Notation

The library uses the symbol font for some of the notation and formulae. If the symbols for the letters 'alpha
beta delta' do not appear here [α β δ] then the symbol font needs to be installed before all notation and
formulae will be displayed correctly.
E voltage source [volts, V] V voltage drop [volts, V]
G conductance [siemens, S] X reactance [ohms, Ω]
I current [amps, A] Y admittance [siemens, S]
R resistance [ohms, Ω] Z impedance [ohms, Ω]
P power [watts]

Ohm's Law

When an applied voltage E causes a current I to flow through an impedance Z, the value of the impedance Z
is equal to the voltage E divided by the current I.

Impedance = Voltage / Current Z=E/I

Similarly, when a voltage E is applied across an impedance Z, the resulting current I through the impedance
is equal to the voltage E divided by the impedance Z.

Current = Voltage / Impedance I=E/Z

Similarly, when a current I is passed through an impedance Z, the resulting voltage drop V across the
impedance is equal to the current I multiplied by the impedance Z.

Voltage = Current * Impedance V = IZ

Alternatively, using admittance Y which is the reciprocal of impedance Z:

Voltage = Current / Admittance V=I/Y

Kirchhoff's Laws

Kirchhoff's Current Law

At any instant the sum of all the currents flowing into any circuit node is equal to the sum of all the currents
flowing out of that node:
ΣIin = ΣIout

Similarly, at any instant the algebraic sum of all the currents at any circuit node is zero:
ΣI = 0

Kirchhoff's Voltage Law

At any instant the sum of all the voltage sources in any closed circuit is equal to the sum of all the voltage
drops in that circuit:
ΣE = ΣIZ

Similarly, at any instant the algebraic sum of all the voltages around any closed circuit is zero:
ΣE - ΣIZ = 0

Thévenin's Theorem

Any linear voltage network which may be viewed from two terminals can be replaced by a voltage-source
equivalent circuit comprising a single voltage source E and a single series impedance Z. The voltage E is
the open-circuit voltage between the two terminals and the impedance Z is the impedance of the network
viewed from the terminals with all voltage sources replaced by their internal impedances.

R Curras 1
Norton's Theorem

Any linear current network which may be viewed from two terminals can be replaced by a current-source
equivalent circuit comprising a single current source I and a single shunt admittance Y. The current I is the
short-circuit current between the two terminals and the admittance Y is the admittance of the network viewed
from the terminals with all current sources replaced by their internal admittances.

Thévenin and Norton Equivalence

The open circuit, short circuit and load conditions of the Thévenin model are:
Voc = E
Isc = E / Z
Vload = E - IloadZ
Iload = E / (Z + Zload)

The open circuit, short circuit and load conditions of the Norton model are:
Voc = I / Y
Isc = I
Vload = I / (Y + Yload)
Iload = I - VloadY

Thévenin model from Norton model

Voltage = Current / Admittance E=I/Y

Impedance = 1 / Admittance Z = Y -1

Norton model from Thévenin model

Current = Voltage / Impedance I=E/Z

Admittance = 1 / Impedance Y = Z -1

When performing network reduction for a Thévenin or Norton model, note that:
- nodes with zero voltage difference may be short-circuited with no effect on the network current distribution,
- branches carrying zero current may be open-circuited with no effect on the network voltage distribution.

Superposition Theorem

In a linear network with multiple voltage sources, the current in any branch is the sum of the currents which
would flow in that branch due to each voltage source acting alone with all other voltage sources replaced by
their internal impedances.

Reciprocity Theorem

If a voltage source E acting in one branch of a network causes a current I to flow in another branch of the
network, then the same voltage source E acting in the second branch would cause an identical current I to
flow in the first branch.

Compensation Theorem

If the impedance Z of a branch in a network in which a current I flows is changed by a finite amount δZ, then
the change in the currents in all other branches of the network may be calculated by inserting a voltage
source of -IδZ into that branch with all other voltage sources replaced by their internal impedances.

R Curras 2
Millman's Theorem (Parallel Generator Theorem)

If any number of admittances Y1, Y2, Y3, ... meet at a common point P, and the voltages from another point
N to the free ends of these admittances are E1, E2, E3, ... then the voltage between points P and N is:

VPN = (E1Y1 + E2Y2 + E3Y3 + ...) / (Y1 + Y2 + Y3 + ...)

VPN = ΣEY / ΣY

The short-circuit currents available between points P and N due to each of the voltages E1, E2, E3, ... acting
through the respective admitances Y1, Y2, Y3, ... are E1Y1, E2Y2, E3Y3, ... so the voltage between points P
and N may be expressed as:

VPN = ΣIsc / ΣY

Joule's Law

When a current I is passed through a resistance R, the resulting power P dissipated in the resistance is
equal to the square of the current I multiplied by the resistance R:
P = I2R

By substitution using Ohm's Law for the corresponding voltage drop V (= IR) across the resistance:
P = V2 / R = VI = I2R

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

When the impedance of a load connected to a power source is varied from open-circuit to short-circuit, the
power absorbed by the load has a maximum value at a load impedance which is dependent on the
impedance of the power source.

Note that power is zero for an open-circuit (zero current) and for a short-circuit (zero voltage).

Voltage Source
When a load resistance RT is connected to a voltage source ES with series resistance RS, maximum power
transfer to the load occurs when RT is equal to RS.

Under maximum power transfer conditions, the load resistance RT, load voltage VT, load current IT and load
power PT are:
RT = RS
VT = ES / 2
IT = VT / RT = ES / 2RS
2 2
PT = VT / RT = ES / 4RS

Current Source
When a load conductance GT is connected to a current source IS with shunt conductance GS, maximum
power transfer to the load occurs when GT is equal to GS.

Under maximum power transfer conditions, the load conductance GT, load current IT, load voltage VT and
load power PT are:
GT = GS
IT = IS / 2
VT = IT / GT = IS / 2GS
2 2
PT = IT / GT = IS / 4GS

R Curras 3
Complex Impedances
When a load impedance ZT (comprising variable resistance RT and variable reactance XT) is connected to
an alternating voltage source ES with series impedance ZS (comprising resistance RS and reactance XS),
*
maximum power transfer to the load occurs when ZT is equal to ZS (the complex conjugate of ZS) such that
RT and RS are equal and XT and XS are equal in magnitude but of opposite sign (one inductive and the other
capacitive).

When a load impedance ZT (comprising variable resistance RT and constant reactance XT) is connected to
an alternating voltage source ES with series impedance ZS (comprising resistance RS and reactance XS),
maximum power transfer to the load occurs when RT is equal to the magnitude of the impedance comprising
ZS in series with XT:
2 2 ½
RT = |ZS + XT| = (RS + (XS + XT) )
Note that if XT is zero, maximum power transfer occurs when RT is equal to the magnitude of ZS:
2 2 ½
RT = |ZS| = (RS + XS )

When a load impedance ZT with variable magnitude and constant phase angle (constant power factor) is
connected to an alternating voltage source ES with series impedance ZS, maximum power transfer to the
load occurs when the magnitude of ZT is equal to the magnitude of ZS:
2 2 ½ 2 2 ½
(RT + XT ) = |ZT| = |ZS| = (RS + XS )

Kennelly's Star-Delta Transformation

A star network of three impedances ZAN, ZBN and ZCN connected together at common node N can be
transformed into a delta network of three impedances ZAB, ZBC and ZCA by the following equations:
ZAB = ZAN + ZBN + (ZANZBN / ZCN) = (ZANZBN + ZBNZCN + ZCNZAN) / ZCN
ZBC = ZBN + ZCN + (ZBNZCN / ZAN) = (ZANZBN + ZBNZCN + ZCNZAN) / ZAN
ZCA = ZCN + ZAN + (ZCNZAN / ZBN) = (ZANZBN + ZBNZCN + ZCNZAN) / ZBN

Similarly, using admittances:

YAB = YANYBN / (YAN + YBN + YCN)
YBC = YBNYCN / (YAN + YBN + YCN)
YCA = YCNYAN / (YAN + YBN + YCN)

In general terms:
Zdelta = (sum of Zstar pair products) / (opposite Zstar)
Ydelta = (adjacent Ystar pair product) / (sum of Ystar)

