

Light and Shadow creates depth and atmosphere in a drawing. In order to make a drawing look
"realistic" you need shadow because in the real world everything has a shadow. If you draw something
with only one width line and don't render shadow, your drawing is going to look flat, two dimensional, and
unrealistic. Adding shadow automatically adds a small bit of perspective to the drawing because the
shadow indicates that something is in front of and/or behind the object that would cause it to cast a
shadow.

Proportion and Perspective

Proportion is the size of one picture element in relation to the size of another. In other words Proportion
is what dictates that, in humans, legs are longer than arms, the middle finger is longer than the pointer
finger, and the nose is the same length as the width of the eye. If proportion is incorrect in a drawing it
"doesn't look right". Perspective is the illusion that further away things appear smaller. To make
something appear to be farther away from the viewer than the picture plane, draw it smaller than the
object that is closer to the picture plane. I've put proportion and perspective together as one drawing
element because they both use each other to work. If one is incorrect, chances are the other is also
incorrect.

Before you even start the drawing you will begin to automatically mentally place your picture elements on
the paper. You take into account the whole drawing surface and relate your picture elements to the shape
of your drawing surface. For example, if you're wanting to draw a
whole human body from head to foot you would mentally place the
head to one side (or top or bottom) of the drawing surface so that
would give you enough room to be able to draw the whole body and not
run off the paper. The shape of your drawing plane will help determine the
composition of your drawing. You would not effectively be able to draw a
towering skyscraper on a square piece of paper without cutting the top or
bottom off. In the example on the right, seeing the whole drawing
means when you start, you know where to place the eyes so the face will
be in the center.

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CONTOUR DRAWING

Contour drawing train your eyes to see shapes and contours and
your hands to transfer what you see to paper. The strokes you
make and the strokes you omit should economically convey
perceived images. The six types of contour drawing are contour,
blind, felt, cross, negative, and inversion contour.

Contour means "outline", and presents exterior edges of

objects. Contour drawing is the process of drawing the contours
or outlines of objects. Such definitive outlines do not exist in nature but, a thorough knowledge of
contour is necessary to realistically convey imagery and proportion. To draw in contour, study the
object, then the paper surface. Draw what you have seen. Do not draw detail. Your drawings should
appear as outlines. Contour drawing of a telephone is given here for reference.

Blind contour

Blind contour is also an outline drawing but, without the benefit of seeing what is drawn. To draw in
blind contour, study the object only, not the paper. If you by mistake look at the paper surface,
stop drawing and do not continue until your eyes return to the object. Follow the contour of the
object with your eyes. Make your hands draw without the benefit of looking at the paper. This
drawing format develops coordination and seeing beyond the physical outline of the object.

Felt contour

Felt contour drawing is an outline that explores the surface

characteristics of the object. This drawing format is called felt
contour because you are drawing what your eyes perceive as
the outline and texture of the object. To draw in felt contour,
look at the object and close your eyes. Imagine the feel of the
surface texture and outline of the object. With your eyes
closed, draw the object on paper. The resulting drawing will
be jagged and perhaps, illegible. This exercise in felt contour
drawing develops perception. The given figure is an example
of felt contour drawing.

Cross contour

Cross contour is outline drawing of objects but, with

topographical cross- hatching indicating surface characteristics
and mass. To draw in cross contour, study only the object, not
the paper surface for the outline. Draw the outline in blind
contour. Draw in basic contour, vertical and horizontal lines
that appear to lay on the surface of the drawn object
compresses or expands to imply surface texture. This exercise
also develops perceptions of edges and surface characteristics.
The cross contour drawing of a telephone is given here.

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Negative contour is drawing the outline of the negative space

surrounding an object as opposed to a positive contour drawing
of the object itself. To draw in negative contour, look at the
shape of the space around the object. Draw the space without
consciously drawing the object outline. Negative contour
drawings suggest the presence of objects. Negative contour
drawings develop a sense of space, not only the space the
object occupies but also the space around the object and the
object's relationships to other elements in the area. The figure
given here is an example of a negative contour drawing.

Inversion contour

Inversion contour drawing is a contour drawing sketched

upside down, bottom up, or right to left. The point of drawing
in this way is to remove the familiarity of the object. This
technique forces you to carefully examine the object from an
unfamiliar perspective. This figure is a telephone in inverted
contour.

GESTURE DRAWING

Gesture drawing is related to action drawing, but it goes

further. I see the idea of gesture as the essential character
of a figure or object, a kind-of eastern philosophy viewpoint.
That is, everything has a gesture. As Nicolaides wrote,
"Everything has a gesture - even a pencil." On the physical
level, the pencil's gesture is a "shooting" straight line, very
quick. That physical movement has an intangible
counterpart - its essence - its movement identity or
personality.

