Article from e_conservation, the online magazine

No. 3, February 2008, pp. 22-47/110

www.e-conservationline.com

PRESERVATION AND CONSERVATION

OF MUMMIES AND SARCOPHAGI
GIAN LUIGI NICOLA
MARCO NICOLA
ALESSANDRO NICOLA

© All images are copyrighted to the owners of the respective works of art and to the authors of this article
 CONSERVATION OF MUMMIES AND SARCOPHAGI

In Italy, and particularly in the collection held by the Egyptian Museum of Turin, there are many
archaeological findings representing a challenge, in terms of conservation. Most of them were
unearthed during the archaeological excavation campaigns carried out in Egypt during the XIXth
and XXth century whilst some of them are donations received from private collections formerly
belonging to wealthy personality and noblemen of the XIXth century, when it was fashionable to
own Egyptian artefacts or even mummies. In many cases these collectors or their heirs donated
such items to the museums for patronage or when they were no longer willing to possess them.
These donations often constitute small collections, almost unknown, and held in Archaeological
and/or Civic Museums.
Until recently, archaeological findings of this kind were stored as and exhibited without the care
required for a museum object, submitting them to improper restoration involving irreversible
consequences, such as in case of mummies’ bandage removal and inappropriate use of
sarcophagi, and well as invasive and irreversible treatments.
The conservation of this type of archaeological material is difficult although quite often
reserving unexpected surprises and great satisfaction. In this essay we will focus on some
preservation and conservation issues we had to face when performing conservation activities on
the mummies and sarcophagi acquired by some museums from private collections.
Special attention will be drawn on environmental parameters, research and analysis,
transportation systems, compatibility of materials and philosophy of conservation.

Introduction

Throughout the nearly 60 years of experience
in conservation boasted by the three
generations of the Nicola family, several
interventions were made on Egyptian artefacts
formerly belonging to private collections and
then acquired by public Institutions. This
essay will focus on archaeological findings of
such provenance nowadays held by the Italian
Civic and/or Archaeological Museums. This
choice is due to the fact that such findings are
particularly interesting under the conservation
point of view since they usually went through
many vicissitudes, a history which seems to be
more complex than the one discovered when
restoring the mummies and the funerary
outfits belonging to great collections such as
those of the Egyptian Museum of Turin. In the
past, the mummy and the sarcophagus of
Pa Sheri en Aset (Museo Archeologico di Genova
Pegli, Italy) were exposed in vertical position
for many years and, after falling down, both
the corpse and the container were seriously
damaged and had to be restored to face the
emergency. The subsequent intervention
conducted actually involved an "archaeological
research" into the finding, which brought to
the recomposition of the written text inside
the sarcophagus and the reconstruction of the
complex outfit of funerary objects. Another
interesting case we had to deal with was the
conservation project relating to the Egyptian
mummy and the relevant sarcophagus belonging
to the Museo Civico di Merano, Italy, involving
the recovery from the damages caused by a
mouse and the removal of a previous,
inappropriate restoration. At the moment1,

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GIAN LUIGI NICOLA, MARCO NICOLA and ALESSANDRO NICOLA
we are also carrying out some analysis in order
to plan the best possible conservation activity
required on a Roman age Egyptian mummy
belonging to the Museo Scarabelli, Imola,
presenting problems which were apparently
due to the putrefaction process. The operations
performed during conservation activities
required for mummies are sometimes incorrectly
defined with the Italian term "restauro"
(which literally corresponds to "restoration",
although the term is usually translated as
"conservation" to correctly match the meaning
in English) however, they are actually steered
towards the material preservation, with the
aim to ensure the possibility of further studies
by means of non-destructive analysis.
1 2
24
Pa Sheri en Aset’s mummy and sarcophagus
(Museo Archeologico di Genova Pegli, Italy)
Thanks to the conservation project, started in
1991 and ended in 1999, it has been possible
to apprehend some interesting information on
the construction of these findings and to better
understand their history. The sarcophagus
belongs to the anthropoid bivalve type:
apparently, this technique was often used in
the construction of coffins of mummies of the
same age of the one under review (images 1, 2).
The wooden moulded parts composing the
sarcophagus were not glued one to the other
but rather fixed by wooden pegs with circular
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profile, which were transversally fitted into the

axes’ thickness. The coffin, once built and
assembled, was then sawn transversally, in
order to obtain perfectly matching bed and top
(images 3-5).

