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Science Experts and Writers

SATFB90,"U632,-"M#$%&NJ">-E"&,A,-"$,3+900"MSG/22"<,,"V,2,9-DB"=,0A-,NJ">-E"Q9-/,*&/,--,"=B93W9A"MX-,0DB"Y.,0D;"H7-"%0K/-70+,0A96"90?"@DD3F9A/7096":,96AB"S9H,A;"MYXSS%CNJ">-"Z,HH,-;"SE"&,AA/2"M#0/A,?"SA9A,2"
>,F9-A+,0A"7H"Y.-/D36A3-,"*"Y.-/D36A3-96"V,2,9-DB"S,-K/D,"#S>Y[YVSN

Lead Experts/Reviewers
>-E"<,-09-?"\9/22/]-,"MX-,0DB"$9A/7096"102A/A3A,"H7-"Y.-/D36A3-96"V,2,9-DB"*"1$VY"/0"YK/.070NJ">9K/?">3AB/,"MS,D-,A9-/9A"7H"AB,"=70K,0A/70"70"</767./D96">1K,-2/A;N

UNEP Production Team

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Design and Layout

Y3?-,;"V/0.6,-"M#$%&N

Cover photo
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Worker honey bee pollinating an almond
flower in California. Photo courtesy of
J. Pettis USDA-ARS, United States.
__________________________________
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G L O B A L B E E C O L O N Y D I S O R D E R S A N D O T H E R T H R E A T S T O I N S E C T P O L L I N A T O R S
 1. Pollination and pollinators 9AA-9DA"-,F-7?3DA/K,"922/2A90A2"/0",ODB90.,"H7-"H77?"-,G9-?2E"CB,2,"D7*9?9FA9A/702"
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7-.902E"CB/2"F-7D,22"/2"D-/A/D96"A7"H-3/A"90?"2,,?"F-7?3DA/70"90?"/2"323966;"F-7K/?,?"
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&766/09A/70"/2"K/A96"A7"73-",D72;2A,+2"90?"A7"B3+90"27D/,A/,2E"CB,"B,96AB"90?"G,66*
8,/0."7H"F766/09A/0."/02,DA2"9-,"D-3D/96"A7"6/H,J"8,"/A"/0"232A9/0/0."09A3-96"B98/A9A2"7-"
D70A-/83A/0."A7"67D96"90?".67896",D707+/,2"MX/.3-,)NE
2. Variation in managed pollinator populations
Y+70."AB,"'("((("L07G0"8,,"2F,D/,2"G7-6?G/?,J"AB,"+72A"D7++70"?7+,2A/D9A,?"
Figure 1: %D707+/D"/+F9DA"7H"/02,DA"F766/09A/70"70"9.-/D36A3-96"F-7?3DA/70"32,?" 8,,2"9-,"B70,;"8,,2J"Apis melliferaE"$9A/K,"A7"%3-7F,J"Y2/9"90?"YH-/D9J"AB,/-"
?/-,DA6;"H7-"B3+90"H77?"G7-6?G/?, K963,"-90.,2"H-7+"B70,;"F-7?3DA/70J"G9OJ"F-7F76/2"90?"-7;96"P,66;J"A7"AB,",HID/,0A"
Average value
Crop category of a production unit Economic value (109 !)
F766/09A/70"7H"D-7F2E":70,;"8,,2"-,+9/0"AB,"+72A",D707+/D966;"K963986,"F766/09A7-2"
(!"per metric tonne) H7-"D-7F"+707D36A3-,2"G7-6?G/?,E"n/,6?2"7H"D,-A9/0"H-3/AJ"2,,?"90?"03A"D-7F2"?,D-,92,"
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Vegetables 468 8;"+7-,"AB90"b(c"G/AB73A"AB,2,"B/.B6;",HID/,0A"F766/09A7-2eE
Cereals 139
Sugar crops 177 1A"/2"F-786,+9A/D"A7",2A/+9A,"AB,".67896",D707+/D"K963,"7H"AB,"F766/09A/70"2,-K/D,2"
Edible oil crops 385 F-7K/?,?"8;"+909.,?"2F,D/,2J"92"/A"/2"?/HID36A"A7"L07G"/H"D-7F2"B9K,"8,,0"F766/09A,?"
Fruits 452 8;"+909.,?"7-"G/6?"/0?/K/?3962E"$,K,-AB,6,22J"-,D,0A",2A/+9A,2"-90.,"8,AG,,0"
Roots and tubers 137
!''Ee"A7"gd"8/66/70bJ"/0D63?/0."9F/D36A3-,"+9-L,A2"90?"F9-A/D369-6;"966"D92B*D-7F"
Pulse 515
;/,6?2E
Stimulant crops 1 225
Insect pollination economic value
Nuts 1 269
Spices 1 003
Total economic value Figure 2:" Q,90"AB,7-,A/D96"B70,;"8,,"F7F369A/70"F,-"B/K,"90?"8;"2,9270"/0"
All categories pooled together
1 618 A,+F,-9A,"-,./702
Number of bees in the colony
The contribution of pollinators to the production of crops used directly for human food has been estimated at 70 000
!153 billion globally, which is about 9.5% of the total value of human food production worldwide f. swarming phase

60 000 development phase

Y0/+96*+,?/9A,?"F766/09A/70"8772A2"AB,"-,F-7?3DA/70"7H"G/6?"F690A2"70"GB/DB"7AB,-"
50 000 wintering
2,-K/D,2"7-"2,-K/D,*F-7K/?/0."7-.90/2+2"?,F,0?E"S7+,"D7++,-D/96"F690A2J"23DB" preparation phase
92"96+70?2"7-"863,8,--/,2J"?7"07A"F-7?3D,"90;"H-3/A"G/AB73A"F766/09A7-2E"X7-"+90;J" 40 000
9"G,66*F766/09A,?"a7G,-"G/66"D70A9/0"+7-,"2,,?2J"G/AB"90",0B90D,?"D9F9D/A;"A7" wintering phase
30 000
.,-+/09A,J"6,9?/0."A7"8/..,-"90?"8,AA,-*2B9F,?"H-3/AE"1+F-7K,?"F766/09A/70"D90"9627"
-,?3D,"AB,"A/+,"8,AG,,0"a7G,-/0."90?"H-3/A"2,AJ"-,?3D/0."AB,"-/2L"7H",OF72/0."H-3/A"A7" 20 000
wintering phase
F,2A2J"?/2,92,J"89?"G,9AB,-J"9.-7*DB,+/D962"90?"29K/0."70"G9A,-E 10 000 beekeeping season

