An Introduction No 01

An Introduction to the UN System:
Orientation for Serving on a UN Field Mission

(Intro to the UN 060515)
A course produced by
The United Nations Institute for Training and Research,
Programme of Correspondence Instruction
(Revised 2003)
Course Author
Lt.Col. (Retd.) Christian Hårleman
Senior Special Fellow, UNITAR
Series Editor
Harvey J. Langholtz
© Copyright 2003, UNITAR POCI
UNITAR Training Programme Programme UNITAR de Formation

of Correspondence Instruction Par Correspondance Aux
in Peacekeeping Operations Opérations de Maintien de la Paix
Dag Hammarskjöld Centre Palais des Nations
Box 20475 1211 Geneve 10
New York, NY 10017 Suisse
(Intro to the UN 060515)
A course produced by
The United Nations Institute for Training and Research,
Programme of Correspondence Instruction
(Revised 2003)
Course Author
Lt.Col. (Retd.) Christian Hårleman
Senior Special Fellow, UNITAR
Series Editor
Harvey J. Langholtz
© Copyright 2003, UNITAR POCI
Address all correspondence to:
UNITAR Training Programme

of Correspondence Instruction
in Peacekeeping Operations
Dag Hammarskjöld Centre
Box 20475
New York, NY 10017-0009
USA
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Contents................................................................................. i
Foreword............................................................................................. iv
Introduction ......................................................................................... v
Format of Study................................................................................. vii
Method of Study ............................................................................... viii
Section I: The Overall Framework
Lesson 1: The Task and the Task Organization................................ 1

• Lesson Objectives with Key Questions
• Introduction
1.1 The Charter of the United Nations – An Introduction
1.2 Purposes and Principles of the United Nations
1.3 Legal Principles
1.4 Financial Principles – Budget of the United Nations
1.5 The United Nations System
1.6 Achievements – Some Basic Facts
• Learning Questions with End-of-Lesson Quiz
Lesson 2: The Principal Organs of the United Nations ..................17

• Introduction
2.1 General Assembly
2.2 Security Council
2.3 Economic and Social Council
2.4 Trusteeship Council
2.5 International Court of Justice
2.6 Secretariat and the Secretary-General
Section II: The Operational Framework
Lesson 3: The United Nations’ Role in Maintaining

Peace and Security ......................................................................35
• Introduction
3.1 Political Context
3.2 The Key Concepts of an Interrelated System with Various Mechanisms for Response
3.3 Universal Principles Guiding Peacekeeping Operations
3.4 Organizational Structure and Main Functions
3.5 Types of Peace Operations
3.6 Planning and Preparation
3.7 Management Responsibilities
3.8 Peacekeeping Partnership
Lesson 4: The Roles of the United Nations in the

Fields of Development and Related Humanitarian Actions........55
• Introduction
4.1 The Development Concept
4.2 The Interface between Disaster Relief and Development
4.3 Humanitarian Imperatives
4.4 Distinctions/Similarities between Human Rights Law and International Humanitarian Law
4.5 Human Rights and Principles for Protection of Human Rights
4.6 Principles and Applications of International Humanitarian Law
Section III: The Working Concept
Lesson 5: The Environments ............................................................73

• Introduction
5.1 Social and Cultural Environment
5.2 Mission Environment and Types of Missions
5.3 Civilian and Military Cooperation (CIMIC)
5.4 The Security and Safety Environment
Lesson 6: Principles, General Duties, and Responsibilities ...........89

• Introduction
6.1 Background
6.2 Obligations and Duties
6.3 Cultural and Social Demands
6.4 Personal Demands
6.5 Privileges and Immunities
• The Code-of-Conduct of the Blue Helmets
ii
Lesson 7: Safety and Security ........................................................105
• Introduction
7.1 The Principal Context
7.2 Personal Safety Precautions
7.3 Travel
7.4 Special Security Precautions
7.5 First-Aid
7.6 Health Precautions
Section IV: The Working Tools
Lesson 8: The Available Tools ........................................................123

• Introduction
8.1 Participatory Methods
8.2 Projects and Project Control
8.3 Monitoring
8.4 Liaison and Information
8.5 Negotiation
8.6 Mediation
8.7 Written Communications and Reports
8.8 Communication with the Media
Lesson 9: The Partners....................................................................141