On the cut surface between the bed and the

top, six housings were carved for the pegs to
be fitted therein, with proper rabbet partially
3
filled with glue and fibres. The coffin was then
closed and sealed with plaster, which was applied
manually on the outside after the completion
of the interior decoration and placement of
the corpse inside. The sarcophagus’ internal
and external surfaces are decorated with
tempera colours on a layer of plaster, which
fills the slits between the axes and completely
covers the wood (images 6, 7).
4

6 7 5

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GIAN LUIGI NICOLA, MARCO NICOLA and ALESSANDRO NICOLA
In this sarcophagus there wasn’t a canvas
incorporated in the preparatory layer, which
has been found sometimes within coffins of
the same age. During the conservation
activities, it has been possible to ascertain
that the whole decoration was originally drawn
on the coffin keeping it open; such type of
decoration differs from the one executed on a
closed coffin, with the mummified body inside,
the decorative motifs on the bed are
independent from those on the top, in other
words there is no continuity (image 8).
26
Furthermore, it became evident that the drawing
was sketched in red and then the colours were
laid with a particular order: red first then yellow,
green, blue and finally black. The latter marks
out the drawing in some particular areas. This
colour sequence, detected looking at the super-
imposing layers of the hues, often recurs in the
decoration of Egyptian findings of this age. On
the top, in correspondence with the areas over
the mummy’s chest and legs, the remains of a
semi-transparent amber-coloured substance,
similar to a varnish, were detected (image 9).
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10

We found this substance several times on other 11

contemporary or earlier sarcophagus other times
it had been removed during previous restorations
since it was deemed as non-original. Said
substance, as the majority of natural varnishes,
is easily soluble in organic solvents and shows
golden yellow fluorescence under UV light.

During an earlier conservative operation, in

order to prevent uplifts and detachments,
some lightweight tissue paper was applied on 12
the whole surface to protect it and sealing the
top to the bed. The lower part of the top, over
the feet, was disjoint and slack; from the
openings it was possible to see that part of the
mummy had fallen down due to the prolonged
standing in vertical position (image 10).

Before removing the thin layer of interim tissue

paper, a preliminary inspection to assess the
conditions of the mummy and the presence of
interior decoration inside the coffin has been carried
out by means of optical fibres (images 11, 12).

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GIAN LUIGI NICOLA, MARCO NICOLA and ALESSANDRO NICOLA
From the results of this preliminary exam we
were expecting to find out a serious damage,
which was actually ascertained after the opening
of the sarcophagus after having eliminated the
tissue paper sealing its two parts. The remains
of the mummy, which were completely dis-
articulated, occupied the lower half of the
sarcophagus as a compact mass taking the shape
of the coffin’s interior. Many fragments of
painted plaster detached from the coffin and
felt on the corpse whilst many particles were
deposited among the bandages (image 13).
13
14
28
After temporarily fixing the lift-ups of the
interior decoration still in place and carefully
collecting the fragments fallen on the bandages,
the corpse was transferred on a specially
provided stretcher, carefully avoiding to alter
the position of the mummy’s remains. In the
area where the corpse was laying inside the
bed, many fragments of the coffin’s interior
decoration were found, as well as a few faïence
amulets and a multitude of annular and
cylinder shaped beads (nearly 13,000), which
originally formed the magic armour (image 14).
Thanks to the radiographies of the corpse,
we’ve been able to ascertain that the coffin
had already been opened not just because the
bones were in absurd position (the feet under
the right elbow and the jaws under the feet)
but also because the carved beard of the
sarcophagus was found inside the coffin, with
the mummy (images 15-17).
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15 16

17
In the past, the sarcophagus certainly was
exposed to a severe trauma, which caused the
breakage of a few parts of the wooden coffin
and of the corpse. Such distress did not
happen recently: in an old photograph of the
Museum, the sarcophagus is standing, secured
by a rope winded around the abdomen and
a wire around the throat in order to prevent
its falling down inside the glass cabinet
(images 18).

Relying on the radiography, we carried out a

18
sort of "archaeological research" into the
lump of organic powder, burnt bandages,
bones, skin, resin, plaster and wood
fragments, beads and amulets (image 19).

During this sorting operation the black stone

sacred anepigraph scarab, usually placed over
the heart of the deceased, was found (images
20–22).