Kennelly's Delta-Star Transformation

A delta network of three impedances ZAB, ZBC and ZCA can be transformed into a star network of three
impedances ZAN, ZBN and ZCN connected together at common node N by the following equations:
ZAN = ZCAZAB / (ZAB + ZBC + ZCA)
ZBN = ZABZBC / (ZAB + ZBC + ZCA)
ZCN = ZBCZCA / (ZAB + ZBC + ZCA)

Similarly, using admittances:

YAN = YCA + YAB + (YCAYAB / YBC) = (YABYBC + YBCYCA + YCAYAB) / YBC
YBN = YAB + YBC + (YABYBC / YCA) = (YABYBC + YBCYCA + YCAYAB) / YCA
YCN = YBC + YCA + (YBCYCA / YAB) = (YABYBC + YBCYCA + YCAYAB) / YAB

In general terms:
Zstar = (adjacent Zdelta pair product) / (sum of Zdelta)
Ystar = (sum of Ydelta pair products) / (opposite Ydelta)

R Curras 4
Notation

The library uses the symbol font for some of the notation and formulae. If the symbols for the letters 'alpha
beta delta' do not appear here [α β δ] then the symbol font needs to be installed before all notation and
formulae will be displayed correctly.
C capacitance [farads, F] Q charge [coulombs, C]
E voltage source [volts, V] q instantaneous Q [coulombs, C]
e instantaneous E [volts, V] R resistance [ohms, Ω]
G conductance [siemens, S] T time constant [seconds, s]
I current [amps, A] t instantaneous time [seconds, s]
i instantaneous I [amps, A] V voltage drop [volts, V]
k coefficient [number] v instantaneous V [volts, V]
L inductance [henrys, H] W energy [joules, J]
M mutual inductance [henrys, H] Φ magnetic flux [webers, Wb]
N number of turns [number] Ψ magnetic linkage [webers, Wb]
P power [watts, W] ψ instantaneous Ψ [webers, Wb]

Resistance

The resistance R of a circuit is equal to the applied direct voltage E divided by the resulting steady current I:
R=E/I

Resistances in Series

When resistances R1, R2, R3, ... are connected in series, the total resistance RS is:
RS = R1 + R2 + R3 + ...

Voltage Division by Series Resistances

When a total voltage ES is applied across series connected resistances R1 and R2, the current IS which flows
through the series circuit is:
IS = ES / RS = ES / (R1 + R2)

The voltages V1 and V2 which appear across the respective resistances R1 and R2 are:
V1 = ISR1 = ESR1 / RS = ESR1 / (R1 + R2)
V2 = ISR2 = ESR2 / RS = ESR2 / (R1 + R2)

In general terms, for resistances R1, R2, R3, ... connected in series:
IS = ES / RS = ES / (R1 + R2 + R3 + ...)
Vn = ISRn = ESRn / RS = ESRn / (R1 + R2 + R3 + ...)
Note that the highest voltage drop appears across the highest resistance.

Resistances in Parallel

When resistances R1, R2, R3, ... are connected in parallel, the total resistance RP is:
1 / RP = 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + 1 / R3 + ...

Alternatively, when conductances G1, G2, G3, ... are connected in parallel, the total conductance GP is:
GP = G1 + G2 + G3 + ...
where Gn = 1 / Rn

For two resistances R1 and R2 connected in parallel, the total resistance RP is:
RP = R1R2 / (R1 + R2)
RP = product / sum

R Curras 5
The resistance R2 to be connected in parallel with resistance R1 to give a total resistance RP is:
R2 = R1RP / (R1 - RP)
R2 = product / difference

Current Division by Parallel Resistances

When a total current IP is passed through parallel connected resistances R1 and R2, the voltage VP which
appears across the parallel circuit is:
VP = IPRP = IPR1R2 / (R1 + R2)

The currents I1 and I2 which pass through the respective resistances R1 and R2 are:
I1 = VP / R1 = IPRP / R1 = IPR2 / (R1 + R2)
I2 = VP / R2 = IPRP / R2 = IPR1 / (R1 + R2)

In general terms, for resistances R1, R2, R3, ... (with conductances G1, G2, G3, ...) connected in parallel:
VP = IPRP = IP / GP = IP / (G1 + G2 + G3 + ...)
In = VP / Rn = VPGn = IPGn / GP = IPGn / (G1 + G2 + G3 + ...)
where Gn = 1 / Rn
Note that the highest current passes through the highest conductance (with the lowest resistance).

Capacitance

When a voltage is applied to a circuit containing capacitance, current flows to accumulate charge in the
capacitance:
Q = ∫idt = CV

Alternatively, by differentiation with respect to time:

dq/dt = i = C dv/dt
Note that the rate of change of voltage has a polarity which opposes the flow of current.

The capacitance C of a circuit is equal to the charge divided by the voltage:

C = Q / V = ∫idt / V

Alternatively, the capacitance C of a circuit is equal to the charging current divided by the rate of change of
voltage:
C = i / dv/dt = dq/dt / dv/dt = dq/dv

Capacitances in Series

When capacitances C1, C2, C3, ... are connected in series, the total capacitance CS is:
1 / CS = 1 / C1 + 1 / C2 + 1 / C3 + ...

For two capacitances C1 and C2 connected in series, the total capacitance CS is:
CS = C1C2 / (C1 + C2)
CS = product / sum

Voltage Division by Series Capacitances

When a total voltage ES is applied to series connected capacitances C1 and C2, the charge QS which
accumulates in the series circuit is:
QS = ∫iSdt = ESCS = ESC1C2 / (C1 + C2)

The voltages V1 and V2 which appear across the respective capacitances C1 and C2 are:
V1 = ∫iSdt / C1 = ESCS / C1 = ESC2 / (C1 + C2)
V2 = ∫iSdt / C2 = ESCS / C2 = ESC1 / (C1 + C2)

R Curras 6
In general terms, for capacitances C1, C2, C3, ... connected in series:
QS = ∫iSdt = ESCS = ES / (1 / CS) = ES / (1 / C1 + 1 / C2 + 1 / C3 + ...)
Vn = ∫iSdt / Cn = ESCS / Cn = ES / Cn(1 / CS) = ES / Cn(1 / C1 + 1 / C2 + 1 / C3 + ...)
Note that the highest voltage appears across the lowest capacitance.

Capacitances in Parallel

When capacitances C1, C2, C3, ... are connected in parallel, the total capacitance CP is:
CP = C1 + C2 + C3 + ...

Charge Division by Parallel Capacitances

When a voltage EP is applied to parallel connected capacitances C1 and C2, the charge QP which
accumulates in the parallel circuit is:
QP = ∫iPdt = EPCP = EP(C1 + C2)

The charges Q1 and Q2 which accumulate in the respective capacitances C1 and C2 are:
Q1 = ∫i1dt = EPC1 = QPC1 / CP = QPC1 / (C1 + C2)
Q2 = ∫i2dt = EPC2 = QPC2 / CP = QPC2 / (C1 + C2)

In general terms, for capacitances C1, C2, C3, ... connected in parallel:
QP = ∫iPdt = EPCP = EP(C1 + C2 + C3 + ...)
Qn = ∫indt = EPCn = QPCn / CP = QPCn / (C1 + C2 + C3 + ...)
Note that the highest charge accumulates in the highest capacitance.

Inductance

When the current changes in a circuit containing inductance, the magnetic linkage changes and induces a
voltage in the inductance:
dψ/dt = e = L di/dt
Note that the induced voltage has a polarity which opposes the rate of change of current.

Alternatively, by integration with respect to time:

Ψ = ∫edt = LI

The inductance L of a circuit is equal to the induced voltage divided by the rate of change of current:
L = e / di/dt = dψ/dt / di/dt = dψ/di

Alternatively, the inductance L of a circuit is equal to the magnetic linkage divided by the current:
L=Ψ/I

Note that the magnetic linkage Ψ is equal to the product of the number of turns N and the magnetic flux Φ:
Ψ = NΦ = LI

Mutual Inductance

The mutual inductance M of two coupled inductances L1 and L2 is equal to the mutually induced voltage in
one inductance divided by the rate of change of current in the other inductance:
M = E2m / (di1/dt)
M = E1m / (di2/dt)

If the self induced voltages of the inductances L1 and L2 are respectively E1s and E2s for the same rates of
change of the current that produced the mutually induced voltages E1m and E2m, then:
M = (E2m / E1s)L1
M = (E1m / E2s)L2

R Curras 7
Combining these two equations:
M = (E1mE2m / E1sE2s)½ (L1L2)½ = kM(L1L2)½
where kM is the mutual coupling coefficient of the two inductances L1 and L2.