Q3A3966;"8,0,ID/96"-,69A/702B/F2"B9K,"?,K,67F,?"7K,-"A/+,"8,AG,,0"F766/09A7-" Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
909A7+;"90?"F690A"a7G,-"2A-3DA3-,2"p"92"G,66"92"+,DB90/2+2"AB9A"F690A2"32,"A7" Data source: French Agency for Environmental and Occupational Health Safety (AFSSET), “Weakening,
collapse and mortality of bee colonies”, November 2008 – Updated April 2009.
__________________________________
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G L O B A L B E E C O L O N Y D I S O R D E R S A N D O T H E R T H R E A T S T O I N S E C T P O L L I N A T O R S
 2.1 Europe
Wild pollinators are also at risk
Y"?,D-,92,"/0"+909.,?"B70,;"8,,"D7670;"03+8,-2"/0"%3-7F,"B92"8,,0"782,-K,?"
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F7A,0A/96"90?".,0,A/D"-,2/6/,0D,"/0"+90;" <,6./3+J"SG/AW,-690?J"5,-+90;J"AB,"#0/A,?"U/0.?7+J"AB,"$,AB,-690?2J"1A96;"90?"
,D72;2A,+2E"Y6AB73.B"D70D632/K,"?9A9"/0?/D9A,2"AB9A" SF9/0E"Q7-A96/A;"B92"8,,0",OA-,+,6;"B/.B"GB,0"9DA/K/A;"/2"-,23+,?"9A"AB,",0?"7H"
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-/2L)(J"AB,-,"/2"9"69DL"7H"?9A9"70"+90;"/0K,-A,8-9A,"
2F,D/,2"AB9A"9DA"92"F766/09A/70"9.,0A2E Figure 3:"%3-7F,90"D7670;"+7-A96/A;

CB-,9A2"A7"D,-A9/0"/0K,-A,8-9A,"F766/09A7-" Bumblebees are highly social,

F7F369A/702"G,-,"-,F7-A,?"/0"%3-7F,"92",9-6;" like honeybees, but with
smaller, less structured nests, 16
92")be())J"90?"D70I-+,?"/0"AB,")bb(2E"CB," 10
that can consist of up to 1 000 17
-,.-,22/70"+72A6;"9HH,DA,?"670.*A70.3,?"2F,D/,2r" 10 12
bees. Bumblebee colonies are 8-10
AB/2"/2"6/L,6;"?3,"A7"AB,"-,?3DA/70"/0"F690A2"G/AB"
annual; the entire colony dies 32.8
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out each year and leaves only 23
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27-33 15
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$,AB,-690?2"9670,J"2/0D,"AB,")be(2"9"d(c"?-7F"/0" 11.25
start a new colony in spring. 13.3 10-30 >20
29.3 18
G/6?"a7G,-2"-,l3/-/0."/02,DA"F766/09A/70"B92"8,,0" Bumblebees pollinate tomatoes, 10-40 27
40-50
-,D7-?,?J"92"G,66"92"9"2B/HA"/0"F766/09A7-"D7++30/A;" eggplants, peppers, raspberries, 10
D7+F72/A/70)'E"10"AB,"#UJ"+90;"F766/09A7-"2F,D/,2" blackberries, strawberries, 14-89 30
AB9A"G,-,"-,69A/K,6;"-9-,"/0"AB,"F92A"9-,"8,D7+/0." blueberries, and cranberries,
-9-,-J"GB/6,"+7-,"D7++70"2F,D/,2"B9K,"8,D7+," just to name a few. Bumblebees 12-15
G/?,2F-,9?E"1A"G92"9627"H730?"AB9A"d)c"7H"83AA,-a;" are the only pollinators of potato ! " # $ Cartography: UNEP/DEWA/GRID-Europe, December 2009
! " # $ % & The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on maps and graphics do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations
2F,D/,2"B9K,"?,D-,92,?"90?"`E_c"8,D9+,",OA/0DA" flowers worldwide.
7K,-"AB,"F92A"'(";,9-2J"/6632A-9A/0."AB,"B/.B,2A"0,A" Data for colony mortality in European countries remains scarce or uneven. The most recent data compiled
Honey bee, Apis mellifera.
6722"D7+F9-,?"A7"09A/K,"a7G,-/0."F690A2"M'ec" by the COLOSS working group indicates that winter losses are common and the main pathogen during this
Photo courtesy of David
?,D-,92,"/0"_(";,9-2N"90?"8/-?2"Mg_c"?,D-,92," season is Varroa destructor)g. Other factors such as pathogens)f or pesticides)d are also being studied.
Cappaert, Michigan State
Source: In black 2007-2008 mortality (COLOSS, Zagreb meeting proceedings), in red 2006-2007 mortality
7K,-"'(";,9-2N"/0"AB,"29+,"#U"-,./70)`E University, Bugwood.org
(EFSA members poll)

__________________________________
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G,9L"D7670/,2"9-,"+7-,"6/L,6;"A7"8,"H730?"0,OA"A7"7-"/0"F-7O/+/A;"A7",9DB"7AB,-"/0"
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D7++70"D932,"9A"9873A"'gcE
3