19

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GIAN LUIGI NICOLA, MARCO NICOLA and ALESSANDRO NICOLA
20 21
All the findings were selected and recorded.
At this point it was possible to start restoring
the wooden sarcophagus: the fragmentary
parts found inside the case, including the
carved beard have been put back in place; the
broken pegs have been replaced if not
recoverable whilst the missing ones have
been replaced and fitted into the original
housing. The new pegs have been made out
of robinia wood as the mechanical stress
performance is similar to the original pegs’
one and also because it is easily recognizable
by laboratory analysis or under UV light as its
fluorescence is peculiar. The assembly of all
the parts back in place enabled to recover
23
30
22
some of the original strength of the structure.
We did our best to limit the use of glues,
which have been employed only for anchorage
and consolidation of the detached fragments
whilst no glue was used to fix the pegs or the
original set-up in order not to alter the
original cabinet. Only in one case it was
necessary to insert a stainless steel pin, in
the left side area of the coffin’s bed. Once
completed the coffin’s assembly it was possible
to proceed with consolidation, fixing the
colours as well as the preparatory layer to
the wooden support; such operation turned
out to be quite difficult due to the presence
of wax, which had been applied in previous
restorations as a fixative (images 23, 24).
24
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25 26
For this reason it was first necessary to execute
an accurate cleaning of the decorated surfaces,
even if this operation was particularly
difficult, considering the frailty and porosity of
the paint. The dust and organic substances
deposited on the surface were removed first.
The old wax fixatives were then removed by
extraction using organic solvents applied on
cellulose supports. At this point the lengthy
work of repositioning the many detached
fragments of the coffin’s interior decoration,
almost tiny fragments, could start. Most of the
interior’s inscriptions have been recomposed
relying on the work of text interpretation
28 29
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CONSERVATION OF MUMMIES AND SARCOPHAGI
27
(carried out by an Egyptologist2) and on the
preliminary study on the morphological and
technical features of the fragments, including
the plaster’s thickness, the distinguishing
marks of the wood fibres on the plaster and
the brushstrokes (images 25–27).
All the blue faïence elements, the beads, the
tiny cylinders, the amulets and the sacred
scarab have been collected with care, in order
not to further damage the part of the mummy
still in the original anatomic position.
Therefore, in some cases we preferred not to
extract some beads fallen deeply into the still
swathing mummy’s legs and pelvis. Finding
the above mentioned recovered elements we
could understand that the mummy was
probably adorned by magic armour made of
extraordinarily tiny elements. As agreed with
the Principal and the Superintendent, these
elements have been used to recompose the
fragmentary magic armour taking as a model
some analogous findings of the same age
existing in various museums.
More particularly, the magic armour belonging
to the Musée du Louvre, Paris, is composed by
a series of round shaped beads which are
31
GIAN LUIGI NICOLA, MARCO NICOLA and ALESSANDRO NICOLA
similar to the ones found on the Pa Sheri en
Aset mummy, even if the size of the faïence
small cylinders is smaller and the shape of the
sacred winged scarab is different. The
embroidery recomposition has been executed
using linen threads, following the typical
30
31
32
32
construction scheme of the Egyptian magic
armours of that age (images 28, 29).
Nevertheless, the result is merely a proposi-
tional and not a faithful reconstruction and is
easily reversible hence not precluding any
further development. The remains of the
mummy have been placed in anatomic
position, even without proceeding with the
complete reconstruction of the skeleton
(image 30).
The detached bandages and fragments were
put into paper bags and placed over the
corpse, which was then wrapped in canvas
and placed on a moulded and perforated
fibreglass tray3, containing and holding the
mummy though allowing air circulation. The
corpse and the tray as a whole have been
bandaged and covered by a modern linen
sheet secured by a braid, as in ancient times,
and the magic armour has been laid thereon
(images 31, 32).
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Egyptian mummy and sarcophagus, 33

Museo Civico di Merano, Italy

The mummy and the sarcophagus had been

stored for a long while in the deposit of the
Museo di Merano, inside a closet wooden case
which shielded the findings but could not
prevent the damage caused by the xylophagous
insects and rodents neither dust infiltration
(images 33, 34).