If the coupling between the two inductances L1 and L2 is perfect, then the mutual inductance M is:
½
M = (L1L2)

Inductances in Series

When uncoupled inductances L1, L2, L3, ... are connected in series, the total inductance LS is:
LS = L1 + L2 + L3 + ...

When two coupled inductances L1 and L2 with mutual inductance M are connected in series, the total
inductance LS is:
LS = L1 + L2 ± 2M
The plus or minus sign indicates that the coupling is either additive or subtractive, depending on the
connection polarity.

Inductances in Parallel

When uncoupled inductances L1, L2, L3, ... are connected in parallel, the total inductance LP is:
1 / LP = 1 / L1 + 1 / L2 + 1 / L3 + ...

Time Constants

Capacitance and resistance

The time constant of a capacitance C and a resistance R is equal to CR, and represents the time to change
the voltage on the capacitance from zero to E at a constant charging current E / R (which produces a rate of
change of voltage E / CR across the capacitance).

Similarly, the time constant CR represents the time to change the charge on the capacitance from zero to
CE at a constant charging current E / R (which produces a rate of change of voltage E / CR across the
capacitance).

If a voltage E is applied to a series circuit comprising a discharged capacitance C and a resistance R, then
after time t the current i, the voltage vR across the resistance, the voltage vC across the capacitance and the
charge qC on the capacitance are:
- t / CR
i = (E / R)e
vR = iR = Ee - t / CR
- t / CR
vC = E - vR = E(1 - e )
- t / CR
qC = CvC = CE(1 - e )

If a capacitance C charged to voltage V is discharged through a resistance R, then after time t the current i,
the voltage vR across the resistance, the voltage vC across the capacitance and the charge qC on the
capacitance are:
i = (V / R)e - t / CR
vR = iR = Ve - t / CR
- t / CR
vC = vR = Ve
qC = CvC = CVe - t / CR

Inductance and resistance

The time constant of an inductance L and a resistance R is equal to L / R, and represents the time to
change the current in the inductance from zero to E / R at a constant rate of change of current E / L (which
produces an induced voltage E across the inductance).

R Curras 8
If a voltage E is applied to a series circuit comprising an inductance L and a resistance R, then after time t
the current i, the voltage vR across the resistance, the voltage vL across the inductance and the magnetic
linkage ψL in the inductance are:
i = (E / R)(1 - e - tR / L)
- tR / L
vR = iR = E(1 - e )
- tR / L
vL = E - vR = Ee
- tR / L
ψL = Li = (LE / R)(1 - e )

If an inductance L carrying a current I is discharged through a resistance R, then after time t the current i,
the voltage vR across the resistance, the voltage vL across the inductance and the magnetic linkage ψL in
the inductance are:
i = Ie - tR / L
vR = iR = IRe - tR / L
- tR / L
vL = vR = IRe
- tR / L
ψL = Li = LIe

Rise Time and Fall Time

The rise time (or fall time) of a change is defined as the transition time between the 10% and 90% levels of
the total change, so for an exponential rise (or fall) of time constant T, the rise time (or fall time) t10-90 is:
t10-90 = (ln0.9 - ln0.1)T ≈ 2.2T

The half time of a change is defined as the transition time between the initial and 50% levels of the total
change, so for an exponential change of time constant T, the half time t50 is :
t50 = (ln1.0 - ln0.5)T ≈ 0.69T

Note that for an exponential change of time constant T:

-1
- over time interval T, a rise changes by a factor 1 - e (≈ 0.63) of the remaining change,
- over time interval T, a fall changes by a factor e -1 (≈ 0.37) of the remaining change,
- after time interval 3T, less than 5% of the total change remains,
- after time interval 5T, less than 1% of the total change remains.

Power

The power P dissipated by a resistance R carrying a current I with a voltage drop V is:
P = V2 / R = VI = I2R

Similarly, the power P dissipated by a conductance G carrying a current I with a voltage drop V is:
P = V2G = VI = I2 / G

The power P transferred by a capacitance C holding a changing voltage V with charge Q is:
P = VI = CV(dv/dt) = Q(dv/dt) = Q(dq/dt) / C

The power P transferred by an inductance L carrying a changing current I with magnetic linkage Ψ is:
P = VI = LI(di/dt) = Ψ(di/dt) = Ψ(dψ/dt) / L

Energy

The energy W consumed over time t due to power P dissipated in a resistance R carrying a current I with a
voltage drop V is:
2 2
W = Pt = V t / R = VIt = I tR

Similarly, the energy W consumed over time t due to power P dissipated in a conductance G carrying a
current I with a voltage drop V is:
W = Pt = V2tG = VIt = I2t / G

R Curras 9
The energy W stored in a capacitance C holding voltage V with charge Q is:
2 2
W = CV / 2 = QV / 2 = Q / 2C

The energy W stored in an inductance L carrying current I with magnetic linkage Ψ is:
W = LI2 / 2 = ΨI / 2 = Ψ2 / 2L

Batteries

If a battery of open-circuit voltage EB has a loaded voltage VL when supplying load current IL, the battery
internal resistance RB is:
RB = (EB - VL) / IL

The load voltage VL and load current IL for a load resistance RL are:
VL = ILRL = EB - ILRB = EBRL / (RB + RL)
IL = VL / RL = (EB - VL) / RB = EB / (RB + RL)

The battery short-circuit current Isc is:

Isc = EB / RB = EBIL / (EB - VL)

Voltmeter Multiplier

The resistance RS to be connected in series with a voltmeter of full scale voltage VV and full scale current
drain IV to increase the full scale voltage to V is:
RS = (V - VV) / IV

The power P dissipated by the resistance RS with voltage drop (V - VV) carrying current IV is:
P = (V - VV)2 / RS = (V - VV)IV = IV2RS

Ammeter Shunt

The resistance RP to be connected in parallel with an ammeter of full scale current IA and full scale voltage
drop VA to increase the full scale current to I is:
RP = VA / (I - IA)

The power P dissipated by the resistance RP with voltage drop VA carrying current (I - IA) is:
P = VA2 / RP = VA(I - IA) = (I - IA)2RP

Wheatstone Bridge

The Wheatstone Bridge consists of two resistive potential dividers connected to a common voltage source. If
one potential divider has resistances R1 and R2 in series and the other potential divider has resistances R3
and R4 in series, with R1 and R3 connected to one side of the voltage source and R2 and R4 connected to the
other side of the voltage source, then at the balance point where the two resistively divided voltages are
equal:
R1 / R2 = R3 / R4

If the value of resistance R4 is unknown and the values of resistances R3, R2 and R1 at the balance point are
known, then:
R4 = R3R2 / R1

R Curras 10
Notation

The library uses the symbol font for some of the notation and formulae. If the symbols for the letters 'alpha
beta delta' do not appear here [α β δ] then the symbol font needs to be installed before all notation and
formulae will be displayed correctly.
B susceptance [siemens, S] Q quality factor [number]
C capacitance [farads, F] R resistance [ohms, Ω]
E voltage source [volts, V] S apparent power [volt-amps, VA]
f frequency [hertz, Hz] t time [seconds, s]
G conductance [siemens, S] V voltage drop [volts, V]
h h-operator [1∠120°] W energy [joules, J]
I current [amps, A] X reactance [ohms, Ω]
j j-operator [1∠90°] Y admittance [siemens, S]
L inductance [henrys, H] Z impedance [ohms, Ω]
P active power [watts, W] φ phase angle [degrees, °]
Q reactive power [VAreactive, VArs] ω angular frequency [rad/sec]

Impedance

The impedance Z of a resistance R in series with a reactance X is:

Z = R + jX

Rectangular and polar forms of impedance Z:

2 2 ½ -1
Z = R + jX = (R + X ) ∠tan (X / R) = |Z|∠φ = |Z|cosφ + j|Z|sinφ

Addition of impedances Z1 and Z2:

Z1 + Z2 = (R1 + jX1) + (R2 + jX2) = (R1 + R2) + j(X1 + X2)

Subtraction of impedances Z1 and Z2:

Z1 - Z2 = (R1 + jX1) - (R2 + jX2) = (R1 - R2) + j(X1 - X2)

Multiplication of impedances Z1 and Z2:

Z1 * Z2 = |Z1|∠φ1 * |Z2|∠φ2 = ( |Z1| * |Z2| )∠(φ1 + φ2)

Division of impedances Z1 and Z2:

Z1 / Z2 = |Z1|∠φ1 / |Z2|∠φ2 = ( |Z1| / |Z2| )∠(φ1 − φ2)

In summary:
- use the rectangular form for addition and subtraction,
- use the polar form for multiplication and division.