2.5 2.3 Asia / Oceania

2
=B/09"B92"2/O"+/66/70"8,,"D7670/,2r"9873A"'(("((("8,,L,,F,-2"/0"AB/2"-,./70"-9/2,"
1.5 G,2A,-0"B70,;"8,,2"MA. melliferaN"90?",92A,-0"B70,;"8,,2"MA. ceranaNE"10"-,D,0A"
1
;,9-2J"=B/0,2,"8,,L,,F,-2"B9K,"H9D,?"2,K,-96"/0,OF6/D986,"90?"D7+F6,O"2;+FA7+2"
7H"D7670;"6722,2"/0"87AB"Apis"2F,D/,2E"=,-A9/0"6722,2"9-,"L07G0"A7"8,"D932,?"8;"
1945 1945 1950 1954 1959 1964 1969 1974 1978 1982 1987 1992 1997 2002 2007 \9--79"+/A,2"70"A. melliferaJ"29D8-77?"K/-32,2"70"A. cerana"90?"Tropilaelaps"+/A,2"
70"87AB"2F,D/,2E":7G,K,-J"7AB,-"H9DA7-2"90?"+,DB90/2+2"9-,"8,/0."/0K,2A/.9A,?J"
Data source: U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS) NB:
Data collected for producers with 5 or more colonies. Honey producing colonies are the maximum 96AB73.B"07"?9A9"B92"8,,0"F386/2B,?"A7"?9A,E
number of colonies from which honey was taken during the year. It is possible to take honey from
colonies which did not survive the entire year.

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+,923-,"/2"AB,"F69D,+,0A"7H",+FA;"h89/Ai"B/K,2"A7"9AA-9DA"8,,2"AB9A"D7+,"7HH"2B/F2E"
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2.4 Africa

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7H"==>E"#0A/6"07GJ"AB,-,"9-,"07"7AB,-"D70I-+,?"-,F7-A2"7H"B70,;"8,,"6722,2"H-7+"
YH-/D9E

3. Driving forces of pollinator population

instabilities
3.1 Habitat deterioration Data Source: CIESIN, NASA, SEDAC, 2000:
Human Footprint mapping project shows the cumulative effect of six billion people on the planet,
illustrating human impact on every square kilometre of the Earth. In this map, human impact is rated on
Degradation a scale of 0 (minimum) to 100 (maximum) for each terrestrial biome. A score of 1 indicates the least
:3+90"9DA/K/A/,2"B9K,"/+F9DA,?"AB,"690?2D9F,"AB-73.B"H-9.+,0A9A/70J"?,.-9?9A/70" human influence in the given biome. However, because each biome has its own independent scale, a
90?"?,2A-3DA/70"7H"09A3-96"B98/A9A2"90?"AB,"D-,9A/70"7H"0,G"90AB-7F7.,0/D"70,2E" score of 1 in a tropical rainforest might reflect a different level of human activity than in a broadleaf
forest.
=B90.,2"/0"690?*32,"90?"690?2D9F,"2A-3DA3-,"9HH,DA2"F766/09A7-2J"A9-.,A"F690A2"90?"

__________________________________
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?,D6/0,"/0"27+,"09A/K,"83+86,8,,2E"X3-AB,-+7-,J"30B,96AB;",D72;2A,+2"D90"H9D/6/A9A,"
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Invasive Species
CB,",OA,-096"F9-92/A/D"+/A,J"Varroa destructorJ"/2"AB,"+72A"2,-/732"AB-,9A"A7"9F/D36A3-,"
.678966;E"V,D7.0/2,?"92"90"/0K92/K,"2F,D/,2J"/A"B92"2B/HA,?"B72A2"H-7+ A. cerana"A7"
A. melliferaE"Y873A"AB,"2/W,"7H"9"F/0B,9?J"/A"H,,?2"70"8,,2k"D/-D369A7-;"a3/?"90?"
2F-,9?2"H-7+"70,"B/K,"A7"907AB,-E"CB,"F9-92/A,"D90"2F-,9?"K/-96"?/2,92,2"90?"
89DA,-/9E"1H"6,HA"30D70A-766,?J"/A"G/66"96+72A"D,-A9/06;"6,9?"A7"AB,"F-,+9A3-,"?,9AB"7H"
D7670/,2"G/AB/0"AB-,,";,9-2E">/2D7K,-,?"/0"S73AB,92A"Y2/9"/0")b(_J"A7?9;"/A"B92"
2F-,9?"0,9-6;"G7-6?G/?,E
2004 2007 2009
=7+F,A/A/70"H-7+"070*09A/K,"B;+,07FA,-9"2F,D/,2"/2"9627"7H"D70D,-0"H7-"F766/09A7-2J"
07A986;"AB,"YH-/D90/2,?"8,,"/0"AB,"#SY"90?"AB,"Y2/90"B7-0,A"MVespa velutinaN"/0"
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,OF902/70"90?"/+F9DA"70"B70,;8,,2E

Pollution and other threats

Y/-"F7663A/70"B9+F,-2"AB,"2;+8/7A/D"-,69A/702B/F2"8,AG,,0"F766/09A7-2"90?"a7G,-2E"
Y6AB73.B"?9;A/+,"/02,DA2"?,F,0?"F-/+9-/6;"70"K/2/70"A7"I0?"a7G,-2J"F7663A90A2"9HH,DA"
AB,"DB,+/D962"AB9A"a7G,-2"F-7?3D,"A7"9AA-9DA"/02,DA2J"GB/DB"?,2A-7;2"K/A96"2D,0A"A-9/62E"
SD,0A2"AB9A"D736?"A-9K,6"7K,-"e((+"/0"AB,")e((2"07G"-,9DB"6,22"AB90"27+,"'((+"
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%6,DA-/D"90?"+9.0,A/D"I,6?2"+9;"9627"/0a3,0D,"8,,"8,B9K/73-J"92"8,,2"9-,"2,02/A/K,"
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AB,-,"/2"/023HID/,0A"?9A9"90?"-,2,9-DB"A7",2A986/2B"9"D93296"6/0L"8,AG,,0"AB,"/+F9DA"
7H"AB,2,"I,6?2"90?"8,,"+7-A96/A;E

Adult honey bee with a brown varroa mite riding on the thorax.
Photo courtesy of Stephen Ausmus. USDA-ARS, United States, License: public domain