Gesture drawing is an important technique for developing the

ability to draw figures. Gesture drawings are rapidly executed
drawings of mass and weight that do not involve outlines or
details. To draw in gesture, look only at the object, not at the
paper. As you move your eyes over the object, continuously
and rapidly move your crayon over the paper. Linger over the
areas with weight or mass. You may draw using short
abbreviated strokes or you use a continuous stroke never
removing the crayon from the paper. Sparsely draw those
areas on the object with little weight or mass. Initially, your
drawings may appear childlike. After extended practice in
gesture drawing, you should perceive weight and mass
realistically and with correct proportion. The given figure shows
examples of practice gesture drawings.
Basically, it is a method of training hands to quickly sketch
what the brain has already seen. Staying "focused" means
sustained concentration. Once you start drawing, don't
stop--there's only 10-30 seconds to finish! As you proceed
in skill development, drawings should be "grouped" with
overlapped shapes and time extended up to 2 minutes. This
is Gesture practice.

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Key Points to Gesture Drawing

1. FOCUS--- constantly. The eye, a wonderful camera

estimates proportions, contours, movement, and contrasts
quickly. Determine contours first, then interior shapes and
shadows.

2. DRAW LIGHTLY---for the 1st "layer" as a rough draft; darker

for the 2nd drawing corrections right over the 1st layer
adding contrast; then, the darkest 3rd layer with deep
shadows and final contours.

3. DRAW QUICKLY--- The entire image is viewed in a blink.

Make the pencil follow content flashed to the brain. Keep the
pencil/pen in constant circular and linear motion. Catch the
form, not the details.

4. CONSTANT MOVEMENT---is a necessity. Quick, light drawing

makes for easy clarifications in succeeding layers. Move
eyes with quick returns without moving the head. Accuracy
takes patience, perseverance and lots of practice.

5. TIMED DRAWINGS—from 10-30 seconds for skill practices of

single shapes and 1-2 minutes for grouping objects
together. It's a challenge only in the beginning.

6. NO ERASING. Step 2 is the key. Gesture drawing's purpose

is to develop visual skills which will effect expertise. Erasing
breaks focus and wastes time.
BASIC SHAPES

Introduction

All forms, regardless of complexity, have, as their basis,

one or a combination of basic shapes. Although an object
may not perfectly duplicate a basic shape, the shapes are
present.Objects are three dimensional in structure. The
three dimensions are height, width, and depth.

The four basic shapes are the cube, the sphere, the
cylinder, and the cone. Describing objects by using basic
forms simplifies the process of drawing and laying out
forms on a page. Draw basic shapes as if they were made
of glass to see both the inside and outside of the objects.
This technique is called drawing through an object and
enables you to give objects depth as well as height and
width. The four basic shapes in drawing are represented
below.

These are basic shapes drawn as if they were made of glass.

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Cubes

Cubes are squares with equal height, width, and depth

dimensions. Perspective or viewpoint alters the perceived
dimensions of the cube. Varying the dimensions of the cube
creates rectangles. Shading and texture modifies the basic
shape of the cube and more clearly defines objects. The
dimensions of a cube are given below.

This figure shows a modified basic cube shape with shading

and texture.

Spheres

Spheres are round. The distance from the center of the

sphere to any edge of the sphere is known as the radius.
The radii of spheres extend equally in all directions from the
center. A sphere appears round regardless of viewpoint or
perspective. Shading on spheres is soft and gradual with no
abrupt planes creating sharp contrasts. Changing the length
of the radii creates ellipses. Use ellipses to define the depth
of spheres.

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Figure shows the

Figure shows how ellipses

dimensions of a sphere. define the
depth of a sphere.

Cylinders

Cylinders appear as tubes. Construct cylinders by drawing

two parallel lines. Define the width of the cylinder with
ellipses. Use shading to accentuate the roundness of the
tube.

D M V30152
Figure shows a cylindrical form.

Figure shows a cylinder

w
i
t
h

s
h
a
d
i
n
g

a
d
d
e
d
.
Cones

Cones appear triangular in shape but, have a circle or ellipse as

a base. Lines converging to some point above or below the
base determines the height of a cone. Shading defines the
roundness of cones.

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Figure shows a basic cone. Figure shows how

shading changes

the
cone
into
a
tree.

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Regardless of how complicated objects seem, you can reduce

them to a combination of the four basic forms. Train yourself to
see all objects in their basic forms. Practice combining basic
forms to create complex objects.

Combining forms

Basic forms combine to create complex objects. For example, a

close look at a foot reveals a series of cylinders (toes), a wedge
or modified cube (forefoot), and a sphere (heel). By drawing
basic forms proportionally, you can draw a human foot.

Figure shows a foot reduced to basic forms.