Admittance

An impedance Z comprising a resistance R in series with a reactance X can be converted to an admittance

Y comprising a conductance G in parallel with a susceptance B:
-1 2 2 2 2 2 2
Y = Z = 1 / (R + jX) = (R - jX) / (R + X ) = R / (R + X ) - jX / (R + X ) = G - jB
2 2 2
G = R / (R + X ) = R / |Z|
2 2 2
B = X / (R + X ) = X / |Z|
Using the polar form of impedance Z:
Y = 1 / |Z|∠φ = |Z| -1∠−φ = |Y|∠−φ = |Y|cosφ - j|Y|sinφ

Conversely, an admittance Y comprising a conductance G in parallel with a susceptance B can be

converted to an impedance Z comprising a resistance R in series with a reactance X:
-1 2 2 2 2 2 2
Z = Y = 1 / (G - jB) = (G + jB) / (G + B ) = G / (G + B ) + jB / (G + B ) = R + jX
2 2 2
R = G / (G + B ) = G / |Y|
2 2 2
X = B / (G + B ) = B / |Y|

R Curras 11
Using the polar form of admittance Y:
-1
Z = 1 / |Y|∠−φ = |Y| ∠φ = |Z|∠φ = |Z|cosφ + j|Z|sinφ

The total impedance ZS of impedances Z1, Z2, Z3,... connected in series is:
ZS = Z1 + Z1 + Z1 +...
The total admittance YP of admittances Y1, Y2, Y3,... connected in parallel is:
YP = Y1 + Y1 + Y1 +...

In summary:
- use impedances when operating on series circuits,
- use admittances when operating on parallel circuits.

Reactance

Inductive Reactance
The inductive reactance XL of an inductance L at angular frequency ω and frequency f is:
XL = ωL = 2πfL

For a sinusoidal current i of amplitude I and angular frequency ω:

i = I sinωt
If sinusoidal current i is passed through an inductance L, the voltage e across the inductance is:
e = L di/dt = ωLI cosωt = XLI cosωt

The current through an inductance lags the voltage across it by 90°.

Capacitive Reactance
The capacitive reactance XC of a capacitance C at angular frequency ω and frequency f is:
XC = 1 / ωC = 1 / 2πfC

For a sinusoidal voltage v of amplitude V and angular frequency ω:

v = V sinωt
If sinusoidal voltage v is applied across a capacitance C, the current i through the capacitance is:
i = C dv/dt = ωCV cosωt = V cosωt / XC

The current through a capacitance leads the voltage across it by 90°.

Resonance

Series Resonance
A series circuit comprising an inductance L, a resistance R and a capacitance C has an impedance ZS of:
ZS = R + j(XL - XC)
where XL = ωL and XC = 1 / ωC

At resonance, the imaginary part of ZS is zero:

XC = XL
ZSr = R
½
ωr = (1 / LC) = 2πfr
The quality factor at resonance Qr is:
2 ½ ½
Qr = ωrL / R = (L / CR ) = (1 / R )(L / C) = 1 / ωrCR

Parallel resonance
A parallel circuit comprising an inductance L with a series resistance R, connected in parallel with a
capacitance C, has an admittance YP of:
YP = 1 / (R + jXL) + 1 / (- jXC) = (R / (R2 + XL2)) - j(XL / (R2 + XL2) - 1 / XC)
where XL = ωL and XC = 1 / ωC

R Curras 12
At resonance, the imaginary part of YP is zero:
2 2 2 2 2
XC = (R + XL ) / XL = XL + R / XL = XL(1 + R / XL )
-1 2 2
ZPr = YPr = (R + XL ) / R = XLXC / R = L / CR
ωr = (1 / LC - R2 / L2)½ = 2πfr
The quality factor at resonance Qr is:
Qr = ωrL / R = (L / CR2 - 1)½ = (1 / R )(L / C - R2)½

Note that for the same values of L, R and C, the parallel resonance frequency is lower than the series
resonance frequency, but if the ratio R / L is small then the parallel resonance frequency is close to the
series resonance frequency.

Reactive Loads and Power Factor

Resistance and Series Reactance

The impedance Z of a reactive load comprising resistance R and series reactance X is:
Z = R + jX = |Z|∠φ
Converting to the equivalent admittance Y:
Y = 1 / Z = 1 / (R + jX) = (R - jX) / (R2 + X2) = R / |Z|2 - jX / |Z|2

When a voltage V (taken as reference) is applied across the reactive load Z, the current I is:
I = VY = V(R / |Z|2 - jX / |Z|2) = VR / |Z|2 - jVX / |Z|2 = IP - jIQ
The active current IP and the reactive current IQ are:
2
IP = VR / |Z| = |I|cosφ
IQ = VX / |Z|2 = |I|sinφ

The apparent power S, active power P and reactive power Q are:

2 2
S = V|I| = V / |Z| = |I| |Z|
P = VIP = IP |Z| / R = V2R / |Z|2 = |I|2R
2 2
2 2 2 2 2
Q = VIQ = IQ |Z| / X = V X / |Z| = |I| X

The power factor cosφ and reactive factor sinφ are:

cosφ = IP / |I| = P / S = R / |Z|
sinφ = IQ / |I| = Q / S = X / |Z|

Resistance and Shunt Reactance

The impedance Z of a reactive load comprising resistance R and shunt reactance X is found from:
1 / Z = 1 / R + 1 / jX
Converting to the equivalent admittance Y comprising conductance G and shunt susceptance B:
Y = 1 / Z = 1 / R - j / X = G - jB = |Y|∠−φ

When a voltage V (taken as reference) is applied across the reactive load Y, the current I is:
I = VY = V(G - jB) = VG - jVB = IP - jIQ
The active current IP and the reactive current IQ are:
IP = VG = V / R = |I|cosφ
IQ = VB = V / X = |I|sinφ

The apparent power S, active power P and reactive power Q are:

S = V|I| = |I|2 / |Y| = V2|Y|
2 2 2 2
P = VIP = IP / G = |I| G / |Y| = V G
2 2 2 2
Q = VIQ = IQ / B = |I| B / |Y| = V B

The power factor cosφ and reactive factor sinφ are:

cosφ = IP / |I| = P / S = G / |Y|
sinφ = IQ / |I| = Q / S = B / |Y|

R Curras 13
Complex Power

When a voltage V causes a current I to flow through a reactive load Z, the complex power S is:
S = VI* where I* is the conjugate of the complex current I.

Inductive Load
Z = R + jXL
I = IP - jIQ
cosφ = R / |Z| (lagging)
I* = IP + jIQ
S = P + jQ
An inductive load is a sink of lagging VArs (a source of leading VArs).

Capacitive Load
Z = R - jXC
I = IP + jIQ
cosφ = R / |Z| (leading)
I* = IP - jIQ
S = P - jQ
A capacitive load is a source of lagging VArs (a sink of leading VArs).