__________________________________

6
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G L O B A L B E E C O L O N Y D I S O R D E R S A N D O T H E R T H R E A T S T O I N S E C T P O L L I N A T O R S
3.2 Agriculture practices
Chemical drifts from spraying
=B,+/D962"D90"F7/270"F766/09A7-2"7-"/+F9/-"AB,/-"-,F-7?3DA/70J",6/+/09A,"0,DA9-"
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Systemic insecticides
S;2A,+/D"/02,DA/D/?,2"23DB"92"AB72,"32,?"92"2,,?"D79A/0.2J"GB/DB"+/.-9A,"H-7+"AB,"
-77A2"AB-73.B"AB,",0A/-,"F690AJ"966"AB,"G9;"A7"AB,"a7G,-2J"D90"F7A,0A/966;"D932,"A7O/D"
DB-70/D",OF723-,"A7"070*A9-.,A"F766/09A7-2E"\9-/732"2A3?/,2"-,K,96,?"AB,"B/.B"A7O/D/A;"
7H"DB,+/D962"23DB"92"1+/?9D67F-/?J"=67AB/90/?/0J"CB/9+,AB7O9+"90?"9227D/9A,?"
/0.-,?/,0A2"H7-"90/+962"23DB"92"D9A2J"I2BJ"-9A2J"-988/A2J"8/-?2"90?",9-ABG7-+2`gE"
^987-9A7-;"2A3?/,2"B9K,"2B7G0"AB9A"23DB"DB,+/D962"D90"D932,"6722,2"7H"2,02,"7H"
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A7"/0D-,92,"AB,"A7O/D/A;"7H"AB,"2;2A,+/D"/02,DA/D/?,"7K,-")"((("A/+,2E":7G,K,-J"-,236A2"
78A9/0,?"/0"6987-9A7-;"D70?/A/702"9-,"B9-?"A7"D7+F9-,"A7"I,6?"D70?/A/702E

3.3 Beekeeping activities

Health
C7"?9A,J"AB,-,"9-,"'b"8/767./D96"F9AB7.,02"L07G0"/0"AB,"8,,L,,F/0."2,DA7-"7H"
/0?32A-/96/2,?"D730A-/,2J"27+,"7H"GB/DB"B9K,"8,,0"AB,"H7D32"7H"-,D,0A"2A3?/,2"
70"AB,"FB,07+,070"7H"8,,"D7670;"+7-A96/A;"M2,,"X/.3-,"dNE"10A-7?3D,?"F9-92/A,2"
B9K,"D70A-/83A,?"A7"9"-,?3DA/70"/0"+909.,?"B70,;"8,,"F7F369A/702J"Varroa
destructor"D932/0."AB,"+72A"?9+9.,E"@-/./09A/0."H-7+"Y2/9J"AB,"\9--79"+/A,"
-,9DB,?"%3-7F,"90?"$7-AB"Y+,-/D9"/0"AB,")be(2J"90?"B92"07G"2F-,9?"96+72A"
G7-6?G/?,"MX/.3-,"eNE

Aerial chemical spraying.

Creative Commons (CC) photo courtesy of Paul L. Nettles on Flickr. February 2008

__________________________________
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7
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G L O B A L B E E C O L O N Y D I S O R D E R S A N D O T H E R T H R E A T S T O I N S E C T P O L L I N A T O R S
 Figure 7: Apis mellifera"F9AB7.,0/D"9.,0A2 CG7"2F,D/,2"7H"AB,"Nosema"F9-92/A,"9-,"G/?,2F-,9?"9D-722"AB,"#ESE"CB,"Nosema
ACARI HYMENOPTERA FUNGUS apisJ"D90"8,"F9-A/D369-6;"F-786,+9A/D"H7-"7K,-*G/0A,-/0."D7670/,2J"83A"B92"8,,0"
Acarapis woodi Vespa velutina (Asian hornet) Nosema apis (nosemosis)
Varroa destructor Nosema ceranae (nosemosis) 69-.,6;"?/2F69D,?"8;"N. ceranae"7K,-"AB,"F92A"?,D9?,E"RB/6,"AB,",F/?,+/767.;"7H"
Tropilaelaps clareae Ascosphaera apis (chalkbrood disease)
Aspergillus flavus (chalkbrood disease)
N. ceranae"/2"F77-6;"30?,-2A77?J"/A"B92"8,,0"869+,?"H7-"69-.,*2D96,"6722,2"-,D,0A6;"
COLEOPTERA DIPTERE
,OF,-/,0D,?"8;"SF90/2B"8,,L,,F,-2E"1A"/2"07A"3032396"H7-"F766/09A7-2"A7"23HH,-"H-7+"
Aethina tumida Braula caeca (bee louse) G/?,2F-,9?"+7-A96/A;J"90?"H7-"+909.,?"8,,"D7670/,2"A7"8,",OF72,?"A7"/0H,DA/732"
(small hive beetle)
9.,0A2J"07A986;"AB,"Y+,-/D90"H7368-77?"MPaenibacillus larvaeNJ"A-9DB,96"+/A,2"
VIRUS PROTOZOAIRE
ABPV (acute bee paralysis virus) Malpighamoeba mellificae (amibiosis) MAcarapis woodiNJ"90?"K9-/732"7AB,-"H30.96J"K/-96J"90?"89DA,-/96"?/2,92,2E
BQCV (black queen cell virus)
CBPV (chronic bee paralysis virus) BACTERIUM
DWV (deformed wing virus) LEPIDOPTERES
IAPV (Israeli acute paralysis virus) Galleria mellonella
Paenibacillus larvae
(American foolbrood disease, AFB)
^/AA6,"/2"L07G0"9873A"AB,"07-+96"6,K,62"7H"27+,"+/D-78,2"90?"F9AB7.,02"9227D/9A,?"
(the greater wax moth)
KBV (Kashmir bee virus)
SBV (sacbrood virus) Achroea grisella Melissococcus plutonius G/AB"8,,2J"23DB"92"AB,"H30./"D932/0."2A70,"8-77?J"a9.,669A,2"7-"9+7,89,E"$,G"90?"
(European foolbrood disease, EFB)
SBPV (slow bee paralysis virus)
CWV (cloudy Wing Virus)
Paenibacillus alvei /0D-,92/0.6;"K/-36,0A"H30.96"F9AB7.,0"2A-9/02"9-,"07G"8,/0."-,F7-A,?"G7-6?G/?,E
Enterococcus faecalis Secondary
Virus X Achromobacter eurydice Agents
Virus Y
FV (filamentous virus)
Brevibacillus laterosporus
Pseudomonas apiseptica (septicaemia)
Chemical use
Spiroplasma apis (spiroplasmosis)
Spiroplasma melliferum (spiroplasmosis)
Y0A/8/7A/D2"90?"DB,+/D962"32,?"9.9/02A"+/A,2"M+/A/D/?,2N"9-,"G/?,2F-,9?"/0"8,,B/K,"
+909.,+,0AE"X-,l3,0D;"90?"+,AB7?"7H"9FF6/D9A/70"K9-/,2"90?"+9;"9627"B9+F,-"
Source: “L’abeille mellifère: maladie, parasites et autres ennemis”, Coineau Y & Fernandez N, 2007.
Rapport du groupe de travail sur les “affaiblissements, effondrements et mortalités des colonies d’abeilles”,
D7670;"F7F369A/702E"S/0D,"AB,"69A,")be(k2J"GB,0"AB,"varroa"+/A,"G92"/0A-7?3D,?J"
AFSSA, 2008 8,,L,,F,-2"B9K,"32,?"+/A/D/?,2"/0"8,,B/K,2"A7"D70A-76"/0K92/702"F-/+9-/6;"7H"varroa"
+/A,2E"\9-/732"A;F,2"7H"F,2A/D/?,2J"87AB".-7G,-"*"90?"8,,L,,F,-*9FF6/,?J"B9K,"
8,,0"?,A,DA,?"/0"B/K,"+9A-/D,2"23DB"92"D73+9FB72"90?"a3K96/09A,E"Q90;"7H"AB,2,"
Figure 8." n,9-6;"9K,-9.,"7H"+909.,?"B70,;"8,,"D7670;"6722,2"?3,"A7"\9--79"+/A, F-7?3DA2"9-,"L07G0"A7"?9+9.,"D7670;"B,96ABE"S7+,"<,6./90"2A3?/,2"B9K,"F-7K,?"
9"?/-,DA"6/0L"8,AG,,0"D7670;"A-,9A+,0A"9.9/02A"AB,"K9--79"F9-92/A,"90?",OD,22/K,"
Europe F7F369A/70"+7-A96/A;_(E
1.8 - 53 %