Thumbnails

Before drawing, imagine the best descriptive view for your

illustration. Draw several small sketches or thumbnails to
determine the best view. Draw general shapes or masses
without details. Establish correct proportions for larger
objects first, then proportion smaller objects. When you
have a very rough outline of the best possible view, you are
ready to enlarge the sketch and begin drawing.

Enlarging the sketch

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Once you select the best view of the object, transfer the
mass and proportions to paper for the finished drawing.
Indicate areas of mass without detail. Make sure proportions
are correct. Keep the drawing clean and free of unnecessary
lines.

Drawing forms

Examine the object for basic forms. Sketch the basic forms
on the drawing. Forms may overlap, invert, or have slight
variations. Draw only forms.

Figure shows basic forms used Figure

shows additional basic forms

to draw a cannon
. (spheres) drawn
proportionately to the first
set of
cubes
to
imply
canno
nballs
.

Shading

Add shading to drawings after all objects are reduced to

basic forms. The most natural light comes from above and
to one side of an object. Light from one source is easier to
draw than light from multiple sources. Make sure shading
results from the same source or sources of illumination for
all objects in the drawing.

Details

Add details to drawings only after completing the shading.

Details in the foreground of illustrations appear clearly. To
add realism to the illustration, blur details as they recede
into the background.

BASI

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REN

DERI

NG

TECH

NIQU

ES

Intro

ducti

on

Correct shape and proportion is only half the number of steps

necessary to create effective drawings. How you render
viewpoint, arrangement, and the effects of light determines the
success of your illustrations.

Viewpoint

Viewing objects from different positions changes the

appearance of objects. With the exception of the sphere, forms
always change as the angle of view changes. Avoid viewpoints
that obscure objects beyond recognition. Limit your use of
viewpoints that leave the viewer off balance or disoriented
unless this is your intent. The following figure shows the
normal view of an object together with an unusual viewpoint of
the same object.

Figure shows—A tape dispenser drawn using a normal

viewpoint (View A) and an unusual viewpoint (View B).

Arrangement

A good foundation in perspective drawing is necessary to

draw convincing illustrations. Each form occupies space and
space surrounds each form. Drawing through objects helps
to place them correctly in relation to the other forms in the
drawing. Thumbnail sketches allow you to manipulate
objects in illustrations before committing yourself to a
finished drawing. Figure given on the next page shows how
some arrangements of objects make illustrations effective
while other arrangements of the same objects make them
ineffective.

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Light

Light,
shade,
and
shadow
make
drawing
s more
realistic
. But
shading
, no
matter
how
well
done,
will not
improv
e
poorly
constru
cted
forms.
Light,
shade,
and
shadow
are
affecte
d by
two
types
of light:
artificial
and
natural
(outdoo
r) light.
You can
control
artificial
light,
but not
natural
light.
The
edges
of light
and
dark
areas
follow
the
contour
of

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surface
s or
planes
of
objects.
If light
emanat
es from
more
than
one
source,
make
sure
the
highligh
ts and
shadow
s are
consist
ent for
each
object
in the
drawing
.

Tone

Tone is
the
natural
color of
an
object
as
compar
ed to
its
surroun
dings.
Tone
separat
es
objects
from
items
around
it. If
you
draw
an
object
using
only its
local

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tone,
the
drawing
would
appear
flat and
without
form.
Conside
r how
light or
dark
the
color of
an
object
is in
relation
to the
colors
of
things
nearby.
Evaluat
e the
tone of
an
object
based
on one
of
these
four
tone
pattern
s: light
against
dark,
dark
against
light,
halfton
e and
dark
against
light,
and
light
and
dark
against
halfton
e.
Separat
e tones

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of
objects
into
tonal
values.
A cube in local tone.
Valu
e

Valu
e is
the
light
ness
or
dark
ness
of
tone
illum
inate
d by
light
.
Valu
e
emp
hasiz
es
the
form
of an
obje
ct.
As
light
strik
es
an
obje
ct,
area
s of
light
,
shad
e,
and
shad
ow
appe
ar.
Area
s
struc
k

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direc
tly
by
light
may
lose
local
color
entir
ely.
Thos
e
area
s are
calle
d
highl
ights
.
Area
s
that
recei
ve
no
direc
t
light
and
appe
ar
close
to
the
local
color
are
calle
d
halft
ones
.
Area
s in
the
shad
ows
or
that
have
a
shad
ow
cast
over

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the
m
are
dark
er
than
the
local
tone
. The
give
n
figur
e
sho
ws a
cube
with
tonal
valu
es.