Three Phase Power

For a balanced star connected load with line voltage Vline and line current Iline:
Vstar = Vline / √3
Istar = Iline
Zstar = Vstar / Istar = Vline / √3Iline
Sstar = 3VstarIstar = √3VlineIline = Vline2 / Zstar = 3Iline2Zstar

For a balanced delta connected load with line voltage Vline and line current Iline:
Vdelta = Vline
Idelta = Iline / √3
Zdelta = Vdelta / Idelta = √3Vline / Iline
Sdelta = 3VdeltaIdelta = √3VlineIline = 3Vline2 / Zdelta = Iline2Zdelta

The apparent power S, active power P and reactive power Q are related by:
S2 = P2 + Q2
P = Scosφ
Q = Ssinφ
where cosφ is the power factor and sinφ is the reactive factor

Note that for equivalence between balanced star and delta connected loads:
Zdelta = 3Zstar

Per-unit System

For each system parameter, per-unit value is equal to the actual value divided by a base value:
Epu = E / Ebase
Ipu = I / Ibase
Zpu = Z / Zbase

Select rated values as base values, usually rated power in MVA and rated phase voltage in kV:
Sbase = Srated = √3ElineIline
Ebase = Ephase = Eline/ √3

R Curras 14
The base values for line current in kA and per-phase star impedance in ohms/phase are:
Ibase = Sbase / 3Ebase ( = Sbase / √3Eline)
Zbase = Ebase / Ibase = 3Ebase2 / Sbase ( = Eline2 / Sbase)

Note that selecting the base values for any two of Sbase, Ebase, Ibase or Zbase fixes the base values of all four.
Note also that Ohm's Law is satisfied by each of the sets of actual, base and per-unit values for voltage,
current and impedance.

Transformers
The primary and secondary MVA ratings of a transformer are equal, but the voltages and currents in the
primary (subscript 1) and the secondary (subscript 2) are usually different:
√3E1lineI1line = S = √3E2lineI2line

Converting to base (per-phase star) values:

3E1baseI1base = Sbase = 3E2baseI2base
E1base / E2base = I2base / I1base
Z1base / Z2base = (E1base / E2base)2

The impedance Z21pu referred to the primary side, equivalent to an impedance Z2pu on the secondary side,
is:
Z21pu = Z2pu(E1base / E2base)2

The impedance Z12pu referred to the secondary side, equivalent to an impedance Z1pu on the primary side,
is:
Z12pu = Z1pu(E2base / E1base)2

Note that per-unit and percentage values are related by:

Zpu = Z% / 100

Symmetrical Components

In any three phase system, the line currents Ia, Ib and Ic may be expressed as the phasor sum of:
- a set of balanced positive phase sequence currents Ia1, Ib1 and Ic1 (phase sequence a-b-c),
- a set of balanced negative phase sequence currents Ia2, Ib2 and Ic2 (phase sequence a-c-b),
- a set of identical zero phase sequence currents Ia0, Ib0 and Ic0 (cophasal, no phase sequence).

The positive, negative and zero sequence currents are calculated from the line currents using:
2
Ia1 = (Ia + hIb + h Ic) / 3
Ia2 = (Ia + h2Ib + hIc) / 3
Ia0 = (Ia + Ib + Ic) / 3

The positive, negative and zero sequence currents are combined to give the line currents using:
Ia = Ia1 + Ia2 + Ia0
Ib = Ib1 + Ib2 + Ib0 = h2Ia1 + hIa2 + Ia0
2
Ic = Ic1 + Ic2 + Ic0 = hIa1 + h Ia2 + Ia0

The residual current Ir is equal to the total zero sequence current:

Ir = Ia0 + Ib0 + Ic0 = 3Ia0 = Ia + Ib + Ic = Ie
which is measured using three current transformers with parallel connected secondaries.
Ie is the earth fault current of the system.

Similarly, for phase-to-earth voltages Vae, Vbe and Vce, the residual voltage Vr is equal to the total zero
sequence voltage:
Vr = Va0 + Vb0 + Vc0 = 3Va0 = Vae + Vbe + Vce = 3Vne
which is measured using an earthed-star / open-delta connected voltage transformer.
Vne is the neutral displacement voltage of the system.

R Curras 15
The h-operator
The h-operator (1∠120°) is the complex cube root of unity:
h = - 1 / 2 + j√3 / 2 = 1∠120° = 1∠-240°
2
h = - 1 / 2 - j√3 / 2 = 1∠240° = 1∠-120°

Some useful properties of h are:

1 + h + h2 = 0
h + h2 = - 1 = 1∠180°
2
h - h = j√3 = √3∠90°
2
h - h = - j√3 = √3∠-90°

Fault Calculations

The different types of short-circuit fault which occur on a power system are:
- single phase to earth,
- double phase,
- double phase to earth,
- three phase,
- three phase to earth.

For each type of short-circuit fault occurring on an unloaded system:

- the first column states the phase voltage and line current conditions at the fault,
- the second column states the phase 'a' sequence current and voltage conditions at the fault,
- the third column provides formulae for the phase 'a' sequence currents at the fault,
- the fourth column provides formulae for the fault current and the resulting line currents.
By convention, the faulted phases are selected for fault symmetry with respect to reference phase 'a'.

I f = fault current
Ie = earth fault current
Ea = normal phase voltage at the fault location
Z1 = positive phase sequence network impedance to the fault
Z2 = negative phase sequence network impedance to the fault
Z0 = zero phase sequence network impedance to the fault

Single phase to earth - fault from phase 'a' to earth:

Va = 0 Ia1 = Ia2 = Ia0 = Ia / 3 Ia1 = Ea / (Z1 + Z2 + Z0) I f = 3Ia0 = 3Ea / (Z1 + Z2 + Z0) = Ie
Ib = Ic = 0 Va1 + Va2 + Va0 = 0 Ia2 = Ia1 Ia = I f = 3Ea / (Z1 + Z2 + Z0)
I f = Ia = Ie Ia0 = Ia1

Double phase - fault from phase 'b' to phase 'c':

Vb = Vc Ia1 + Ia2 = 0 Ia1 = Ea / (Z1 + Z2) I f = - j√3Ia1 = - j√3Ea / (Z1 + Z2)

Ia = 0 Ia0 = 0 Ia2 = - Ia1 Ib = I f = - j√3Ea / (Z1 + Z2)
I f = Ib = - Ic Va1 = Va2 Ia0 = 0 Ic = - I f = j√3Ea / (Z1 + Z2)

Double phase to earth - fault from phase 'b' to phase 'c' to earth:

Vb = Vc = 0 Ia1 + Ia2 + Ia0 = 0 Ia1 = Ea / Znet I f = 3Ia0 = - 3EaZ2 / Σzz = Ie

Ia = 0 Va1 = Va2 = Va0 Ia2 = - Ia1Z0 / (Z2 + Z0) Ib = I f / 2 - j√3Ea(Z2 / 2 + Z0) / Σzz
I f = Ib + Ic = Ie Ia0 = - Ia1Z2 / (Z2 + Z0) Ic = I f / 2 + j√3Ea(Z2 / 2 + Z0) / Σzz

Znet = Z1 + Z2Z0 / (Z2 + Z0) and Σzz = Z1Z2 + Z2Z0 + Z0Z1 = (Z2 + Z0)Znet

R Curras 16
Three phase (and three phase to earth) - fault from phase 'a' to phase 'b' to phase 'c' (to earth):

Va = Vb = Vc (= 0) Va0 = Va (= 0) Ia1 = Ea / Z1 I f = Ia1 = Ea / Z1 = Ia

Ia + Ib + Ic = 0 (= Ie) Va1 = Va2 = 0 Ia2 = 0 Ib = Eb / Z1
I f = Ia = hIb = h2Ic Ia0 = 0 Ic = Ec / Z1

The values of Z1, Z2 and Z0 are each determined from the respective positive, negative and zero sequence
impedance networks by network reduction to a single impedance.

Note that the single phase fault current is greater than the three phase fault current if Z0 is less than (2Z1 -
Z2).

Note also that if the system is earthed through an impedance Zn (carrying current 3I0) then an impedance
3Zn (carrying current I0) must be included in the zero sequence impedance network.

Three Phase Fault Level

The symmetrical three phase short-circuit current Isc of a power system with no-load line and phase voltages
Eline and Ephase and source impedance ZS per-phase star is:
Isc = Ephase / ZS = Eline / √3ZS

The three phase fault level Ssc of the power system is:
Ssc = 3Isc2ZS = 3EphaseIsc = 3Ephase2 / ZS = Eline2 / ZS

Note that if the X / R ratio of the source impedance ZS (comprising resistance RS and reactance XS) is
sufficiently large, then ZS ≈ XS.