North America Diet

Asia
~30 % No reports of
Japan o396/A;"H77?"/2",22,0A/96"H7-"F766/09A7-2k"23DD,22H36"69-K9"?,K,67F+,0A"90?"9627"A7"
25% of beekeepers
Africa
high losses
reported sudden losses 7FA/+/2,"AB,/-"9DA/K/A;"D;D6,"?3-/0."AB,"G/0A,-"2,9270E"1A"/2"/0D-,92/0.6;"?/HID36A"H7-"
No reports of F766/09A7-2"A7"78A9/0"23HID/,0A"F766,0"273-D,2"H7-"966"AB,/-",22,0A/96"9+/07"9D/?2E"
high losses =702,l3,0A6;J"AB/2"D90"G,9L,0"AB,"/02,DA2k"/++30,"2;2A,+J"+9L/0."AB,+"+7-,"
Middle East
10 - 85 %
K360,-986,"A7"K9-/732"F9AB7.,02E"S7+,"-,2,9-DB,-2"B9K,"782,-K,?"AB9A"GB,-,"D-7F2"
South America G/AB"67G*F-7A,/0"F766,02"23DB"92"863,8,--/,2"90?"230a7G,-2"9-,".-7G0J"AB,-,"/2"9"
No reports of
high losses D7--,2F70?/0.6;"/0D-,92,?"6/L,6/B77?"7H"==>_)E

Australia X,,?/0."D7670/,2"/2"D7++70"9+70."8,,L,,F,-2"A7"2A-,0.AB,0"09A3-96"?/,A2"7-"
No reports of high losses
+/0/+/2,"AB,"-/2L"7H"2A9-K9A/70"8;"8772A/0."2,927096"H77?"2B7-A9.,2E"=70D3--,0A6;J"
7AB,-"0,D,229-;",6,+,0A2"/0"8,,"?/,A2"23DB"92"+/0,-96"296A"90?"F-7A,/02"+32A"9627"8,"
The Varroa mite, Varroa destructor, is one of the threats to managed honey bee colonies. Elevated colony
losses reported from the USA, Europe, the Middle East and Japan are related to high mite infection`b. /0D63?,?"8;"AB,"9FF-7F-/9A,"H,,?,-"+,AB7?E":7G,K,-J"670.*A,-+",HH,DA2"70"D7670/,2"
7H"AB/2"A;F,"7H"H,,?/0."9-,"07A";,A"L07G0E