Usi
ng
ligh
t,to
ne,
and
val
ue

You
can
use
light
,
tone
,
and

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valu
e
inst
ead
of
line
s for
defi
ning
sha
pes
or
obje
cts.
Sele
ct a
set
or
scal
e of
valu
es
in
the
med
ium
of
your
choi
ce.
Com
pare
this
scal
e of
valu
es
to
the
natu
ral
valu
es
of
the
obje
ct.
It is
som
etim
es
help
ful
to
view

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the
obje
ct
thro
ugh
part
ly
clos
ed
eye
s to
elim
inat
e
deta
il.
Sep
arat
ion
bet
wee
n
valu
e
area
s
will
dep
end
upo
n
the
inte
nsit
y of
the
light
sour
ce.
Brig
ht
light
prod
uces
well
-
defi
ned
valu
e
sep
arat
ions
,
soft

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light
has
the
opp
osit
e
effe
ct.
Ang
ular
or
plan
ed
edg
es
hav
e
shar
ply
defi
ned
valu
e
area
s.
Rou
nde
d
area
s
are
softl
y
defi
ned
and
grad
ual.
Har
d
surf
aces
hav
e
valu
es
sep
arat
ed
to
the
extr
eme
whil
e

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text
ured
area
s
app
ear
grai
ny.

Refl
ecti
on

Ligh
t
fro
m
surr
oun
ding
surf
aces
refle
cts
bac
k
onto
an
obje
ct.
The
refo
re,
refle
cted
light
mod
ifies
sha
dow
area
s.
Shin
y or
poli
she
d
surf
aces
,
suc
h as
wat
er,
des

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k
tops
,
floor
s,
and
met
al
obje
cts
act
like
mirr
ors
and
catc
h
ima
ges
of
thei
r
surr
oun
ding
s.
Indi
cate
the
mos
t
pro
min
ent
feat
ures
in
the
refle
ctio
n
with
out
too
muc
h
conf
usin
g
deta
il.
Ofte
n
refle
ctio

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ns
are
dist
orte
d
dep
endi
ng
on
the
surf
ace
text
ure
of
the
refle
ctin
g
surf
ace.
Figu
re
dra
wn
on
the
next
pag
e
sho
ws
wat
er
refle
ctin
g
the
buil
ding
s on
the
shor
elin
e
abo
ve
it.
The
directio
n light
comes
from
alters
the

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appear
ance of
objects.
Arrange
a light
source
to
come
from
the
directio
n that
best
emphas
izes the
form.
Light
falling
diagona
lly on
subject
s from
above
and to
one
side of
the
picture
area is
the
most
natural
form of
illumina
tion.
Shadow
s cast
from
this
position
create
the
greates
t
appare
nt
depth
and
roundn
ess. A
lower
angle
of light
casts
longer

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shadow
s. Side
lighting
is
effectiv
e for
showin
g
texture.
To
elimina
te
confusi
ng
edges
and
shadow
s, use a
single
light
source
rather
than
several.

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Basics of Light and Shade

Light is reflected from most surfaces by two simultaneous processes, known as specular (or surface)
reflection and diffuse (or body) reflection. Specular (literally "mirror-like") reflection creates the highlight
as its most conspicuous expression (Figure 1). On our ball, as on most substances apart from the
coloured metals like copper and gold, the specular reflection retains the colour of the (white) light source.
The diffuse reflection is seen as the local colour of the surface (in this case, off-white).

In specular reflection, light bounces according to the rule that the angle of incidence (measured against a
line perpendicular to the surface) equals the angle of reflection. On any shiny object we see the highlight,
or specular reflection of the light source, at the point where the surface is at just the angle needed to
bounce light from the light source to our eye in accordance with this rule (Figure 2). Consequently the
apparent position of the reflection varies with the location of the observer, and even between the two
eyes of the observer.
The diffuse reflection consists of light that does not obey the rule of angle of incidence equals angle of
reflection, but instead is reflected equally in all directions. Actually, diffuse and specular reflection
operate simultaneously from most materials, and evidently by quite distinct processes, in that the
specular reflection typically retains the colour of the light source, while the diffuse reflection is often
coloured by the material. Diffuse reflection is considered to result from subsurface scattering; that is,
light enters a surface layer, is scattered multiple times, and then exits in a random direction. The exact
proportion of the two kinds of reflection depends essentially on the type of material (metals exhibit high
specular and no diffuse reflection), and on the angle of incidence (light striking at a low angle to a
surface is more likely to be reflected specularly), but not on the roughness of the surface. Polishing a
Viewer

rough surface will make a "fuzzy" specular reflection more concentrated by reducing variation in
microfacet orientation, but will not necessarily increase the total amount of specular reflection unless it
involves removal of a diffuse-reflecting coating.

THE ZONE OF LIGHT

Light from a light source travels in straight lines and divides any subject into a zone of light and a zone
of shadow (Figure 3). The zone of shadow is further divided into a form shadow -an area in shadow
because it is turned away from the light source, and a cast shadow - an area in shadow because the
light source is blocked by another object.