Transformers
If a transformer of rating ST (taken as base) and per-unit impedance ZTpu is fed from a source with unlimited
fault level (infinite busbars), then the per-unit secondary short-circuit current I2pu and fault level S2pu are:
I2pu = E2pu / ZTpu = 1.0 / ZTpu
S2pu = I2pu = 1.0 / ZTpu

If the source fault level is limited to SS by per-unit source impedance ZSpu (to the same base as ZTpu), then
the secondary short-circuit current I2pu and fault level S2pu are reduced to:
I2pu = E2pu / (ZTpu + ZSpu) = 1.0 / (ZTpu + ZSpu)
S2pu = I2pu = 1.0 / (ZTpu + ZSpu)
where ZSpu = ST / SS

Thermal Short-time Rating

If a conductor which is rated to carry full load current Iload continuously is rated to carry a maximum fault
current Ilimit for a time tlimit, then a lower fault current Ifault can be carried for a longer time tfault according to:
( Ilimit - Iload )2 tlimit = ( Ifault - Iload )2 tfault

Rearranging for Ifault and tfault:

Ifault = ( Ilimit - Iload ) ( tlimit / tfault )½ + Iload
2 2
tfault = tlimit ( Ilimit - Iload ) / ( Ifault - Iload )

If Iload is small compared with Ilimit and Ifault, then:

2 2
Ilimit tlimit ≈ Ifault tfault
Ifault ≈ Ilimit ( tlimit / tfault )½
tfault ≈ tlimit ( Ilimit / Ifault )2

Note that if the current Ifault is reduced by a factor of two, then the time tfault is increased by a factor of four.

R Curras 17
Instrument Transformers

Voltage Transformer
For a voltage transformer of voltampere rating S, rated primary voltage VP and rated secondary voltage VS,
the maximum secondary current ISmax, maximum secondary burden conductance GBmax and maximum
primary current IPmax are:
ISmax = S / VS
2
GBmax = ISmax / VS = S / VS
IPmax = S / VP = ISmaxVS / VP

Current Transformer
For a measurement current transformer of voltampere rating S, rated primary current IP and rated secondary
current IS, the maximum secondary voltage VSmax, maximum secondary burden resistance RBmax and
maximum primary voltage VPmax are:
VSmax = S / IS
RBmax = VSmax / IS = S / IS2
VPmax = S / IP = VSmaxIS / IP

For a protection current transformer of voltampere rating S, rated primary current IP, rated secondary current
IS and rated accuracy limit factor F, the rated secondary reference voltage VSF, maximum secondary burden
resistance RBmax and equivalent primary reference voltage VPF are:
VSF = SF / IS
2
RBmax = VSF / ISF = S / IS
VPF = SF / IP = VSFIS / IP

Impedance Measurement
If the primary voltage Vpri and the primary current Ipri are measured at a point in a system, then the primary
impedance Zpri at that point is:
Zpri = Vpri / Ipri

If the measured voltage is the secondary voltage Vsec of a voltage transformer of primary/secondary ratio NV
and the measured current is the secondary current Isec of a current transformer of primary/secondary ratio
NI, then the primary impedance Zpri is related to the secondary impedance Zsec by:
Zpri = Vpri / Ipri = VsecNV / IsecNI = ZsecNV / NI = ZsecNZ
where NZ = NV / NI

If the no-load (source) voltage Epri is also measured at the point, then the source impedance ZTpri to the
point is:
ZTpri = (Epri - Vpri) / Ipri = (Esec - Vsec)NV / IsecNI = ZTsecNV / NI = ZTsecNZ

Power Factor Correction

If an inductive load with an active power demand P has an uncorrected power factor of cosφ1 lagging, and is
required to have a corrected power factor of cosφ2 lagging, the uncorrected and corrected reactive power
demands, Q1 and Q2, are:
Q1 = P tanφ1
Q2 = P tanφ2
2 ½
where tanφn = (1 / cos φn - 1)

The leading (capacitive) reactive power demand QC which must be connected across the load is:
QC = Q1 - Q2 = P (tanφ1 - tanφ2)

The uncorrected and corrected apparent power demands, S1 and S2, are related by:
S1cosφ1 = P = S2cosφ2
Comparing corrected and uncorrected load currents and apparent power demands:
I2 / I1 = S2 / S1 = cosφ1 / cosφ2

R Curras 18
If the load is required to have a corrected power factor of unity, Q2 is zero and:
QC = Q1 = P tanφ1
I2 / I1 = S2 / S1 = cosφ1 = P / S1

Shunt Capacitors
For star-connected shunt capacitors each of capacitance Cstar on a three phase system of line voltage Vline
and frequency f, the leading reactive power demand QCstar and the leading reactive line current Iline are:
2 2
QCstar = Vline / XCstar = 2πfCstarVline
Iline = QCstar / √3Vline = Vline / √3XCstar
2
Cstar = QCstar / 2πfVline

For delta-connected shunt capacitors each of capacitance Cdelta on a three phase system of line voltage Vline
and frequency f, the leading reactive power demand QCdelta and the leading reactive line current Iline are:
QCdelta = 3Vline2 / XCdelta = 6πfCdeltaVline2
Iline = QCdelta / √3Vline = √3Vline / XCdelta
Cdelta = QCdelta / 6πfVline2

Note that for the same leading reactive power QC:

XCdelta = 3XCstar
Cdelta = Cstar / 3

Series Capacitors
For series line capacitors each of capacitance Cseries carrying line current Iline on a three phase system of
frequency f, the voltage drop Vdrop across each line capacitor and the total leading reactive power demand
QCseries of the set of three line capacitors are:
Vdrop = IlineXCseries = Iline / 2πfCseries
2 2 2
QCseries = 3Vdrop / XCseries = 3VdropIline = 3Iline XCseries = 3Iline / 2πfCseries
2
Cseries = 3Iline / 2πfQCseries

Note that the apparent power rating Srating of the set of three series line capacitors is based on the line
voltage Vline and not the voltage drop Vdrop:
Srating = √3VlineIline

Reactors

Shunt Reactors
For star-connected shunt reactors each of inductance Lstar on a three phase system of line voltage Vline and
frequency f, the lagging reactive power demand QLstar and the lagging reactive line current Iline are:
2 2
QLstar = Vline / XLstar = Vline / 2πfLstar
Iline = QLstar / √3Vline = Vline / √3XLstar
2
Lstar = Vline / 2πfQLstar

For delta-connected shunt reactors each of inductance Ldelta on a three phase system of line voltage Vline
and frequency f, the lagging reactive power demand QLdelta and the lagging reactive line current Iline are:
QLdelta = 3Vline2 / XLdelta = 3Vline2 / 2πfLdelta
Iline = QLdelta / √3Vline = √3Vline / XLdelta
Ldelta = 3Vline2 / 2πfQLdelta

Note that for the same lagging reactive power QL:

XLdelta = 3XLstar
Ldelta = 3Lstar

R Curras 19
Series Reactors
For series line reactors each of inductance Lseries carrying line current Iline on a three phase system of
frequency f, the voltage drop Vdrop across each line reactor and the total lagging reactive power demand
QLseries of the set of three line reactors are:
Vdrop = IlineXLseries = 2πfLseriesIline
2 2 2
QLseries = 3Vdrop / XLseries = 3VdropIline = 3Iline XLseries = 6πfLseriesIline
2
Lseries = QLseries / 6πfIline

Note that the apparent power rating Srating of the set of three series line reactors is based on the line voltage
Vline and not the voltage drop Vdrop:
Srating = √3VlineIline

Harmonic Resonance

If a node in a power system operating at frequency f has a inductive source reactance XL per phase and has
power factor correction with a capacitive reactance XC per phase, the source inductance L and the
correction capacitance C are:
L = XL / ω
C = 1 / ωXC
where ω = 2πf

The series resonance angular frequency ωr of an inductance L with a capacitance C is:

½ ½
ωr = (1 / LC) = ω(XC / XL)

The three phase fault level Ssc at the node for no-load phase voltage E and source impedance Z per-phase
star is:
Ssc = 3E2 / |Z| = 3E2 / |R + jXL|
If the ratio XL / R of the source impedance Z is sufficiently large, |Z| ≈ XL so that:
Ssc ≈ 3E2 / XL

The reactive power rating QC of the power factor correction capacitors for a capacitive reactance XC per
phase at phase voltage E is:
QC = 3E2 / XC

The harmonic number fr / f of the series resonance of XL with XC is:

½ ½
fr / f = ωr / ω = (XC / XL) ≈ (Ssc / QC)

Note that the ratio XL / XC which results in a harmonic number fr / f is:

XL / XC = 1 / ( fr / f )2
so for fr / f to be equal to the geometric mean of the third and fifth harmonics:
fr / f = √15 = 3.873
XL / XC = 1 / 15 = 0.067

Notation

The library uses the symbol font for some of the notation and formulae. If the symbols for the letters 'alpha
beta delta' do not appear here [α β δ] then the symbol font needs to be installed before all notation and
formulae will be displayed correctly.