As the case was opened it was immediately 34

clear that the content was in very bad
conditions: the sarcophagus was disjointed in
several points despite the previous restorations
and covered by a thick layer of dust, whilst the
mummy inside was under a blanket of cotton
stuffing and chips (images 35, 36)

The sarcophagus is structurally analogous to

the Pa Sheri En Aset sarcophagus, with the
exception of the decoration, which is rather
poorer in this case. Furthermore, this sarco- 35
phagus was used as a container in the past,
as suggested by the eighteenth century metal
hooks applied thereto. The wooden sarcophagus,
still bearing the plaster layer with tempera
decoration has been already restored in al
1915 ca., with a patchy recomposition using
nails, screws4 and other metal and wooden
stiffeners. The painted surfaces had been

36

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GIAN LUIGI NICOLA, MARCO NICOLA and ALESSANDRO NICOLA

treated with a fixative which resulted 37 38

extremely tough and opalescent. The chemical
analysis detected the presence of a white -
nacreous siliceous layer, materially compact
with varying thickness, which suggested the
presence of a sodium silicate. Unfortunately,
the cleaning test results showed that it
wasn’t possible to remove such layer without
risks for the artefact and therefore cleaning
had to stop when reaching the ultimate layer
composed by the above mentioned substance
(images 37, 38).
39
The conservation activities performed by our
team in years 2002-2003 brought to the
recovery and reassembly of all the wooden
structure’s parts which were broken or
detached but didn’t get lost as secured by
metal or wooden joints. Unfortunately, the
parts which had been fixed with nails are
now lost and we can only assume their
existence from the presence of a number
of nails still in place. Our conservation
intervention was focused on recovering
the original joints’ efficiency by replacing
the lost pegs and restoring the broken ones
40
screw-driving internal pins therein. We tried
to limit as much as possible the insertion of
foreign elements which, due to their intrinsic
characteristics, may seriously damage the
wood inducing the formation of cracks.
Taking as a reference the previous restorations
steered towards ensuring mechanical strength
to the artefacts, it may be noted that the
metal plates fixed by more than one fastener
performed better than seaming with single
rigid elements (such as nails or screws)
since these exercise mechanical strength
in a restricted area, thereby provoking, limited to the restoration of the original pegs
in the course of time, the breakage of the made out of hard wood5 since the pin
original wood which is extremely fragile and insertion allowed recovering the pegs’
dehydrated. The insertion of single pins was efficiency (images 39, 40).

34 e_conservation

We avoided as much as possible, using glue
and wooden junctions, to join the various
parts of the original framework6 as alien, not
compatible or distinct whilst the fractures
within a single element have been normally
bonded with vinyl glues (image 41).
41
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CONSERVATION OF MUMMIES AND SARCOPHAGI
The mummy was inside the sarcophagus and
was overcrowd by cotton padding and wood
shavings.
During the operations carried out to find out a
suitable package to safely transport the mummy
to the laboratory, the above mentioned material
was removed and we discovered that the
cotton stuffing came from the interior of a red
velvet pillow placed under the mummy during
the previous conservation intervention, dating
back to the beginning of the XXth century.
42
43
35
GIAN LUIGI NICOLA, MARCO NICOLA and ALESSANDRO NICOLA
44 45
46
The pillow was removed from the original
position by a mouse: the rodent also damaged
the mummy to build up its nest with cotton
stuffing and bone fragments taken from the
mummified body. The corpse of the mouse was
also found under the sarcophagus. Once duly
packed, the remains were taken to the
laboratory, where the mummy was withdrawn
from the bed containing it (images 42-45).
To withdraw the mummified body from the bed
we had to provide a harness in order to
prevent the structural failure of the damaged
parts of the corpse. The harness was made
securing the corpse and the velvet pillow with
some braids, using a Teflon needle. The
braids were then fixed to a specially
36
provided frame, moulded to include the shape
of the mummy: this way it was possible to lift
the corpse without causing any damage, as
shown in the radiographies executed before
and after transportation (images 46, 47).
The mummy was "cleaned" using a micro
vacuum cleaner to remove the dust on the
surface whilst the ragged bandages and cloths
were fixed with stitches. The survived
cartonnage elements were removed and
restored separately. The mummy’s safe
withdrawal from the sarcophagus allowed us
to better work on the sarcophagus, as
illustrated previously.
However, there still was the problem of the
mummy’s conservation: the mummy was
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structurally damaged and it was sensible not 47

to put it back into the coffin without a proper
support, which should have been suitable to
enable the mummy’s safe withdrawal in the
future without being too visible. A cast of the
lower part of the mummy was necessary to
make such support: the corpse had to be
completely winded up with a transparent film
protecting it from humidity (images 48-52).