• Introduction
9.1 The Need for Proper Identification
9.2 UN Programmes and Funds
9.3 UN Specialized Agencies
9.4 International Organizations with Member States
9.5 Non-Governmental International Organizations
9.6 International Governmental Organizations
9.7 Non-Governmental Organizations
End-of-Course Examination ............................................................162
iii
FOREWORD
The current trends of political, social, and economic globalisation provide both
challenges and opportunities for the international community. Some nations
experience the forces of fragmentation while others experience integration. With
these recent changes has come an increase in the number of conflicts, exacerbated
by instability, social and economic injustice, and political competition. In this
environment, the United Nations has an uncontested role as the leading organization
for the maintenance of peace and security, development of political stability, social
and economic progress, and well-being. The issues of peace, governance,
democracy, and development are closely interrelated and must be simultaneously
addressed. This situation not only demands greater efforts by the Organization to
find political and financial solutions, but also requires the United Nations to identify
and explore appropriate and adequate human resources, particularly in this field.
United Nations field missions are a blend of peace support operations,

humanitarian aid, and development activities involving civilian personnel as well as
military specialists. UN military missions, both small and large, and under widely
varying mandates, have been staffed by multinational peacekeeping forces
composed mainly of military units and military personnel who have been trained
through their own national programmes. Although these missions require a large
number of military specialists, the involvement of civilians has expanded significantly,
particularly where a peacekeeping operation has been called upon to perform duties
that are less military in nature. The same tendency prevails in other areas of United
Nations field operations such as the more peaceful development activities.
All UN field missions require staffing by personnel with extensive professional

training in their own field of expertise. In addition, these staff members must have an
awareness of the complex working environment, including political, economic, social,
and security conditions in the field. They must also have knowledge of multi-
disciplinary structures, especially the United Nations system itself. In addition, field
personnel have to acquire the ability to handle these intricate concerns. This requires
a coherent and cohesive training system that covers training at all levels.
Therefore, this self-paced correspondence course should be seen as part of

such a system. It is primarily aimed at those who are or would like to become
members of United Nations Field Missions and who would like to become better
familiarized with the United Nations, its system, working conditions, and requirements
in the field. It is hoped that the information contained in this course will assist these
individuals in their preparation for a field assignment.
Christian Hårleman
Stockholm, Sweden in May 2003
iv
INTRODUCTION
The primary purpose of this course is to provide − to civilians (and others) likely to be
assigned to a United Nations field mission − an introduction to the United Nations
system, the mission environment, and what it means to serve on a United Nations
field mission.
Contents
The course itself is comprised of four main sections. The first two are intended to give
the student a thorough awareness of the guiding principles of the UN at the
institutional and operational level. The other two sections focus on the practicalities,
the problems a field operator may encounter, and the means to deal with such issues
at his or her disposal. In addition to the course booklet there are study or reference
materials. The first is the United Nations Charter, which is provided to the student
with this course. The second is optional study material: “Basic Facts about the United
Nations” which is available separately for students who wish to obtain it (UN
bookstore or on-line). These two documents will reinforce the institutional and
operational sections of the course document. References are made accordingly. The
course booklet also includes an End-of-Course-Examination and an accompanying
answer sheet.
Goals
This course should provide the student with an adequate base for better knowledge
and understanding of the United Nations, including the following topics:
• The purpose and principles of the United Nations, its system and institutional
framework;
• The United Nations’ roles in the areas of peace, security, and development;
• Applications of international humanitarian law and human rights;
• Application of communication, negotiation, and mediation technique;
• Safety and security;
• General obligations and responsibilities of the Field Operator.
The objectives of the course are based on the policies and principles of the United
Nations, as well as similar objectives as expressed by organizations/institutes and
non-governmental organizations.
In addition to these overall objectives, it is expected that the course will facilitate and
create an awareness of:
• The working environment and what is expected by the UN Field Operator in the
context of the United Nations operational principles;
• Intercultural and behavioral principles including gender issues;
• Interaction and communication with other organizations;
• Project management.
Audience and Dissemination

This course package is designed to meet the training needs of a population of
students with little experience in United Nations field operations but who are likely to
be assigned to a United Nations mission in the field. This course is to be
disseminated by UNITAR POCI.
v
Application
The course is generic and, thus, provides general information as part of the
preparation of the Field Operators (FO) and other UN Field Operations personnel. In
the development of the course, it has been assumed that the student will attend a
mission/project-oriented briefing upon arrival at the actual mission. This briefing
should be organized by the UN field mission with participation of actual UN agencies,
a local government, or a non-governmental organization to which the FO is assigned.
Approach
The course is primarily descriptive, although some personal comments are offered
when appropriate. The information provided in the text is not unique to this course.
Generally, the text is consistent with what is stated in referred source material and
present in most other publications on the topic. New to the course, however, is the
compilation and development of information that focuses entirely on the civilians
assigned to field missions and with no previous experiences from working with the
United Nations. While every effort has been made to ensure that this course is
accurate and up to date, this course is only a training document and, therefore, does
not promulgate policy. For questions of policy or doctrine, the student should consult
appropriate official sources.
References and Sources