R Curras 20
B susceptance [siemens, S] S voltamperes [volt-amps, VA]
E induced voltage [volts, V] s slip [per-unit]
f frequency [hertz, Hz] T torque [newton-metres, Nm]
G conductance [siemens, S] V terminal voltage [volts, V]
I current [amps, A] X reactance [ohms, Ω]
j j-operator [1∠90°] Y admittance [siemens, S]
k coefficient [number] Z impedance [ohms, Ω]
m number of phases [number] δ loss angle [degrees, °]
N number of turns [number] Φ magnetic flux [webers, Wb]
n rotational speed [revs/min] φ phase angle [degrees, °]
P power [watts, W] η efficiency [per-unit]
p pole pairs [number] θ temperature [centigrade, °C]
R resistance [ohms, Ω] ω angular speed [radians/sec]

Transformers

For an ideal two-winding transformer with primary voltage V1 applied across N1 primary turns and secondary
voltage V2 appearing across N2 secondary turns:
V1 / V2 = N1 / N2
The primary current I1 and secondary current I2 are related by:
I1 / I2 = N2 / N1 = V2 / V1

For an ideal step-down auto-transformer with primary voltage V1 applied across (N1 + N2) primary turns and
secondary voltage V2 appearing across N2 secondary turns:
V1 / V2 = (N1 + N2) / N2
The primary (input) current I1 and secondary (output) current I2 are related by:
I1 / I2 = N2 / (N1 + N2) = V2 / V1
Note that the winding current is I1 through the N1 section and (I2 - I1) through the N2 section.

For a single-phase transformer with rated primary voltage V1, rated primary current I1, rated secondary
voltage V2 and rated secondary current I2, the voltampere rating S is:
S = V1I1 = V2I2

For a balanced m-phase transformer with rated primary phase voltage V1, rated primary current I1, rated
secondary phase voltage V2 and rated secondary current I2, the voltampere rating S is:
S = mV1I1 = mV2I2

The primary circuit impedance Z1 referred to the secondary circuit for an ideal transformer with N1 primary
turns and N2 secondary turns is:
Z12 = Z1(N2 / N1)2

The secondary circuit impedance Z2 referred to the primary circuit for an ideal transformer with N1 primary
turns and N2 secondary turns is:
2
Z21 = Z2(N1 / N2)

The voltage regulation ∆V2 of a transformer is the rise in secondary voltage which occurs when rated load is
disconnected from the secondary with rated voltage applied to the primary. For a transformer with a
secondary voltage E2 unloaded and V2 at rated load, the per-unit voltage regulation ∆V2pu is:
∆V2pu = (E2 - V2) / V2
Note that the per-unit base voltage is usually V2 and not E2.

R Curras 21
Open Circuit Test
If a transformer with its secondary open-circuited is energised at rated primary voltage, then the input power
Poc represents the core loss (iron loss PFe) of the transformer:
Poc = PFe

The per-phase star values of the shunt magnetising admittance Ym, conductance Gm and susceptance Bm of
an m-phase transformer are calculated from the open-circuit test results for the per-phase primary voltage
V1oc, per-phase primary current I1oc and input power Poc using:
Ym = I1oc / V1oc
2
Gm = mV1oc / Poc
Bm = (Ym2 - Gm2)½

Short Circuit Test

If a transformer with its secondary short-circuited is energised at a reduced primary voltage which causes
rated secondary current to flow through the short-circuit, then the input power Psc represents the load loss
(primary copper loss P1Cu, secondary copper loss P2Cu and stray loss Pstray) of the transformer:
Psc = P1Cu + P2Cu + Pstray
Note that the temperature rise should be allowed to stabilise because conductor resistance varies with
temperature.

If the resistance of each winding is determined by winding resistance tests immediately after the short circuit
test, then the load loss of an m-phase transformer may be split into primary copper loss P1Cu, secondary
copper loss P2Cu and stray loss Pstray:
P1Cu = mI1sc2R1star
2
P2Cu = mI2sc R2star
Pstray = Psc - P1Cu - P2Cu

If the stray loss is neglected, the per-phase star values referred to the primary of the total series impedance
Zs1, resistance Rs1 and reactance Xs1 of an m-phase transformer are calculated from the short-circuit test
results for the per-phase primary voltage V1sc, per-phase primary current I1sc and input power Psc using:
Zs1 = V1sc / I1sc = Z1 + Z2(N12 / N22)
2 2 2
Rs1 = Psc / mI1sc = R1 + R2(N1 / N2 )
Xs1 = (Zs1 - Rs1 ) = X1 + X2(N1 / N22)
2 2 ½ 2

where Z1, R1 and X1 are primary values and Z2, R2 and X2 are secondary values

Winding Resistance Test

The resistance of each winding is measured using a small direct current to avoid thermal and inductive
effects. If a voltage Vdc causes current Idc to flow, then the resistance R is:
R = Vdc / Idc

If the winding under test is a fully connected balanced star or delta and the resistance measured between
any two phases is Rtest, then the equivalent winding resistances Rstar or Rdelta are:
Rstar = Rtest / 2
Rdelta = 3Rtest / 2

The per-phase star primary and secondary winding resistances R1star and R2star of an m-phase transformer
may be used to calculate the separate primary and secondary copper losses P1Cu and P2Cu:
P1Cu = mI12R1star
2
P2Cu = mI2 R2star
Note that if the primary and secondary copper losses are equal, then the primary and secondary resistances
R1star and R2star are related by:
R1star / R2star = I22 / I12 = N12 / N22

The primary and secondary winding resistances R1 and R2 may also be used to check the effect of stray loss
on the total series resistance referred to the primary, Rs1, calculated from the short circuit test results:
2 2
Rs1 = R1 + R2(N1 / N2 )

R Curras 22
Induction Machines

The synchronous rotational speed ns and synchronous angular speed ωs of a machine with p pole pairs
running on a supply of frequency fs are:
ns = 60fs / p
ωs = 2πfs / p = 2πns / 60

The per-unit slip s of an induction machine of synchronous rotational speed ns running at rotational speed
nm is:
s = (ns - nm) / ns
Rearranging for rotational speed nm:
nm = (1 - s)ns
Using angular speed ω instead of rotational speed n:
ωm = (1 - s)ωs

The rated load torque TM for a rated output power PM is:

TM = PM / ωm = 60PM / 2πnm

For an induction machine with Ns stator turns and Nr rotor turns running at slip s on a supply of voltage Es
and frequency fs, the rotor induced voltage and frequency Er and fr are:
Er = sEsNr / Ns
fr = sfs
For a rotor current Ir, the equivalent stator current Irs is:
Irs = IrNr / Ns
Note that the rotor / stator ratios are Ns / Nr for current, sNr / Ns for voltage and s for frequency.

For an induction machine with rotor resistance Rr and locked rotor leakage reactance Xr, the rotor
impedance Zr at slip s is:
Zr = Rr + jsXr
The stator circuit equivalent impedance Zrf for a rotor / stator frequency ratio s is:
Zrf = Rrs / s + jXrs

For an induction motor with synchronous angular speed ωs running at angular speed ωm and slip s, the
airgap transfer power Pt, rotor copper loss Pr and gross output power Pm for a gross output torque Tm are
related by:
Pt = ωsTm = Pr / s = Pm / (1 - s)
Pr = sPt = sPm / (1 - s)
Pm = ωmTm = (1 - s)Pt
The power ratios are:
Pt : Pr : Pm = 1 : s : (1 - s)
The gross motor efficiency ηm (neglecting stator and mechanical losses) is:
ηm = Pm / Pt = 1 - s

An induction machine can be operated as a generator, a motor or a brake:

- for negative slip (speed above synchronous) the machine is a generator,
- for positive slip between 0 and 1 (speed below synchronous) the machine is a motor,
- for positive slip greater than 1 (speed negative) the machine is a brake,
In all cases the magnetizing current (at lagging power factor) is provided by the supply system.