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8,,"?/2,92,"9.,0A"679?2"8,D932,"7H"0,.9A/K,"290/A9-;",HH,DA2"7H"D70I0,+,0A2"90?"
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A-902F7-A9A/70J"+7-A96/A;"-9A,2"9-,"7HA,0"-,F7-A,?"A7"-,9DB"27+,")(cE
Colony splitting and selection
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A7"D7+F,029A,"H7-"+/22/0."8,,2E"<;"-,D;D6/0.",l3/F+,0A"90?"F-7K/?/0."9"0,G"
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9?36A"8,,2E
3.4 Climate change
1A"/2"90A/D/F9A,?"AB9A"D6/+9A,"DB90.,"D702,l3,0D,2J"23DB"92"a3DA39A/702"/0".-,,0/0.J"
a7G,-/0."90?"9./0."F,-/7?2J"90?"90"7K,-966"2B7-A,0/0."7H"AB,".-7G/0."2,9270_'J"
+9;"B9+F,-"AB,"6/K,6/B77?"7H"F766/09A7-2E"=B90.,2"9HH,DA/0."AB,"?/2A-/83A/70"7H"
a7-96"-,273-D,2"9D-722"2F9D,"90?"A/+,"9627"/0a3,0D,"AB,"D7+F72/A/70"7H"F766/09A7-"
D7++30/A/,2E"=70D,-0/0."AB,"-,.,0,-9A/70"7H"23DB"D7++30/A/,2"H7667G/0."I-,"
H7-",O9+F6,J"8,,"D7++30/A;"D7+F72/A/70"B92"8,,0"H730?"A7"D672,6;"H7667G"a7-96"
D7+F72/A/70"90?"-,G9-?2_`E"S3DB"DB90.,2"G/66"?/-,DA6;"/+F9DA"AB,"+3A3966;"
9?K90A9.,732"8,0,IA2"AB9A"A9L,"F69D,"?3-/0."F766/09A/70"MmutualismNE"=6/+9A,"
DB90.,"+/.BAJ"/0"27+,"-,./702J"9627"6,9?"A7"9"?,D-,92,"/0"F-,D/F/A9A/70"90?"
9"2B/HA"/0"2,927096"-9/0H966E"=702,l3,0A6;J"-,?3D,?"F690A"K/.73-J"?,69;,?"F690A"
+9A3-9A/70"90?"9"?,D6/0,"/0"0,DA9-"F-7?3DA/70"+9;"7DD3-J"GB/DB"+9;"9627"?/2A3-8"
0,DA9-*?,F,0?,0A"+3A396/2A2E"#6A/+9A,6;J"D6/+9A,"DB90.,"+9;"96A,-"AB,"09A3-96"
2;0DB-70/29A/70"8,AG,,0"F766/09A7-"90?"F690A"6/H,*D;D6,2E
4. What is being or can be done to limit
instabilities?
4.1 Habitat conservation
=702/?,-/0."F766/09A/70"B98/A9A"90?"H9309"/0",D767./D96"-,2A7-9A/70"F6900/0."
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/0K,-A,8-9A,"A9O707+;J"+70/A7-/0."90?"-,/0A-7?3DA/70"/2"-,l3/-,?"92"D-/A/D96"F9-A"7H"
B98/A9A"+909.,+,0A"90?"-,2A7-9A/70"F6902E"10D63?/0."B98/A9A"-,l3/-,+,0A2"H7-"K/A96"
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#0F673.B,?"H9-+690?"2,A"92/?,"H7-"2,K,-96";,9-2"D90";/,6?"K,.,A9A/70"AB9A"23FF7-A2"
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AB,/-"67D96",0K/-70+,0A__E"CB,"K963,"7H"F-7K/?/0."23DB"-,273-D,2"H7-"AB,"6/K,6/B77?"7H"
F766/09A7-2"/2";,A"A7"8,"l390A/I,?"83A"/A"/2"309+8/.3732_gE
4.2 Alternative agriculture
X9-+,-2"90?".9-?,0,-2"D90"-,6;"70"96A,-09A/K,"070*A7O/D"+,AB7?2J"23DB"92"09A3-96"
,0,+/,2"90?",0K/-70+,0A966;"H-/,0?6;"F-9DA/D,"A7"D70A-76"F,2A2J"/02,DA2"90?"G,,?2J"
AB,-,H7-,"-,?3D/0."G/6?6/H,",OF723-,"A7"/02,DA/D/?,2J"B,-8/D/?,2"90?"H30./D/?,2_fE"1A"/2"
/+F7-A90A"AB9A"/+F9DA2"70"F766/09A7-2"9-,"D702/?,-,?"GB,0"?,2/.0/0."90?"DB772/0."
+,AB7?2"7H"F,2A/D/?,"9FF6/D9A/70J"F9-A/D369-6;"?3-/0."AB,"a7G,-/0."2,9270"/0"9-,92"
G/AB"F766/09A7-*?,F,0?90A"D-7F2E

__________________________________
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G L O B A L B E E C O L O N Y D I S O R D E R S A N D O T H E R T H R E A T S T O I N S E C T P O L L I N A T O R S
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-,+7K,?J"G/6?"F7F369A/702"9-,"D7+F6,A,6;"K360,-986,E
V,.9-?/0."96A,-09A/K,"F766/09A7-2"90?"F722/86,"?7+,2A/D9A/70J"AB,"H7667G/0."H9DA7-2"
4.3 Alternative pollinators 2B736?"8,"D702/?,-,?4"23HID/,0A"03+8,-2"7H"9K9/6986,"/02,DA2J"G/66/0.0,22"A7"0,2A"
/0"9-A/ID/96"9-,92"F7A,0A/96"0,9-"A9-.,A"D-7F2"90?"9"+9O/+3+"H7-9./0."-90.,"A7"
,0B90D,"AB,"l396/A;"7H"F766/09A/70E
Y2"AB,".,032"Apis"/2"07A"AB,"
+72A",HH,DA/K,"F766/09A7-"H7-" 4.4 Larval stage conservation
966"D-7F"2F,D/,2J"AB,"-90.,"
7H"F766/09A7-2"2B736?"8," Q90;"/+F7-A90A"09A/K,"/0K,-A,8-9A,"F766/09A7-2"B9K,"69-K96"2A9.,"+78/6/A;"90?"
?/K,-2/I,?"GB,0"F722/86,E" B98/A9A"-,l3/-,+,0A2"K,-;"?/HH,-,0A"H-7+"G/0.,?"9?36A2E"=702,-K9A/70"/0/A/9A/K,2"B9K,"
Y6A,-09A,"F766/09A7-2" 27+,A/+,2"8,,0"267G"A7"D702/?,-"AB,"0,,?2"7H"?/HH,-,0A"6/H,*D;D6,"2A9.,2"90?"/0?,,?J"
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$7-AB"Y+,-/D9"H7-"2F,D/ID" An adult leafcutter bee foraging in sweet pea flower.
96H96H9"F766/09A/70"2/0D,"AB," Image courtesy of Whitney Cranshaw, Colorado State
)bf(2E University, Bugwood.org.