The Charter of United Nations
The Challenges Project, Challenges of Peace Operations: Into the 21st Century–Concluding
Report 1997-2002 Elanders Gotab, Stockholm 2002
The Use of Force in UN Peace Operations; Trevor Findlay, Oxford University Press, 2002
United Nations Handbook 2002; Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade, New Zealand
Draft UNV Handbook 2000; United Nations Volunteer Programme, Bonn
Report of the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations 2000
Basic Facts about the United Nations; Department of Public Information, United Nations
2000
To Serve and Protect; C. de Rover, International Committee of the Red Cross 1998
Analysis for Peace Operations; Edited by Alexander Woodcock and David Davis, Canadian
Peacekeeping Press 1998
United Nations Peace-keeping Handbook for Junior Ranks; Department of Peace-keeping
Operations, United Nations 1997
United Nations Military Observers. Methods and Techniques for Serving on a UN Observer
Mission; United Nations Institute for Training and Research, Programme of Correspondence
Instructions in Peace-keeping Operation, 1997
The Blue Helmets: A Review of United Nations Peace-keeping. United Nations Publication,
1996
Confronting New Challenges; Boutros Boutros-Ghali, United Nations 1995
General Guidelines for Peace-keeping Operations; Department of Peace-keeping
Operations, United Nations, 1995
United Nations Stress Management Booklet; Department of Peace-keeping Operations,
United Nations 1995
Security Awareness, An Aide-memoir; United Nations Security Coordination Office – New
York and United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees – Geneva, 1995
Renewing the United Nations System; Erskine Childers with Brian Urquhart, Development
Dialog 1994:1, Dag Hammarskjold Foundation
International Organizations; Peter Hansen, Samfundsfglige grundboger, Gyldendal 1975
Information available over the Internet
All photos from United Nations photo archive unless otherwise indicated
vi
FORMAT OF STUDY
This course is designed for independent study

at a pace determined by the student
Course format and materials permit:

• MODULAR STUDY
• EASE OF REVIEW
• INCREMENTAL LEARNING
Materials needed for the completion of this course are enclosed with
the course listed below:
• Course booklet: “An Introduction to the United Nations System: Orientation for
Serving on a UN Field Mission”
• Charter of the United Nations (provided with this course)
• End-of-Course Examination (provided with this course)
• Answer Sheet for End-of-Course Examination
• Return Envelope for End-of-Course Examination
In addition, but not necessary, the book Basic Facts about the United Nations can be
used as supplementary information. References are made in Lessons 1-6
accordingly. However, this optional book is not included in the standard package and
should to be ordered separately if desired.
Please visit http://www.unitarpoci.org/courseactivity.php

to hear an audio introduction to this course
by author LCOL Christian Hårleman.
STUDENT’S RESPONSIBILITY
The student is responsible for:
• Learning course material
• Completing the End-of-Course Examination
• Submitting the End-of-Course Examination
Please see the End-of-Course Examination Answer Sheet

for submission instructions.
vii
METHOD OF STUDY
The following are suggestions for how to proceed with a UNITAR

POCI Course. Though the student may have alternate approaches
that are effective, the following hints have worked for many.
• Before you begin actual studies, first browse through the overall course
material. Notice the lesson outlines, which give you an idea of what will be
involved as you proceed.
• The material should be logical and straightforward. Instead of memorizing

individual details, strive to understand concepts and overall perspectives in
regard to the United Nations system.
• Set up guidelines regarding how you want to schedule your time.
• Study the lesson content and the learning objectives. At the beginning of each
lesson, orient yourself to the main points by using the “key questions.” If you
are able to, read the material twice to ensure maximum understanding and
retention, and let time elapse between readings. Use the supplementary
course material for clarification or if you want more in-depth knowledge of a
specific issue.
• When you finish a lesson, answer the “Learning Questions” before you take
the End-of-Lesson Quiz. The “Learning Questions” are to ensure that you
have correctly understood the main points of the lesson. For any error, go
back to the lesson section and re-read it. Before you go on, be aware of the
discrepancy in your understanding that led to an error.
• After you complete all of the lessons, take time to review the main points by
using the “Learning Questions” of each lesson. Then, while the material is
fresh in your mind, take the End-of-Course Examination in one sitting.
• Your exam will be scored, and if you achieve a passing grade of 75 percent or
higher, you will receive a Certificate-of-Completion. If you score below 75
percent, you will be given one opportunity to take a second version of the End-
of-Course Examination.
• One note about spelling is in order. There are six official languages at the
United Nations; one of these is English as used in the UK. UNITAR POCI
courses are written using English spelling.
viii
LESSON 1
THE TASK AND THE TASK ORGANIZATION
Learning Objectives 1.4 Financial Principles – Budget of the