48 49 50

51 52

53
Then the lower part was covered with a nylon
sheet and a canvas, both fixed to the
structure though well adhering to the
mummy. The nylon sheet was placed to make
sure that the cast could be easily removed
whilst the canvas would strengthen the
plaster cast. Once obtained the shape of the
body from the cast it was finally possible to
realize the fibreglass shaped support required,
which was drilled in order to allow air
circulation. The holes are hidden by canvas
54
coverage (images 53, 54).

After cleaning the mummy and the

cartonnage, the latter was fixed to the
bandages as it was before the intervention
(images 55, 56).

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55 Furthermore, some worm-holes were detected

on the wooden parts of the container thus it
seemed that the mummy was attacked by
insects. In consideration of the above we
planned to examine the corpse after removing
it from the glass showcase. However, since we
suspected putrefaction could be in process, we
decided to execute some preliminary analysis.
56
In November 2004, after taking the mummy
inside the glass showcase to the laboratory,
the whole was introduced inside an air-tight
glass cabinet equipped with valves and air
taps (image 58).

After nearly six months, Prof. Minero and Prof.

Egyptian mummy, Museo Archeologico, Imola
At the moment1 we are working on a Roman
age Egyptian mummy of a girl. The mummy
apparently had serious conservation problems
but, after an in-depth preliminary study, the
problems seemed to be less serious than
Maurino from the Analytical Chemistry
department of the University of Turin,
cooperating with our team of conservators,
took the first sample of air from the glass
cabinet (throughout one of the faucets),
57

expected. Looking through the glass cabinet,

the mummy seemed to be progressively
degrading. Our intervention was steered
towards finding out a specific and appropriate
conservation metho-dology and was also the
occasion to study the mummy under the
archaeological and anthropo-logical point of
view. In October 2003 the Museum Director of
the Museo Archeologico di Imola, contacted
our team asking to sort out a conservation
problem with an Egyptian mummy formerly
belonging to the Scarabelli collection. The
mummy, which until recently had clearly visible
golden areas on the face, at the time we were
called looked dark, brownish and lucid and was
also showing the signs of deliquescence.
The glasses of the showcase containing the
mummy, presumably dating back to the XIXth
century, were misty and therefore it was difficult
to inspect the archaeological finding (image 57).

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the second sample of air from the glass 58

showcase containing the mummy (drilling a
port on the rear part of the glass showcase),
and a third sample of air from the laboratory
environment (images 59-62).

Thanks to the analysis, we ascertained that the

glass showcase containing the mummy was no
longer air/water-tight, despite the glass silicon
seals since the warm holes enabled air
circulation and humidity as well.

59 60

61 62

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As a consequence, the showcase’s misty

glasses were due to condense phenomenon and
therefore, since the showcase was no longer
efficient, it was necessary to replace it. The
chemical analysis performed by Prof. Minero
and Prof. Maurino showed characteristic
markers of Creosote, probably used as a
pesticide and antiseptic during previous
conservation interventions. Creosote is a
hazardous cancerogenic substance which had
to be appropriately treated and efficiently
confined within the new showcase; with the
aim to minimize the risks related to this
substance and to other hazardous products
used in conservation in the past, it would be
sensible to have some official directives
requiring atmosphere control in the museum
environment. In order to avoid biological and
chemical risks for the personnel, we decided
to drill a few ports on the wooden parts of the
showcase in order to proceed with the washing 63

of the mummy showcase’s atmosphere by

means of an autoclave, alternating vacuum
cycles to clean air input (image 63).

After opening the glass showcase, we could

see that the mummy had a brownish lucid
colour partly hiding the gilded parts, once
clearly visible (images 64, 65).

The girl’s head was disjointed from the body

and, between the head and the neck, there
was a cloth pad obstructing the occipital hole. 64

The above mentioned gildings were mainly

visible on the forehead, on the teeth and
possibly on a pad within the mouth cavity
(image 66).