The boundary between the zone of light and the form shadow is known as the terminator. On spheres

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the zone of light occupies roughly half the sphere (less than half if the light source is small and close;
more than half if the light source is large in apparent or angular size). In any case the terminator on a
sphere considered as a whole is a circle, and so the visible part generally has the apparent shape of a
section of an ellipse. The pattern of light and shadow visible depends on the relationship of the
direction of the light source to the direction of the viewer.
THE ZONE OF SHADOW

The shadow regions of a subject are often full of subtle variations, but virtually all beginning students
make too much of these. It is all too easy to forget that we are looking at a shadow as soon as we
begin to observe the intriguing details within them. As always, it is a matter of seeing these variations
in the context of the total tone and colour range of the subject.

Sources of illumination in the shadow zone of an object include light reflected from the environment
and any secondary light sources. Reflected light from the environment is in turn generally visibly
reflected by an object in both a diffuse manner (the conventional reflected light) and a specular
manner. All surfaces that are shiny enough to show a strong highlight will be shiny enough to show
visible specular reflections of the environment in the shadow zone. The dark shape of the reflected cast
shadow in particular is often quite conspicuous, as in Figure 3.

The diffuse reflection has a variable pattern depending on where the form shadow surface is close to,
and faces, a strongly lit part of the environment. In some situations this diffuse reflection may be
brightest opposite the direction of the main light source, creating a dark zone, often called a core
shadow, adjacent to the entire length of the terminator.

The cast shadow of an obliquely illuminated sphere is elliptical in plan view, and remains persistently
close to a perfect ellipse in appearance when viewed in almost any perspective. The outer boundary of
the cast shadow is a transitional zone called the penumbra, formed where the light source is partly
obscured by the sphere. The width of the penumbra, and hence the softness of the shadow edge,
depends on the distance between the light rays from either side of the light source (Fig 4); it increases
with distance from the object casting the shadow, and with the angular or apparent size of the light
source.

Light Source

Penumbra wider here

Fig: 4. Width of penumbra. The width of the penumbra generally increases with increasing distance from the
object casting the shadow.

In most circumstances the darkest part of the shadow zone is the crevice shadow, where two surfaces
are in contact (e.g. the sphere and tabletop). The darkness of this zone is the result of occlusion - the
further we go into the crevice, the less of the environment can contribute light. Both the sphere and the
tabletop are darkened in the crevice shadow, although, depending on the direction of observation, the
darkened surfaces may not both be visible.
DRAWING LIGHT AND SHADOWS

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Shading helps define light and shadow in a drawing. Light and shadows visually define objects and are
considered together since neither appears to exist without the other. Light and shadow are most
obvious in three-dimensional design.

Values are the different shades of gray between white and black. Artists use values to translate the
light and shadows they see into shading, thus creating the illusion of a third dimension. Hatching and
crosshatching are simple and fun techniques for drawing shading. A full range of values is the basic
ingredient for shading. When you can draw lots of different values, you can begin to add shading, and
therefore depth, to your drawings.

With shading, the magical illusion of three-dimensional reality appears on your drawing paper. Figure 1
demonstrates how to take a simple line drawing of a circle and add shading to transform it into the
planet Earth.

Figure 1: Turning a simple line drawing into planet Earth.

You know the objects around you are three-dimensional because you can walk up to them, see them
from all sides, and touch them. Take a moment to look around you at familiar objects. Try to discover
why you see their actual three-dimensional forms. Look for the different values created by the light
and shadows.

Appearance of light

There are a number of interesting things about the appearance of light. For instance, light reflected
from a hard, polished curving surface appears white in color. Light reflected from a soft, dull, flat
surface appears to contain some of the color of the surface from which it is reflected. The highlight is
the area of an object that is directly illuminated by the source of
light.

An object can have more than one source lighting it. There can be a primary and secondary source of
light and this will make a difference in your drawing or painting. The primary source can be the
strongest light, or the light that is the closest to the object. It will cast a darker and more definite
shape to the shadow area. The secondary source of light casts a weaker, lighter and softer edged
shape in the shadow area.
Shading can be a bit tricky at first but its not as difficult as it seems. The picture to the right shows a light
bulb and several geometrical shapes; circle, triangle, cylinder, and a square.

You'll notice that one side of the shape is light and the other is darkened. All you need to know or keep in
mind is just that. What the light doesn't hit, it is darkened. In this example, all you have to do is
picture the light source and the object which is being hit by the light - which part will the light hit? How
far will the light go?

You also have to ask yourself where is the light source coming from? If the light is far above, the

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shorter the shadow is (try checking out your shadow at noon - 12:00PM) whereas the lower the light,
the longer the shadow will become. According to the light source, make your shadow fit accordingly.