• Key questions United Nations
• Regular Budget
Introduction • Extra Ordinary Budget
• Peacekeeping Budget
1.1 The Charter of the United Nations –
An Introduction 1.5 The United Nations System
• History • The “Central” United Nations
• Aims • Major Agencies
• Contents of the Charter • Technical Agencies
• Outside (but linked to) the System
1.2 Purposes and Principles of the
United Nations 1.6 Achievements – Some Basic Facts
• Purposes
• Principles Learning Questions
• Experiences • Knowledge
• Awareness
1.3 Legal Principles • Application
• General • End-of-Lesson Quiz
• Legal Entities
• Legal Framework for Peacekeeping
and Other Similar Operations
Lesson 1 / The Task and the Task Organization 2
LESSON I
(Ref: Basic Facts about the UN; pages 3-6, 19-54 and Articles of the Charter)
Learning Objectives
In order to understand the United Nations and its field operations, it is necessary to have
an awareness of the institutional framework of the Organization. While Lesson 1 deals with
the general principles and organizational structure, Lesson 2 provides a more detailed
description of the “core” United Nations that is the principal organs.
The first four parts of Lesson 1 provide information about the structure and main
content of the Charter of the United Nations, as well as the basic principles that guide the
Organization in its global efforts to maintain international peace and security. Although the
legal and financial principles are complicated issues, the student should acquire an awareness
of these fundamental concepts. The fifth part introduces the student to the United Nations
system and the interrelations between the various agencies, programmes, funds, and other
bodies. The last part deals with what might be called the empirical framework. Since United
Nations activities are always under debate, this part also provides some hard facts, which
might be useful in forthcoming discussions. At the end of the lesson, the student is supposed
to have an understanding of the overall framework.
Key questions to be considered by the student when studying Lesson 1:
What were the reasons for founding the United Nations?
What is the purpose of the United Nations?
What is the main principle of the United Nations?
What document is the constituting instrument of the United Nations?
What is the legal framework for a peace operation?
What are the principles for financing a peacekeeping operation?
What are the main bodies of the UN system?

to hear an audio introduction to this lesson by
course author LCOL Christian Hårleman.
Introduction
The United Nations Charter sets out the rights and obligations of the Member States and
authorizes the establishment of the United Nations principal organs and main procedures.
The Charter is the constituting instrument of the Organization, codifying the major principles
of international relations. The institutional framework of the Organization rests in the
principles, structures, and rules of the various organs that are provided for in the Charter.
Knowledge about the Charter is a prerequisite for understanding the interrelationship between
Member States and the United Nations, as well as the relations between the Organization’s
various organs and bodies as stipulated in the Charter. The high ideal of the UN stated in the
Charter – “To end the scourge of war” – has guided the UN from its founding in 1945,
through its being awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001, and beyond to the future and the
challenges of the 21st Century.
In addition, there is the “UN System,” which is a complex and sprawling structure
encompassing a large number of organs, commissions, agencies, etc. The system also includes
all the non-governmental organizations that are linked to the system. All these actors, together
with other entities outside the system that are also concerned with international issues,
constitute what is generally called the international community.
1.1 The Charter of the United Nations – An Introduction
History
In the aftermath of the First World War, the League of Nations was established, but the
Organization was never fully recognized and, consequently, failed to avert the Second World
War. Thus, the United Nations was established in the shadow of two global conflicts with the
major purpose to prevent a repeat of the tragedies of wars. The organization was established
with an amazing swiftness. Between 1941 and 1944, four conferences were held at which the
allies discussed the establishment of a new international organization with the major purpose
to maintain international peace and security. Although the crucial question of power sharing
was resolved at the Yalta conference in 1944, it was not until the San Francisco conference in
April 1945, with the participation of fifty states, that the Charter was officially drafted. At
the San Francisco conference, the power of the future Security Council became obvious,
which advocated the smaller states to successfully argue for stronger roles of the General
Assembly, the Secretary-General and the International Court of Justice. As a result, the
Charter was broadened and “the United Nations” was empowered to act in economic and
social areas as well.
The original Charter of the United Nations.

On June 26, 1945, the Charter was signed by all participating nations, and on October
24, 1945, it was ratified by the allies’ five major powers (the present five permanent members
of the Security Council) and by a majority of the signatory States.
Aims
The United Nations Charter was, and still is, a bold prescription for maintaining
international peace and security and promoting economic and social development. The
Charter provides the purposes and principles of the United Nations and sets out the structure
of the United Nations, the interrelations, principles and rules, which form the institutional
framework of the United Nations. The Charter begins with the Preamble, which expresses the
aims and ideals of the United Nations in elevated words. The founders were undoubtedly
guided by the experiences from two major world wars, the suffering of mankind, and a deep
longing for peace based on equality, dignity, and social and economic progresses. Other
keywords are peace, human rights, freedom, sovereignty, and respect for treaties and the
international law system, all of which are to be achieved through tolerance, maintenance of
international peace and security, and the promotion of the economic and social advancement
of all people. The Preamble ends with a formal declaration in which all the signatory States
agree to the present Charter and the establishment of an organization “to be known as the
United Nations.”
Contents of the Charter