Lifting the green cloth laid on the corpse as a

result of the previous conservation intervention7,
we found out some other gilded areas on the
breast, the abdomen and the pubis (image 67). 65

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66
67
Near the feet and the head some bitty hair is
visible at the showcase’s bottom and over the
green cloth. Some white particles deriving
from the showcase’s interior peeling deposited
and adhered to the skin, which was slightly
deliquescent, sticky and soft (image 68).
The rupture of the right arm in the area
centred around the omeral joint had been
repaired by means of a little greenish pin
and the arm was laid on a piece of wood.
The ercolation of the brownish-lucid substance
on the body caused the adhesion between of
the arm to the wood as well as of the corpse
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CONSERVATION OF MUMMIES AND SARCOPHAGI
to the pillow on which the corpse was lying
down. We noted the leg fractures in the area
centred around the knees, put back in
anatomic position during the previous
conservation intervention. Inside the glass
showcase there were four bottles containing,
according to the labels, calcium chloride and
synthetic camphor. Nearby such bottles the
decorative cord has faded, uniformly and
therefore independently from the content
of the bottles whilst the original hue of the
most distant parts is in perfect conditions.
The radiographies revealed serious damages
to the skeleton and the presence of pins
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68 which have been used for hairdressing and to

repair the omeral fracture (images 69, 70).

For instance, we took into consideration the

possibility to keep the mummy in inert gas
atmosphere (Nitrogen) to protect it from
microrganisms and parasites; in such case it
would have been necessary to check the presence
of anaerobic bacteria, which could be dangerous
in this kind of environment (image 71).

69

70

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71 72

The biological analysis performed8 showed

absence of fungi and anaerobic bacteria alive 73
and a normal presence of aerobic bacteria on
the green cloth while they were absent on the
surface of the corpse (image 72).

It may be noted that if the substance taken

from the corpse of the mummy contaminated
the culture of bacteria taken from the green
cloth, these would not survive. This information
was a key-factor to be considered for the
design of the new showcase: as the air chemical
analysis, this particular data enabled our team
to understand that the archaeological finding
was already treated with preservatives
commonly used as pesticides as well and also
had antiseptic properties. As a consequence,
treatment and conservation in inert gas
atmosphere was considered not necessary.
Even under the operational point of view, the
absence of pathogen bacteria was a guarantee
of safety for those operators treating the
mummy and such condition simplified
working procedures.
74
Our conservation activity was limited to the
removal of the parts of cloth which covered
the corpse as well as of the white fragments
detached from the old showcase’s interior
which adhered to the mummy’s skin and to
the detachment of the mummy from the green
cloth pillow and of the arm from the piece of
wood. Finally, the corpse has been placed on a
stretcher lined with a sterile double fibreglass
net layer (images 73, 74).