Good thing to remember also: what is the shape of the object I'm giving a shadow?
Each of the shapes in the picture each have their own unique cast. The triangle has a pointy shadow,
the circle has a circular shadow, the cylinder has a rectangular shadow, and the cube has a "L"-like
shadow. At a different angle, though, the cube will cast a different shadow shape. For instance, if the
light was head-on to one of the flat sides, it will cast a square to rectangular shadow depending on the
light source's height.

With that in mind, you also need to remember: what is the shape of the object the shadow is
falling on top of? The current example only has a flat surface on which the shadows fall but in most
cases, shadows of - say a character - will fall on rocks or on water, which will look different compared
to each other.

Tips to keep in mind

a) The darker the shadow, the brighter the light source. b) As the shadow is drawn further from the
object, the lighter it becomes.

Drawing the Shadow

The shadow takes on the shape of the item it comes from. If you look to the example picture, you will
see various shapes and their shadows being cast. Notice that to make the shadow, all you have to
do is create a triangular shape from the top of the object to the ground and back to the base of the
object.

The cube is a bit more complicated as there are two and in some cases, three triangles you have to
draw when at an angle. Drawing the shadow on the ground, it has been drawn in dotted lines to
indicate the shape of the shadow - which is basically the same shape as the object itself. Again, you'll
notice that the cube does its own unique cast as indicated at the example. It forms an "L" type
shadow.
Shading on an object

Shading on an object usually starts midway into the object as

shown in the example sketch based on the cylinder, cone,
triangle and cube. The circle is also shaded midway but
considering that it is round, the shape of the shading also
becomes rounded! The result is something quite like an eclipse. Note:
Shadows depicted in example image are intentionally drawn
entirely dark for tutorial purposes.

Light Source and Shadow

The shape of the shadow is also affected by the light source. When
the light source is from anything but the sun, like a light bulb, the
shadow widens the further it is from the object. The sun,
meanwhile, casts a "straight" shadow in that it remains true to the
objects shape.

More Than One Light Source

A shadow is made for each light source present in a scene. If you

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are inside a room, for example, and there are two lights on, you will cast a shadow from each light
source. This is shown on the right-most example.

Notice both of the bulbs are at the same distance and height from the object. This fact causes the
shadows from both light bulbs to be the same. When the light sources are from different distances and
heights, the light source that is closer to the object gives off the darker shadow. The area where the two
shadows meet is darker than the one shadow itself. Dark + Dark = Darker. Keep this in mind when
drawing groups of people whose shadows happen to overlap and intersect each other.

Taking a closer look at light and shadow

Before you can draw the appropriate values that illustrate light and shadows correctly, you need to be
able to visually identify the following:

Light source : The direction from which a dominant light originates. The placement of
this light source affects every aspect of a drawing.

Shadows : The areas on an object that receive little or no light.

Cast shadow : The dark area on an adjacent surface where the light is blocked by the
solid object.

The light source tells you where to draw all the light values and shadows. Figure 2 gives you some
practice in locating the light source, shadows, and cast shadows around an object, which in this case is a
sculpture. As you look at two drawings of the sculpture, ask yourself the following questions:

Where are the light values? Look for the lightest areas on the object. The very
brightest of the lightest values are called highlights.
Where are the dark values? Dark values often reveal the sections of the
object that are in shadow. By locating shadows, you can usually identify the
light source.

Where is the cast shadow? The section of the cast shadow closest to the
object is usually the darkest value in a drawing. By locating an object's cast
shadow, you can easily discover the direction from which the light source
originates

Figure 2: Looking for light and dark values and cast shadows.

The two drawings in Figure 2 have different light sources. Compare them and find the dominant light
source in each.

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TONES AND SHADES OF PORTRAIT ART SKETCHING.

Shading can be broken down into about 5 basic tones, from blacks, to dark grays, to middle grays,
lights, and whites. Each of these tones will usually be represented in your portrait, and you must
understand how to identify them, and shade them in correctly.

A lot of your shading will depend on the overall "tone" of the portrait you are drawing. If you are
working on a portrait that is set mostly in shadow (low key) then a lot of dark darks will be used. A
"high key" portrait will have few blacks, but more light grays. However, most portraits have a balance
of light and dark tones. It is a very common mistake of newbie artists to not represent these shading
tones properly. Especially common is for newbies to not put enough real blacks in their drawings. The
darkest they'll get is a middle gray—even though the subject they are drawing indeed has many blacks
and dark darks. (For instance, black hair, the black of the pupil, etc.)

I usually draw the black-blacks in last when I am doing a drawing, since they are the hardest to erase.
But they must be drawn in, or the portrait will look washed-out. A "faded" portrait is a very common
phenomenon among newbie artists. Don't you let yourself do this! It is an easy mistake to avoid!