No Load Test
If an induction machine with its rotor unloaded is energised at rated voltage, then the input power represents
the sum of the iron loss and mechanical loss of the machine.

Locked Rotor Test

If an induction machine with its rotor locked is energised at a reduced voltage which causes rated current
input, then the input power represents the sum of the full load copper loss and stray loss of the machine.

R Curras 23
Stator Resistance Test
The resistance of the stator winding is measured using a small direct current.

Synchronous Machines

The synchronous rotational speed ns and synchronous angular speed ωs of a machine with p pole pairs
running on a supply of frequency fs are:
ns = 60fs / p
ωs = 2πfs / p

The output power Pm for a load torque Tm is:

Pm = ωsTm

The rated load torque TM for a rated output power PM is:

TM = PM / ωs = PMp / 2πfs = 60PM / 2πns

Synchronous Generator
For a synchronous generator with stator induced voltage Es, stator current Is and synchronous impedance
Zs, the terminal voltage V is:
V = Es - IsZs = Es - Is(Rs + jXs)
where Rs is the stator resistance and Xs is the synchronous reactance

Synchronous Motor
For a synchronous motor with stator induced voltage Es, stator current Is and synchronous impedance Zs,
the terminal voltage V is:
V = Es + IsZs = Es + Is(Rs + jXs)
where Rs is the stator resistance and Xs is the synchronous reactance

Note that the field excitation of a parallelled synchronous machine determines its power factor:
- an under-excited machine operates with a leading power factor,
- an over-excited machine operates with a lagging power factor.
The field excitation of an isolated synchronous generator determines its output voltage.

Direct Current Machines

Shunt Generator
For a shunt generator with armature induced voltage Ea, armature current Ia and armature resistance Ra, the
terminal voltage V is:
V = Ea - IaRa
The field current I f for a field resistance R f is:
If = V / Rf

The armature induced voltage Ea and torque T with magnetic flux Φ at angular speed ω are:
Ea = k fΦω = kmω
T = k fΦIa = kmIa
where k f and km are design coefficients of the machine.

Note that for a shunt generator:

- induced voltage is proportional to speed,
- torque is proportional to armature current.

The airgap power Pe for a shunt generator is:

Pe = ωT = EaIa = kmω Ia

R Curras 24
Shunt Motor
For a shunt motor with armature induced voltage Ea, armature current Ia and armature resistance Ra, the
terminal voltage V is:
V = Ea + IaRa
The field current I f for a field resistance R f is:
If = V / Rf

The armature induced voltage Ea and torque T with magnetic flux Φ at angular speed ω are:
Ea = k fΦω = kmω
T = k fΦIa = kmIa
where k f and km are design coefficients of the machine.

Note that for a shunt motor:

- induced voltage is proportional to speed,
- torque is proportional to armature current.

The airgap power Pe for a shunt motor is:

Pe = ωT = EaIa = kmω Ia

Series Motor
For a series motor with armature induced voltage Ea, armature current Ia, armature resistance Ra and field
resistance R f, the terminal voltage V is:
V = Ea + IaRa + IaR f = Ea + Ia(Ra + R f)
The field current is equal to the armature current.

The armature induced voltage Ea and torque T with magnetic flux Φ at angular speed ω are:
Ea = k fΦω Ia = kmω Ia
2 2
T = k fΦIa = kmIa
where k f and km are design coefficients of the machine.

Note that for a series motor:

- induced voltage is proportional to both speed and armature current,
- torque is proportional to the square of armature current,
- armature current is inversely proportional to speed for a constant induced voltage.

The airgap power Pe for a series motor is:

2
Pe = ωT = EaIa = kmω Ia

Efficiency

The per-unit efficiency η of an electrical machine with input power Pin, output power Pout and power loss
Ploss is:
η = Pout / Pin = Pout / (Pout + Ploss) = (Pin - Ploss) / Pin

Rearranging the efficiency equations:

Pin = Pout + Ploss = Pout / η = Ploss / (1 - η)
Pout = Pin - Ploss = ηPin = ηPloss / (1 - η)
Ploss = Pin - Pout = (1 - η)Pin = (1 - η)Pout / η

For an electrical machine with output power Pout (proportional to current) and power loss Ploss comprising a
fixed loss Pfix (independent of current) plus a variable loss Pvar (proportional to square of current) the
efficiency is a maximum when Pvar is equal to Pfix.

For a transformer, Pfix is the iron loss and Pvar is the copper loss plus the stray loss.

For an induction machine, Pfix is the iron loss plus the mechanical loss and Pvar is the copper loss plus the
stray loss.

R Curras 25
Energy Conversion
Comparing megawatt-hours and gigajoules, 1 MWh is equivalent to 3.6 GJ. For an energy conversion
process with a per-unit efficiency η, 1 MWh of energy output is obtained from (3.6 / η) GJ of energy input.

Temperature Rise

The resistance of copper and aluminium windings increases with temperature, and the relationship is quite
linear over the normal range of operating temperatures. For a linear relationship, if the winding resistance is
R1 at temperature θ1 and R2 at temperature θ2, then:
R1 / (θ1 - θ0) = R2 / (θ2 - θ0) = (R2 - R1) / (θ2 - θ1)
where θ0 is the extrapolated temperature for zero resistance.

The ratio of resistances R2 and R1 is:

R2 / R1 = (θ2 - θ0) / (θ1 - θ0)

The average temperature rise ∆θ of a winding under load may be estimated from measured values of the
cold winding resistance R1 at temperature θ1 (usually ambient temperature) and the hot winding resistance
R2 at temperature θ2, using:
∆θ = θ2 - θ1 = (θ1 - θ0) (R2 - R1) / R1

Rearranging for per-unit change in resistance ∆Rpu relative to R1:

∆Rpu = (R2 - R1) / R1 = (θ2 - θ1) / (θ1 - θ0) = ∆θ / (θ1 - θ0)

Note that the resistance values are measured using a small direct current to avoid thermal and inductive
effects.

Copper Windings
The value of θ0 for copper is - 234.5 °C, so that:
∆θ = θ2 - θ1 = (θ1 + 234.5) (R2 - R1) / R1

If θ1 is 20 °C and ∆θ is 1 degC:
∆Rpu = (R2 - R1) / R1 = ∆θ / (θ1 - θ0) = 1 / 254.5 = 0.00393
The temperature coefficient of resistance of copper at 20 °C is 0.00393 per degC.

Aluminium Windings
The value of θ0 for aluminium is - 228 °C, so that:
∆θ = θ2 - θ1 = (θ1 + 228) (R2 - R1) / R1

If θ1 is 20 °C and ∆θ is 1 degC:
∆Rpu = (R2 - R1) / R1 = ∆θ / (θ1 - θ0) = 1 / 248 = 0.00403
The temperature coefficient of resistance of aluminium at 20 °C is 0.00403 per degC.

Note that aluminium has 61% of the conductivity and 30% of the density of copper, therefore for the same
conductance (and same resistance) an aluminium conductor has 164% of the cross-sectional area, 128% of
the diameter and 49% of the mass of a copper conductor.

Dielectric Dissipation Factor

If an alternating voltage V of frequency f is applied across an insulation system comprising capacitance C

and equivalent series loss resistance RS, then the voltage VR across RS and the voltage VC across C due to
the resulting current I are:
VR = IRS
VC = IXC
2 2 ½
V = (VR + VC )

R Curras 26
The dielectric dissipation factor of the insulation system is the tangent of the dielectric loss angle δ between
VC and V:
tanδ = VR / VC = RS / XC = 2πfCRS
RS = XCtanδ = tanδ / 2πfC
Note that an increase in the dielectric losses of a insulation system (from an increase in the series loss
resistance RS) results in an increase in tanδ. Note also that tanδ increases with frequency.

The dielectric power loss P is related to the capacitive reactive power QC by:
P = I2RS = I2XCtanδ = QCtanδ

The power factor of the insulation system is the cosine of the phase angle φ between VR and V:
cosφ = VR / V
so that δ and φ are related by:
δ + φ = 90°

tanδ and cosφ are related by:

2 ½
tanδ = 1 / tanφ = cosφ / sinφ = cosφ / (1 - cos φ)
so that when cosφ is close to zero, tanδ ≈ cosφ

Note that the series loss resistance RS is not related to the shunt leakage resistance of the insulation system
(which is measured using direct current).

R Curras 27