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GIAN LUIGI NICOLA, MARCO NICOLA and ALESSANDRO NICOLA
At the moment1, while waiting for the new
showcase, the corpse is kept inside a Plexiglas
cabinet with climate control (18-20°C; 50-55
% Relative Humidity) (image 75).
There are no items similar to the aforesaid
mummy, in terms of conservation parameters
required, at the Archaeological Museum of
Imola. In the case of mummies, it is
necessary to design a specific container for
the conservation of archaeological findings
requiring particular attention. It is actually
necessary to conciliate the complexity
deriving from conservation needs, design
costs, realization and museum management.
Having analysed the conservation environment
adopted by different museums worldwide to
preserve their mummies, we’ve been able to
find out different parameters, which do not
depend exclusively on the climate area in
which each museum is located. In the course
of this study we evaluated the museum
environmental conditions, the microclimate
inside the museum and the macroclimate
outside, the number of visitors in relation to
75
44
the museum’s dimensions and fruition
capacity, the conditions in which the item is
exposed and finally the problems which
apparently determined the worsening of the
mummy’s conditions.
For the new showcase we also took into
consideration some variables, such as
durability of the materials to be used for the
showcase and their suitability for the
proposed solution. Last but not least we
examined the context in which the showcase
should be fitted, under the aesthetical point
of view. Hence, the options polarized towards
a showcase with aluminium framework, wood
lining and stratified glass including UV filter
film. It will be possible to control the climate
parameters inside the glass showcase
throughout the specially provided
instruments; in case of imbalance exceeding
the safety limits, it will be possible to
intervene for corrective action.
A further campaign of analytical analysis9 on
the mummy turned out to be extremely
interesting as identifying some of the materials
within the archaeological findings.
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Of particular note was the X Ray-Fluorescence
(XRF) portable instrument, which requires no
sampling and is therefore a non-invasive and
non-destructive analysis. Throughout this
technique, it was possible to obtain some more
detailed information on gold, which turned out
to be particularly pure (images 76, 77).
Chlorine and Potassium signals were often
detected as well, suggesting the use of chlorides
during embalming operations or afterwards, for
conservation. At the moment further analysis
throughout gas chromatography has been
undertaken to identify the organic substances
of the brownish-lucid layer on the mummy’s
surface and to verify the presence of henna or
other dyes used for hair colouring.
Radiocarbon dating of the cloth found at the
base of the skull will provide further details on
the age of the archaeological finding and will
improve our knowledge on the Egyptian
embalming techniques.
Some anthropological studies and analysis
carried out by the academics10 of the
76
77
e_conservation
CONSERVATION OF MUMMIES AND SARCOPHAGI
University and of the Anthrpological Museum
of Turin, also relying on various analyses, still
have to be completed. The results of the
aforesaid studies, together with other
information relating to the preservation and
conservation of this particular mummy will
be presented at the VI World Congress on
Mummy Studies, which will be held in
Lanzarote (Canary Islands) in February 20071.
Conclusions
These three cases are certainly significant
however we could narrate about many others,
revealing some embarrassing anecdotes. As an
example, during the performance of conservation
activities on a mummy belonging to the Civic
Museum of Asti11, we detected some damages
which were probably imputable to the former
owners or to the museum conservators who
tried to withdraw the amulets from the corpse
without the necessary care. Thanks to the X-
Rays analysis, the missing parts of broken
amulets exposed in the Museum’s showcase
were found inside the mummy.
Hopefully, conservation may help us under-
standing as well as enhancing our knowledge
as no conservation intervention can leave
knowledge aside. In the near future, the
sarcophagus belonging to the Narni Museum
as well as a mummy - not belonging to this
institution – which has already been studied
by the academics of the University of Pisa
from the anthropological point of view, will be
the occasion for new studies steered towards
an in-depth knowledge of this archaeological
finding, considering that many coffins were
re-used in the past. Even in this case, an
interdisciplinary approach will be necessary
to obtain reliable scientific results12 while
coordination is essential to properly use and
elaborate the information available.
45
GIAN LUIGI NICOLA, MARCO NICOLA and ALESSANDRO NICOLA
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the following people
and institution for making some aspects of our
work possible:
Dr. Guido Rossi – Archeological Museum of
Genova Pegli
Dr. Caterina Longo – Civic Museum of Merano
Dr. Laura Mazzini & Dr. Daniela Picchi – Civic
Museum "Scarabelli" of Imola
Ms. Melanie Zeffirino (translation) and Ms.
Carla Gori (paging)*
Endnotes
1. The present article was presented at the EITEC
Workshop (Encontro International de Tecnologias
Aplicadas à Museologia, Conservacao e Restauro), 19-20
October 2006, Coimbra, Portugal.
2. Dr. Valeria Cortese - Torino.
3. Compare the construction technique of the fibreglass
tray described in relation to the case of the mummy
belonging to the Museo Civico di Merano.
4. The use of screws is certainly less stressful than
employing nails, which have to be inserted with a
hammer, involving a serious trauma for the layers of
plaster and paint. The damage is particularly serious
when single nails are used whilst the appliance of plates
fixed by means of more than one fastener is less invasive.
5. When it was necessary to replace a missing peg into
the original housing, the new peg has been made out of
Robinia wood – a species which did not grow in ancient
Egypt – having similar mechanical stress performance to
the Nile Acacia and other hard woods usually employed
to make pegs. Furthermore, this type of wood is
absolutely recognisable and therefore distinct for the
typical fluorescence to UV light.
6. The original technique required the union of
structural elements throughout pegs which were
sometimes totally hidden in the wood thickness and
*Article submitted to EITEC 2006
46
sometimes placed diagonally so that the head was visible.
All the slots were filled with plaster (containing iron
oxides and gypsum), which was often applied on the
surrounding area and, more frequently, was the prepara-
tory layer for the tempera decoration.
7. During a previous conservation intervention, the corpse
was recomposed on a green velvet pillow with a decorative
cord. A green cloth was also laid on it to cover nudity.
8. Biological analysis has been performed by Dr. Daniela
Riccio (ALCHIM S.a.s.) coordinated by ADAMANTIO S.r.l..
9. Performed by ADAMANTIO S.r.l.
10. Performed by Dr. Boano, Dr. Fulcheri, Dr. Grilletto, Dr.
Carnazza, Dr. Bresci, Dr. Meaglia, Dr. Barbero and Dr. Rabino
11. Compare in bibliography "Museo Archeologico di Asti:
La collezione Egizia" pag. 43.
12. Compare in bibliography "Sarcofagi della XXI dinastia
(CGT 10101-10122)"
Bibliography
1. E. Leospo (ed.); Io vivrò per sempre – Storia di un
sacerdote dell’antico Egitto. Tormenta Editore, Genova
(1999)
2. G. L. Nicola; Restauro di opere restaurate:
problematiche di intervento in due casi limite.
Proceedings of XIX International Conference "Science and
Cultural Heritage" Bressanone (Italy) 1-4 July 2003,
Arcadia Ricerche, Padova (2003)
3. E. Leospo (ed.); Museo Archeologico di Asti – La
collezione egizia. Ages Arti Grafiche, Torino (1986)
4. G. Fornaciari, A. G. Naccarato, F. Mallegni; Autopsia per
una mummia. Archeologia Viva – Anno XIII n° 44 Marzo-
Aprile 1994 - Giunti (1994)
5. A. Niwinski (ed.), G. L. Nicola, T. Radelet, G. Laquale;
Sarcofagi della XXI dinastia (CGT 10101-10122) Ministero
dei Beni e de delle Attività Culturali, Torino (2004)
6. A. M. Donadoni Roveri; Passato e Futuro del Museo
Egizio di Torino. Allemandi & C., Torino (1989)
7. G. L. Nicola (ed.); De Gypso et Coloribus. Celid, Torino (2002)
e_conservation