The above illustration points out the "dark darks" in this particular pencil portrait. As you can see, the
dark side of the face has more of these dark tones. The corner of the mouth, the pupil, the nostril on
the shadowed (right side) of the face, under the chin (on neck) and the shadowed part of the
eyebrows.

The darkest tones are often used almost like "accents". Many portraits will not have a huge amount of
areas with dark dark tones, but when they are used, they must be BLACK.
Not medium gray, but BLACK. When you have almost finished your portrait, and are pretty sure that
everything is drawn in correctly, don't hesitate to bear down a little with your pencil, and get those
darks in solidly. Use a softer pencil lead (2B, 3B) and punch in those dark tones! If someone has black
hair, they have BLACK hair—not a wimpy gray. Pupils of the eye are almost always BLACK, except in a
pale, light-toned portrait (which is a very uncommon look).

The best way to punch in those black tones with pencil is to "build up" your tones. Use a soft leaded
pencil (2B, etc) and lay down a dark tone. Draw over and over this dark area, until the graphite has

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"built up" enough tone so that the area is true black or "dark dark".

Medium Darks

The "medium darks" are used a lot in most portraits, especially in the shadowed areas of the face.
They are pretty dark, but not so dark that they obscure blacks and "dark darks". In this portrait, they
are used mostly on the shadowed (right side) of the face, in the shadowed part of the eye (under the
eyebrow / eye socket) around the mouth, shadowed part of the nose, etc.

Just as it is important to get the "dark darks" correct, it is equally important to get the medium darks
in correctly. Wait until your drawing is almost complete, and you are sure that you have ironed out all
the errors in it. Then bear down with a fairly soft pencil lead (2B or B) and get those medium darks in
properly! You don't want the "dark darks" to look too isolated and lonely, do you?

You should make your medium darks dark enough to have some "punch", but not so dark that they
start to obscure the "dark darks". Work on "building up" the tone with your pencil, working and
rendering an area until you feel it has reached the desired darkness. If you feel you have gone too far
and the tone is too dark, "pat pat pat" the area with your kneaded rubber eraser, to lighten it up a bit.
Medium

The "medium" tones can be the trickiest. You might feel too timid to put them in as dark as they
should be. A lot of "newbie" artists have used a "medium" tone for areas that really should be black!
(Pupil of eye, etc.) Putting in the proper tones in the proper areas can be a little daunting at first. But
don't be timid, you can do it!

Medium tones are usually used to make the transition from dark areas to lighter areas more gradual,
and smooth. Without medium tones, the portrait would look harsh, and the darker shading would be
too severe. Using medium tones properly will give the drawing more blended, natural look.

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In this portrait, you'll see that almost all of the shadowed side of the face (right side) has at least a
medium tone on it. Even the whites of the eye on the shadowed area are toned down to be a medium
tone. They may fool the eye and appear lighter, because they are surrounded by darker tones. But if
you look closely, you'll see that there is a medium tone shadowing pretty much all of the right side of
the face. Also, the medium tone is used to give shape and modeling to the lighter (left side) of the
face. In this portrait, the cheekbones, jawline, areas around the nose, etc. were rendered using a
medium tone.

Light tones

The "subtle" light tones are often ignored by some newbie portrait artists. But there is a lot of detail in
these light tones. This additional rendering and blending will make the portrait look more realistic and
natural. Sometimes a light, subtle tone will have some important detail of the face, which could be
important for getting a good likeness.

A light touch must be used for these light tones (and if one is too heavy-handed, a few gentle pats of
the kneaded rubber eraser will lighten up the area). When you are drawing from a photograph or from
life, look closely at your model, to see these subtle light tones. One way to "see" them is to identify
the highlighted (white or almost white) areas of the face—and look at the areas right around these
highlighted areas. Usually, they are just a little darker, which makes them "subtle" light tones! Look
carefully, and draw them in.
In this portrait, the subtle grays are often in "transitional" areas (going from shadowed to light). The
subtle light tones help to show a rounded form. For instance, the roundness of the ball of the nose, the
roundness of the muscle in the neck, the roundness of the chin, or brow. These lighter tones help blend
the medium tones with the highlighted areas, and to give the face a blended, more realistic look. Also, the
subtle light tones will be used to indicate faint wrinkles, or perhaps a "5-O'clock shadow", or subtle
structural details of the face.

White

Sometimes, artists think of the white (or "highlighted") areas of their portrait as "whatever is left over
after I finish shading". But there's more to the white areas than that. Using the subtle light gray areas
around a highlight will bring it out, and emphasize its importance. Highlights add a crispness and "punch"
to a portrait. The highlight on the eye, the tip of the nose, the lower lip—these highlights help bring the
portrait to life.