The Preamble is followed by nineteen chapters, or 111 articles. The Chapters evolved
around four major areas: peace and security; economic and social issues; the trusteeship
system; and the judicial organ. The various articles describe the functions, rules and
procedures of the six principal organs of which the General Assembly can be considered as
the governing organ and the Secretariat as the executive function. The Charter ends with
Provisional Rules (among others, the privileges and immunities for United Nations officials),
Transitional Arrangements (relevant at the end of World War II), Amendments, and
Ratification and Signature.
The annexed Statute of the International Court of Justice is an integral part of the
Charter, comprised of five chapters. The first three deal with the Organization, Competence
and Procedures of the Court, and the remaining two with Advisory Opinions and
Amendments.
1.2 Purposes and Principles of the United Nations
Purposes
Articles 1 and 2 are the most important articles of the Charter since they describe the
overall objectives and principles of the United Nations. Article 1 sets forth the primary
purposes of the United Nations by authorizing the Organization "to maintain international
peace and security and to that end: to take effective collective measures for the prevention and
removal of threats to peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression or other breaches of
peace, and to bring by peaceful means, and in conformity with the principles of justice and
international law, adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situations which might
lead to a breach of peace....” The article also mandates the Organization to develop friendly
relations among nations and to achieve international cooperation in addressing economic,
social and cultural matters and fundamental rights issues concerning groups and individuals.
The United Nations is viewed as the harmonizing center in attaining these common ends.
Principles
Article 2 stipulates the principles for how the United Nations and the Member States
shall act in pursuit of the purposes of Article 1. As such, the Article is based on the principle
of the sovereign equality of all the Member States that are to fulfil in good faith their
obligations to the Charter. States are to refrain from the threat or use of force against any
other State, and international disputes are to be settled by peaceful means without
endangering peace, security, and justice. Members shall give the United Nations every
assistance in any action it takes in accordance with the Charter and shall not assist States
against which the United Nations is taking preventive or enforcement action.
However, these two articles are secondary to the principles of sovereignty and non-
interference. The end of paragraph 7, Article 2 states that “nothing in the Charter shall
authorize the United Nations to intervene in matters which are essential within the domestic
jurisdiction of any state….” However, “this principle shall not prejudice the application of
enforcement measures under Chapter VII” – a principle which, in the 1990s, was used to
support various political arguments.
Experiences
As indicated, the founders of the United Nation envisioned a framework for relations
between states, which would act through cooperation instead of force, either as a means of
obtaining goals of their foreign policy or settling conflicts. Thus, the Charter established a
framework for relations between states, and yet, during the Cold War era, the purposes and
the principles of the United Nations seemed far from assured. Instead, the era witnessed the
competition between the superpowers, and their exercise of the veto power in the Security
Council significantly hampered the effective discharge of responsibilities by the United
Nations chief security organ – the Security Council. The circumstances became a political
reality, which, to a certain extent, also carried over from the Security Council throughout the
rest of the system. One of the fundamental concepts in the maintenance of peace and security
was the concept of collective security. However, the concept, including the use of armed
forces and other enforcement tools as envisaged in the Charter, did not prove practical during
the Cold War era. Instead, the United Nations resorted, in specific situations, to an alternative
method of maintaining international peace and security – namely “peacekeeping.”
With the end of the Cold War, and the easing of superpower rivalries and tensions, the
Charter’s relevance to the contemporary political environment was improved. On the other
hand, the end of the Cold War and the following Post-Cold War era witnessed conflicts of
more internal character, where states’ functions did not exist or were very limited, and,
consequently, the fundamental rights of the individuals became increasingly abused. The call
for the unambiguous protection of human rights caused the international community to act
collectively and not always with the consent of the parties (states) concerned.
The tragic events of September 11, 2001, the issue of international terrorism, and the
military and non-military aspects of security have further complicated the general perception
of the United Nations’ efforts in maintaining international peace and security. This has led to
the erosion of one of the fundamental principles – “not to intervene in matters which are
essential within the domestic jurisdiction of any state.”
1.3 Legal Principles
General
The ratification of the Charter by the five major allies − the Republic of China, France,
the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (transferred to the Russian Federation, 1991), the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the United States of America –
and by a majority of the other signatory states provides the letter of its constituent authority.
The United Nations adheres to international laws, treaties, and conventions and is per se an
international body, “subject to international laws and capable of possessing international
rights and duties and it has capacity to maintain its rights by bringing international claims”
(International Court).
National equal sovereignty, non-intervention in the internal affairs of a Member State,

and the prohibition of the use of force in international relations are some of the fundamental
principles. The Charter departs from these principles only when it is necessary to take action
in order to prevent a threat to intentional peace or to restore peace. Under these circumstances,
the Charter provides for use of various means of sanctions or use of armed force (peace
enforcement) and decisions concerning these matters that are mandatory.
The United Nations Charter calls on the Organization to assist in the settlements of
international disputes (Art. 33), as well as to help in development of international law (Art.
13). Throughout the years, one of the most impressive achievements of the United Nations
has been the development of a series of conventions, treaties, and standards within the area of
international law, which all play a crucial role in economic and social development,
international peacekeeping, and security. The Organization also addressed the problems of
terrorism.
Legal Entities
The International Court of Justice is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations.
All members of the United Nations are automatically parties to the Statute of the Court (and a
few others) and can, consequently, be parties to cases. The General Assembly and the
Security Council can ask the Court for advisory opinions on legal matters, while other organs
of the United Nations and specialized agencies can do so by authorization from the General
Assembly. The jurisdiction of the Court covers all questions, which States refer to it and all
matters as provided for in the Charter or in treaties and conventions in force. (See also Lesson
2)
Among the other bodies is the International Law Commission with a main objective of
promoting the progressive development of international law and its codification. The United
Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) develops conventions, model
laws, rules, and legal guides in order to facilitate and harmonize world trade. Under the Law
of the Sea Convention, there are three bodies established: the International Seabed Authority;
the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea; and the Commission on the Limits of the
Continental Shelf.
The serious violations of international humanitarian law in the former Yugoslavia and in
Rwanda led the Security Council to establish two international tribunals with the power to
prosecute those individuals responsible for such violations. Thus, the International Criminal
Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia was established in 1993 and the International Tribunal
for Rwanda in 1994.
The International Criminal Court (ICC) is an independent international organization