__________________________________
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G L O B A L B E E C O L O N Y D I S O R D E R S A N D O T H E R T H R E A T S T O I N S E C T P O L L I N A T O R S
BOX 1: Guiding governance
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z"CB,"North American Pollinator Protection Campaign (NAPPCJ"9A"GGGE09FFDE7-.N"/2"90"
966/90D,"7H"F766/09A7-"-,2,9-DB,-2J"D702,-K9A/70"90?",0K/-70+,0A96".-73F2J"F-/K9A,"/0?32A-;J"90?"2A9A,"
90?"H,?,-96"9.,0D/,2"9/+/0."A7"?,K,67F"90?"/+F6,+,0A"90"9DA/70"F690"A74"
! "! =77-?/09A,"67D96J"09A/7096"90?"/0A,-09A/7096"9DA/70"F-7P,DA2"/0"F766/09A7-"-,2,9-DBJ",?3D9A/70"90?"
9G9-,0,22J"D702,-K9A/70"90?"-,2A7-9A/70J"F76/D/,2"90?"F-9DA/D,2J"90?"2F,D/96"F9-A0,-2B/F"/0/A/9A/K,2
! "! X9D/6/A9A,"D7++30/D9A/70"9+70."2A9L,B76?,-2J"83/6?"2A-9A,./D"D796/A/702"90?"6,K,-9.,",O/2A/0."
-,273-D,2
! "! >,+702A-9A,"9"F72/A/K,"+,923-986,"/+F9DA"70"AB,"F7F369A/702"90?"B,96AB"7H"F766/09A7-2"G/AB/0"IK,"
;,9-2E
z"CB,"Pollinator Thematic Network (PTNJ"9A"F766/09A7-2E/98/0E0,AN"G92"/0/A/9A,?"/0"Q9;"'((f"
90?"/2"70,"7H"IK,"10A,-*Y+,-/D90"</7?/K,-2/A;"$,AG7-L"M1Y<1$N"AB,+9A/D"0,AG7-L2E"X9D/6/A9A,?"8;"AB,"
@-.90/29A/70"7H"Y+,-/D90"SA9A,2"M@YSN"H7-"9DA/K/A/,2"G/AB/0"AB,"R,2A,-0":,+/2FB,-,J"AB,"&C$"922/2A2"
G/AB"AB,"?/2D7K,-;J"D766,DA/70J"?/./A/W9A/70J"+909.,+,0A"90?",ODB90.,"7H"F766/09A7-"782,-K9A/70"
90?"D766,DA/70"?9A9E"CB/2",HH7-A"/2"23FF7-A,?"8;"AB,"X7-.7AA,0"&766/09A7-2"=9+F9/.0"M)bbfNJ"AB,"
$7-AB"Y+,-/D90"&766/09A7-"&-7A,DA/70"=9+F9/.0"M)bbfNJ"AB,"<-9W/6/90"&766/09A7-"10/A/9A/K,"M)bbeNJ"
AB,"YH-/D90"&766/09A7-"10/A/9A/K,"M)bbbNJ"AB,"10A,-09A/7096"&766/09A7-"10/A/9A/K,"7H"AB,"=70K,0A/70"70"
</767./D96">/K,-2/A;"M'(((r"'(('N"90?"AB,"%3-7F,90"&766/09A7-"10/A/9A/K,"M'((_NE
G L O B A L B E E C O L O N Y D I S O R D E R S A N D
BOX 2: Some scientific networks promoting continental and trans-continental
collaboration on pollinators research.
\9-/732"L,;"L07G6,?.,".9F2"70"F766/09A7-2"B9K,"8,,0"/?,0A/I,?"8;"AB,"2D/,0D,"D7++30/A;E"&-,K/732"
-,2,9-DB"9DA/K/A/,2"G,-,"7HA,0"30?,-A9L,0"/0"?/HH,-,0A"67D9A/702"G7-6?G/?,J"-,236A/0."/0"+7-,"D7+F,A/A/70"
AB90"D766987-9A/70"9A"A/+,2E"V,2,9-DB"/2"0,,?,?"A7"9??-,22"90?"+/A/.9A,"AB,"K9-/732"D932,2"7H"
F766/09A7-"?,D6/0,J"92"G,66"92"AB,"F7A,0A/96"-,+,?/,2E"=,-A9/0"2D/,0A/ID"0,AG7-L2"9/+"A7"-,?3D,"-,2,9-DB"
?3F6/D9A/70"8;"F-7+7A/0."9"+7-,"D77-?/09A,?"/0A,-09A/7096",HH7-AE
z COLOSS"9A"GGGED76722E7-."*"CB,"&-,K,0A/70"7H":70,;"<,,"=@670;"^@SS,2"M'((e*'()'N"/2"90"
/0A,-09A/7096"%3-7F,90*H30?,?"=@SC"M%3-7F,90"=77F,-9A/70"/0"AB,"I,6?"7H"SD/,0A/ID"90?"C,DB0/D96"
V,2,9-DBN"0,AG7-L"7H"')'"+,+8,-2"H-7+"g'"D730A-/,2"G/AB",HH,DA"H-7+">,D,+8,-"'((eE"CB,"
0,AG7-Lk2"F-/+9-;"78P,DA/K,"/2"A7"/?,0A/H;"H9DA7-2"9A"AB,"/0?/K/?396"B70,;"8,,"90?"D7670;"6,K,62"
AB9A"D932,"2,K,-,"D7670;"6722,2"90?"A7"/0K,2A/.9A,"2;0,-./2A/D",HH,DA2"8,AG,,0"AB,+E"CB/2"/0A,.-9A,?"
9FF-79DB"8,AG,,0"6,9?/0."2D/,0A/2A2J"8,,L,,F,-2"90?"/0?32A-;"/2"B,6F/0."A7"+/A/.9A,"AB,"?,A-/+,0A96"
/+F9DA"7H"B70,;"8,,"D7670;"6722,2"H7-"8,,L,,F,-2J"9.-/D36A3-,"90?"09A3-96"8/7?/K,-2/A;E"1A2"H73-"+9/0"
78P,DA/K,2"9-,"A74
! "! %OF69/0"90?"F-,K,0A"69-.,*2D96,"6722,2"7H"D7670/,2E
! "! >,K,67F"2A90?9-?2"H7-"+70/A7-/0."90?"-,2,9-DB"70"6722,2E
! "! 1?,0A/H;"30?,-6;/0."H9DA7-2"90?"+,DB90/2+2E
! "! >,K,67F",+,-.,0D;"+,923-,2"90?"232A9/0986,"+909.,+,0A"2A-9A,./,2E
z"BEE DOC - BEes in Europe and the Decline of Colonies"M%#"X&dJ"'()(*'()'NJ"9A"
" GGGE8,,*?7DE,3E"X7D32"70"B70,;"8,,"F9AB767.;"90?"/0A,-9DA/702"8,AG,,0"F9AB7.,02E
z"Status and Trends of European Pollinators (STEP)"M%#"X&dJ "'()( *'()'N"9A"
" GGGE2A,F*F-7P,DAE0,AE"X7D32"70"F766/09A7-"6722"9D-722"/02,DA2"MApis mellifera,"BombusJ"276/A9-;"
" 8,,2J",ADENE
z"Assessing Large-scale Environmental Risks for Biodiversity with Tested Methods
(ALARMJ"9A"GGGE969-+F-7P,DAE0,AN"/2"9"%3-7F,90"D766987-9A/70"2A9-A,?"/0"'((_J"D702/2A/0."7H"g_"
F9-A0,-2"H-7+"'f"D730A-/,2J"?,K,67F/0."90?"A,2A/0."+,AB7?2"H7-"922,22/0."69-.,*2D96,",0K/-70+,0A96"
-/2L2"90?"AB,-,H7-,"+/0/+/2/0."AB,"?/-,DA"90?"/0?/-,DA"B3+90",HH,DA"70"%3-7F,90"A,--,2A-/96"90?"
H-,2BG9A,-"8/7?/K,-2/A;"90?",D72;2A,+2E"SD/,0A/2A2"H-7+"AB,"X-,0DB"$9A/7096"102A/A3A,"H7-"Y.-/D36A3-96"
V,2,9-DB"M1$VY*YK/.070N"9-,"F9-A/D/F9A/0."/0"AB,"&766/09A7-"+7?36,"A7",2A/+9A,"AB,"/+F9DA"7H"
F766/09A7-"F7F369A/702"70"%3-7F,90"9.-/D36A3-,"90?"AB,",D707+;E
z"United States Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Research Service Area-wide
Programme for Improving Honey Bee Health (2007-2009)
" CB,"F-7P,DA"D702/2A2"7H"H73-"L,;"D7+F70,0A24"7F,-9A/702J"922,22+,0AJ"-,2,9-DB"90?",?3D9A/70J"G/AB/0"
9"H-9+,G7-L"7H"9"A,+F7-96*2F9A/96"2D96,"90?"9"AB-,,*FB92,?"/+F6,+,0A9A/70"F-7D,22E"CB/2"/0D63?,2"
)("78P,DA/K,2"A7"/+F-7K,"D7670;"2A-,0.AB"H7-"F766/09A/70"90?"070*DB,+/D96"F,2A"90?"F9AB7.,02"
D70A-76"90?"D7670;"03A-/A/70"9+70.2A"7AB,-2E
11
O T H E R T H R E A T S T O I N S E C T P O L L I N A T O R S
 Conclusion
=3--,0A6;"9K9/6986,".67896"?9A9"90?"L07G6,?.,"70"AB,"?,D6/0,"7H"F766/09A7-2"9-,"07A"
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_gc"?3-/0."AB,"692A"g(";,9-2ggJ"?,D6/0,2"B9K,"8,,0"-,F7-A,?"/0"2,K,-96"67D9A/702J"
69-.,6;"/0"%3-7F,"90?"$7-AB,-0"Y+,-/D9E"CB/2"9FF9-,0A"?9A9"?/2D-,F90D;"+9;"
8,"?3,"A7"/0A,-F-,A9A/702"7H"67D96"?,D6/0,2"GB/DB"+9;"8,"+92L,?"8;"9..-,.9A,?"
-,./7096"7-".67896"?9A9E">3-/0."AB,"29+,"g(*;,9-"F,-/7?J"9.-/D36A3-96"F-7?3DA/70"
AB9A"/2"/0?,F,0?,0A"H-7+"90/+96"F766/09A/70"B92"?7386,?J"GB/6,"9.-/D36A3-96"
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F766/09A7-"?,F,0?90A"7K,-"AB,"692A"g(";,9-2E