In this portrait, the classic areas (eye highlight, lip, cheek, bridge of nose) have a highlighted spot. These

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are areas that are usually facing up, towards the light source. Therefore, they get more light cast upon
them. The eye and the lip have a moistness to them. The highlight will also be used to indicate this.
Because of the effective use of subtle light tones (previous page) the highlights stand out, but not too
much. But they are there, and give the face a dimensional,
realistic feel.

Still Life Drawing

Still Life is an art term, that refers to a special kind of picture. It represents an arrange of inanimate
objects (hence the name) such as a bowl, a cup or fruits. Usually the arrangement is made according
to the artist's purpose. A Still life pencil drawing can be symbolic, with an underlying meaning, or
aesthetic, in which case the purpose is to communicate beauty.

Still Life Pencil Drawings

A still life work can have many purposes. If we work in color it can help us understand how color acts
in real life, how the light bounces, and how an arrangement of colors can bring a special mood to the
painting. Using colored pencils we can begin studies about color, and work in the finest details. But in
the case of black and white pencil drawings, the purpose of the still life pencil drawing is different. A
still life pencil drawing can help us study shapes and see how they interact on our eyes, we learn how
to measure correct proportions and how they can make the difference betwen a good drawing and a
remarkable drawing.

When we get into shading, we then study tonal values. There are no colors here so we must learn how
to see things in black and white mode, and correctly define which are going to be the dark and light
areas on our still life pencil drawing.

Still lifes are the most available subjects in the world, and while some people may consider still life
drawing boring, the fact is they teach us a lot. When you have no idea of what to draw, just make an
arrangement of things you have at your house and start your still life pencil drawing. Don't take just as
bring cups and fruits, but instead focus on what you can learn from this. If you keep practicing on
drawing still life scenes you will find out that you have a much better understanding on how light
works, and how objects relate to each other within a composition and color scheme.

we'll be drawing a still life from the photo below.

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To begin, we'll sketch out the basic shapes we see in this still life. Draw them VERY lightly to determine
how big the objects should be and where they should be placed on the paper. Too big and they'll run right
off; too small and it will look like you chose the wrong size of paper. Your drawing should fill up most of
the page, but don't let it get too close to the edges; you'll lose some of your picture if you frame or mat it
when you're done.

Once you have your placement, double check the proportions of the objects. Remember, proportion
refers to the size something when compared to something else. The larger apple is about half the size
of the pumpkin; make sure your pumpkin is twice as big. Because you'll often be drawing a still life
from the actual objects and instead of from photographs, we'll measure them another way: with a
pencil. Hold your pencil next to the pumpkin. The pumpkin is about one and a half pencils high. Now
hold your pencil next to the apple. The apple is only about half a pencil high.

Once we have our shapes in the right place and with the right proportions, we can come back with
darker lines to draw the objects. We have to look at all the lines to see if they are straight or curved
and to see where they connect.

Notice the bottoms of the apples versus the bottom of the pumpkin. The bottoms of the apples appear
LOWER than that of the pumpkin. This is because the apples OVERLAP the pumpkin. When two things
overlap, the object in the front appears lower than the object in the back. Notice where the lines
connect. The line for the pumpkin seems to connect at the MIDDLE of the apples. Make sure your line
is in the right place. Continue with the drawing, taking care to notice where and how the lines connect
with each other.

When you are satisfied with your basic drawing, it's time to add the shading. Look at the photo again.
There are shadows not only on the table, but also on the pumpkin and the apples. Using your 2B pencil,
gently go over the apples with a light layer of graphite. This will give them the
appearance of having color, even though we are
drawing in "black and white." Blend the graphite ^
in with a tortillon. «/''

Next, where you see the shadows, press a little harder on the pencil, making the area darker. There are a
couple of ways to do this. One way is to move your pencil around in a circular motion, creating marks

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similar to that shown here.

Another way is to make straight lines very close together. Be sure these lines are all going in the same
direction. Whatever direction you choose for the shadows of the first object, use that same direction for
the shadows of the other objects.

You can also use lines that criss-cross (called cross-hatching). If you use this method on one object, go
ahead and use it on all of them.
Continue this same process with the other apple and the pumpkin. You'll find your tortillon has a lot of
graphite on it and the tip is becoming more blunt. Don't throw it away! When you've finished shading
the apples and pumpkin, use the same tortillon to add the shadows on the table. You probably won't
even need to use your pencil first — just use the graphite that's already on the tortillon.

Great job on drawing a still life! Remember, to improve your drawing skills you must practice, practice,
practice. You can collect and arrange items from around your home to create your own still life.

Note: When drawing a still life from the actual objects instead of photos, you'll find that you can draw
the objects from many different PERSPECTIVES, or points of view. Each perspective will result in a
different drawing. In the photos below, none of the objects were moved. The photos were taken from

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different perspectives. Notice the "change" in the shadows as well.

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