and was established by the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court on July 17, 1998,
when 120 States participating in the "United Nations Diplomatic Conference of
Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court" adopted the
Statute, which entered into force July 1, 2002. The Statute authorizes the Court to investigate
and bring to justice individuals who have committed serious crimes of international concern,
crimes against humanity, and war crimes. In accordance with Article 2 of the Rome Statute,
the relationship with the United Nations system is governed by an agreement that has been
approved by the Assembly of States Parties and will be concluded by the President of the
Court on its behalf.
Within the Secretariat, the Office of Legal Affairs provides legal advice to the
Secretary-General and acts on his behalf on legal matters. It also advises the Secretariat and
other organs of the United Nations on matters related to international, public, private and
administrative laws. The Office is also responsible for the registration and publication of
treaties and conventions and, thus, publishes the United Nations Treaty Series.
In addition, the General Assembly has established a Special Committee on the Charter
of the United Nations and on the Strengthening of the Role of the Organization in 1974,
which made a recommendation to the Assembly to adopt international instruments related to
peaceful settlements of conflicts.
Legal Framework for Peacekeeping and Other Similar Operations

Peacekeeping was not foreseen by the founders of the United Nations and, therefore,
was neither mentioned nor provided for in the Charter. However, the Charter authorizes the
Security Council to “establish such subsidiary organs it deems necessary for the performance
of its functions.” Therefore, one may conclude (and generally accept) that the Security
Council (and the General Assembly) is legally justified in creating a peacekeeping force as an
additional mechanism in fulfilling the UN’s task of maintaining international peace and
security. The Charter provides for the necessary privileges and immunities of the force. In
addition, and in order to facilitate these operations, some legal relationships are established in
order to facilitate the relations between the United Nations and the host country and between
the United Nations and the troop-contributing country.
These Status of Forces (Missions) Agreements (SOFA and SOMA) concern the opus
operandi of the Force (Mission). The SOFA regulates the status of the force (mission) vis-à-
vis the host country, for example, jurisdiction, taxation, status of UN personnel, freedom of
movement, use of facilities, etc. A similar agreement is the Model of Force Agreement
(MOFA) between the UN and the troop-contributing country. It deals with the contributing
country’s responsibilities vis-à-vis United Nations: size, type and duration of the contingents
to be used, equipment, liability, claim and compensation, administrative and budgetary
matters, etc. Above that, the civilian police, in their assigned duties, follow the rules and
regulations stipulated by the United Nations Criminal Law and Justice Branch.
The Charter, as well as the Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United
Nations, provides privileges and immunities as deemed necessary for personnel working in
connection with the Organization. The 1994 Convention on the Safety of United Nations and
Associated Personnel serves as the legal instrument for protection and outlines duties to
ensure safety and security, release and return of detained personnel, crimes and exercise of
jurisdiction.
1.4 Financial Principles – Budget of the United Nations
Regular Budget
The regular budget of the United Nations covers the two years’ cost for the main
principal organs, offices and the regional commissions. The budget is submitted by the
Secretary-General and approved by the General Assembly after review by the Advisory
Committee on Administrative and Budgetary Questions (ACABQ). The main source of funds
is the contribution from the Member States. The Member States make their contribution
based on an assessment scale approved by the General Assembly. As of 2002, the maximum
contribution of the budget was 22 percent (the United States) and the minimum is fixed to
0.001 percent. The budget consists of 13 principal expenditures reflecting the main activities
of the Organization and as approved for 2002-2003 totalled approximately $2.6 billion.
Extra Ordinary Budget