:7G,K,-J"B3+90"9DA/K/A/,2"90?"AB,/-",0K/-70+,0A96"/+F9DA2"+9;"8,"?,A-/+,0A96"A7"
27+,"2F,D/,2"83A"8,0,ID/96"A7"7AB,-2J"G/AB"27+,A/+,2"238A6,"90?"D730A,-*/0A3/A/K,"
D93296"6/0L9.,2gfJ"gdE"&766/09A/70"/2"07A"P32A"9"H-,,"2,-K/D,"83A"70,"AB9A"-,l3/-,2"
/0K,2A+,0A"90?"2A,G9-?2B/F"A7"F-7A,DA"90?"232A9/0"/AE"CB,-,"2B736?"8,"9"-,0,G,?"
H7D32"70"AB,"2A3?;J"D702,-K9A/70"90?",K,0"+909.,+,0A"7H"09A/K,"F766/09A/0."2F,D/,2"
A7"D7+F6,+,0A"AB,"+909.,?"D7670;"A-9?/A/70E"%D707+/D"922,22+,0A2"7H"9.-/D36A3-96"
F-7?3DA/K/A;"2B736?"/0D63?,"AB,"D72A2"7H"232A9/0/0."G/6?"90?"+909.,?"F766/09A7-"
F7F369A/702geE

Bumble bee.
Creative Commons (CC) photo courtesy of Kristina Simms, Bugwood.org

__________________________________
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12
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www.unep.org
United Nations Environment Programme
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Tel.: +254 20 762 1234
Fax: +254 20 762 3927
e-mail: uneppub@unep.org
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