Prof. GIAN LUIGI NICOLA
NICOLA RESTAURI S.r.l - Italy
www.nicolarestauri.it
Contact: nicolarestauri@tin.it
In 1966, after completing his studies in visual
arts, Gian Luigi Nicola graduated at the
Accademia Albertina of Turin and was awarded
with professorship one year later. Since then
he’s been working with his father, not only in
the restoration of paintings but mainly
specialising in conservation of archaeological
findings of various materials such as wood,
stone, plaster, and clay (particularly from
Egypt) requiring treatment in situ. In 1988 the
experience of all members of the Nicola family
merged into the new-born NICOLA RESTAURI
S.r.l. Gian Luigi Nicola is one of the Technical
Directors in-charge, by virtue of the great
experience acquired working with the Egyptian
Museum of Turin and a number of Italian
Archaeological Museums for which he restored
so many artefacts, including more than 200
old Egyptian wooden sarcophagi, nearly 900
ceramic vases and handicrafts, stone
monuments and almost all the statues of
pharaohs and gods held by the Egyptian
Museum of Turin. In 1975 and 1983 by
appointment of the Egyptian Government, he
drew up two preparatory projects for the
conservation of the Tomb of Nefertari and, in
1992, he was invited by the Egyptian
Government, to participate to the
international conference on the Sphinx
conservation project, being one of the 16
members of the international team of experts
working on this goal. Last but not least, since
1998, Gian Luigi Nicola is Professor of
conservation and training at the Academy of
Fine Arts of Turin, for the BA and MA degree
courses in Conservation Studies.
e_conservation
CONSERVATION OF MUMMIES AND SARCOPHAGI
Dr. MARCO NICOLA
ADAMANTIO S.r.l. – c/o CNR-ISTEC – Italy
www.adamantionet.com
Contact: nicola@adamantionet.com
Marco Nicola represents the third generation of
a family of conservators. He took an honours
degree (110/110) in chemistry at the
University of Turin in 2003, presenting his
final dissertation on Protein-based media
identification and ageing in Art. In 2005 he
started his Science and Material Technology
PhD, working on the bio-susceptibility of
restored materials. On February 2005, with his
friend Dr. Admir Masic, he founded ADAMANTIO
S.r.l., a start-up hosted by University of Turin
and CNR-ISTEC, carrying out specific projects
relating to conservation, including scientific
analysis and researches focused on preservation
and restoration of cultural heritage. As Board
Director and Conservation Scientist in charge
of research and conservation projects, Marco
Nicola’s professional experience in conservation
ranges over a variety of subjects, including
artefacts and monuments of architectural and
historical interest, archaeological sites, mural
paintings, oil and tempera paintings on canvas
and wood panel, book and paper conservation,
as well as stuccoes, stone, wood, terracotta,
mosaics, enamels, metals and archaeological
findings such as mummies. He performed some
interesting analysis and research campaigns
focused on material identification, dating and
damage assessment thereby providing advice
on conservation strategies as well as analysis
driven to identify and eventually carry out the
most appropriate treatments required. Since
2004, he has been cooperating with the family
company, NICOLA RESTAURI S.r.l., as R&D
Manager in-charge of chemical and scientific
analysis for conservation projects and activity.
47
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