The extra ordinary budget is the large part of funding acquired through voluntarily
contribution from the Member States. The budget covers the cost for the operational
programmes and funds, such as the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the
World Food Programme (WFP), the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
(UNHCR), and others.
Peacekeeping Budget
The costs of the United Nations peacekeeping operations are covered by the Member
States in accordance with the Special Scale of Assessments. “Since 2001 the Member States’
regular assessment levels are adjusted according to their placement in one of nine categories,
with discounts ranging from 7.5 percent to 90 percent applied to States with lower per capita
incomes, and a premium to cover these discounts applied to the assessments of permanent
members of the Security Council.” For the period of July 2002 to June 2003, the
peacekeeping operations budget reached an annual cost of $2.6 billion. As for the regular
budget, the General Assembly approves the budget after the recommendation of its 5th
Committee and review by the ACABQ.
1.5 The United Nations System
This section describes all the actors who make up what is called the UN system. For the
purpose of simplicity, the system has been divided in three major segments: (i) The “Central”
United Nations, and the Specialized Agencies which are divided into (ii) Major and (iii)
Technical Agencies.
(i) The “Central” United Nations – (Principal Organs, Commissions, Programmes and Funds)
A. The principal organs of the United Nations as provided for in the Charter of the United
Nations are: International Court of Justice (ICJ); General Assembly (GA); Security Council
(SC); Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC); Trusteeship Council; and the Secretariat.
These six organs form the core of the United Nations system. The Charter also provides for
the establishment of subsidiary bodies as the principal organs may find necessary (e.g.,
various commissions, committees, temporarily constituted peacekeeping operations, as well
as a variety of observer, verification missions, etc.). The principal organs are mainly located
at the Headquarters in New York (UNNY) except for the International Court of Justice,
which is located in The Hague. The United Nations Offices in Nairobi (ONON), in Vienna
(UNOV), and in Geneva (UNOG) – located in the same building as the former League of
Nations − are all considered as part of the United Nations’ Headquarters.
B. Reporting to the ECOSOC and operating under the authority of the Secretary-General
are the five Economic and Social Regional Commissions (Art.68). The basic mandate of these
commissions is to facilitate the promotion of the regional economic and social development of
each region and to strengthen the economic relations of the countries in that region both
among themselves and with other countries of the world. The five Commissions, with their
own structures and secretariats, are grouped as follows: for Africa in Addis Ababa (ECA);
Asia and the Pacific in Bangkok (ESCAP); Europe in Geneva (ECE); Latin America and the
Caribbean in Santiago (ECLAC); and Western Asia in Beirut (ESCWA).
All these Organs, Offices and Commissions are financed through the United Nations Regular
Budget.
C. The “Central” United Nations also includes what is called the United Nations
Programmes and Funds. At present, there are 15 various programme funds and other bodies,
including: United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF); United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP); United Nation Population Fund (UNFPA); United Nations
Environmental Programme (UNEP); Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for
Refugees (UNHCR); and World Food Programme (WFP).
Although these programmes and offices seem to be autonomous, they report annually
to the General Assembly through ECOSOC. They have their own governing bodies and set
their own standards and guidance. Their budgets are in large part funded through voluntary
contribution from governments and the private sector through what is called Extra Budgetary
Resources.
(ii) Specialized (Major) Agencies

The major specialized agencies and the Bretton Woods Institutions (founded at the
Bretton Woods Conference in 1944) are separately established by governments, have their
own constitution, budgets and governing boards and secretariats.
A. One group consists of five agencies, namely the International Labor Organization
(ILO), the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), the UN Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the UN Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO),
and the World Health Organization (WHO). They are all “brought into the agreement” with
the United Nations and, thus, formally recognized under the Charter. Their budgets are raised
by assessment from their member states but not as part of the United Nations regular budget.
B. The Bretton Woods Institutions are the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the
World Bank Group. The World Bank is the lender of commercially raised capital for
development projects, while IMF, among other things, promotes monetary cooperation and
expansion of international trade. The World Bank includes the main commercial-rate lending
bank (IBRD), the soft-loan International Development Association (IDA), and the
International Finance Corporation (IFC). Their budgets are raised through the usual capital
market procedures. The two major organizations − the World Bank and the IMF − have
adopted a voting system where weighted voting is in accordance to the members’ shares.
C. The third group includes IFAD, WTO and CD. The International Fund for Agriculture
Development (IFAD) has a separate legal status within the system. In 1995, the World Trade
Organization (WTO) replaced the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) as the
mechanism to help trade flow as freely as possible. WTO does not fall under the Charter as a
specialized agency but has cooperative arrangements with the United Nations. The
International Trade Center UNCTAD/WTO operates as the technical cooperation agency of
the WTO. The Conference on Disarmament (CD) is the single global negotiating forum and
was established under the General Assembly’s 10th Special Session. The Conference has a
special relationship with the United Nations, since it reports to the GA and is funded from the
regular budget.
(iii) Specialized (Technical) Agencies

In general these agencies, with the same relations as those above, are some of the most
important technical organizations of the world. All agencies, except the International Atomic
Energy Agency (IAEA), had predecessors under the former League of Nations. The Universal
Postal Union (UPU), the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and the
International Telecommunication Union (ITU) were established more than a century ago. The
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), the World Meteorological Organization
(WMO), and the International Maritime Organization (IMO) were present before World War
II, but after the war they were restructured into the existing organizations.
Outside (but linked to) the System

The Non-Government Organizations (NGO) all have an important role in the United
Nations’ activities. In order to avoid a political dependency, most of the NGOs stand outside
the governmental system. Their experiences and technical knowledge are of great value to
the United Nations, and, therefore, approximately 1600 NGOs have some sort of consultative
status with the ECOSOC. They are divided into three categories: (i) NGOs concerned with
most ECOSOC activities; (ii) NGOs with specific knowledge in specific areas; and (iii) NGOs
for ad hoc consultations. The most eminent member of the NGO group is the International
Committee of the Red Cross, which, in recognition under its formal mandate under the
Geneva Convention, is invited to participate in the work of the General Assembly.
An example of inter-governmental organizations is the International Atomic Energy

Agency (IAEA), which works under the aegis of the United Nations (see above).
In addition, there are a number of regional organizations, which are involved in peace,
security, and social and economic development, including: African Union (AU); Organization
of American States (OAS); Organization of Islamic Conference (OIC); EU; NATO; ASEAN
forum; etc. Some of them have entered into a framework agreement with the United Nations,
some are seeking observer status, and some have neither formal nor informal UN status. The
links to the United Nations may fall under Article 52 of the Charter.
Observer status is given to one Non-Member – the Holy See and to Palestine.
Further information about the various organizations linked to the UN system can be found in
Lesson 9.
Sources: Renewing the United Nations System. Development Dialogue 94:1.

United Nations Handbook, 2002.
Chart of the United Nations:

1.6 Achievements – Some Basic Facts
The United Nations is, more than ever, engaged in service to all the world’s nations and
peoples.
• 191 states are members of the United Nations, as of May 1, 2003.
• Since the beginning, the United Nation has assisted 60 former colonies to attain
independence.
• Seventy percent of the work of the UN system is devoted to helping developing countries
build the capacity to help themselves. This includes: promoting and protecting democracy
and human rights; saving children from starvation and disease; providing relief assistance
to refugees and disaster victims; countering global crime, drugs and disease; and assisting
countries devastated by war and the long-term threat of land-mines.
• Costs of the UN system’s operational activities for development are estimated at $6 billion
a year (excluding the World Bank, International Monetary Fund, and International Fund
for Agriculture Development). This is equal to 0.75 percent of world total military
expenditures of over $800 billion.
• In 1996, the UN System-Wide Special Initiative on Africa launched a 10-year $25 billion
endeavour in order to ensure basic education, health services and food security in Africa.
• In 2001, the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) launched 19
inter-agency appeals, raising more than $1.4 billion to assist 44 million people in 19
countries and regions.
• At the start of 2001, there were some 22 million people of concern to the United Nations
High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) in more than 120 countries. In the same
year, the World Food Programme (WFP) delivered 3.7 million tons of food aid to 83
million people in 83 countries.
• Within the field of International Law, more than 500 agreements have been concluded.
For example, by 2001, more than 120 countries had become parties to the 1997 Ottawa
Convention outlawing landmines.
• UN human rights field activities are being carried out in nearly 30 countries or territories.
Since 1948, close to 900,000 military and civil personnel have served in 54 United
Nations peacekeeping operations altogether estimated at $26 billion, and over 1,770
military and civilian peacekeepers from some 113 countries have died in the line of duty.
As of January 1, 2003 there were 13 operations under way.
• Approximately 8,000 staff members work in the Secretariat under the regular budget, and
almost an equal number works under special funding.
Facts from DPI/2020 – 20M, United Nations Department of Public Information

Learning Questions
Knowledge
What are the aims of the United Nations?
What are the purposes of the United Nations?
What are the principles of the United Nations?
What is the constituent authority of the United Nations?
Which are the fundamental principles in the relations between Member States?
What is the main role of the International Court of Justice?
What are the six major components in the United Nations system?
Awareness
What is the meaning of the “International Community”?
The Charter evolves around four major areas; can you describe them?
Which are the major legal organizations within the United Nations?
How is the United Nations financed?
Which entities normally belong to what is called the “Central” United Nations?
The non-governmental organizations have a kind of consultative status to one UN organ –

which one?
Application
You have been assigned to a United Nations mission in Africa. Among your friends
you are now considered as an expert on all UN issues. At a dinner party your friends start to
discuss the United Nations in a rather negative way. “What has the UN done? All of the
money goes to peacekeeping and the rest to feed the UN bureaucrats and nothing is done to
help the poor countries!” How do you respond to this statement, and what will your answer
be?
LESSON 1
END-OF-LESSON QUIZ
1. From which date was the Charter of the United Nations effective?
a. April 1945;
b. June 26, 1945;
c. October 24, 1945;
d. January 1, 1946.
2. The Preamble of the Charter of the United Nations:

a. Expresses the principles of the United Nations;
b. Is a formal declaration in which the signatory States agree to the present
Charter;
c. Expresses the aims and ideals of the United Nations;
d. States the purpose of the United Nations.
3. Which sentence is correct?

a. The most important principles of the Charter of the United Nations are stated
in Article 1;
b. The most important principles of the Charter of the United Nations are stated
in Article 2;
c. The most important principles of the United Nations are those stated in
Articles 1 and 2.
4. Which sentence is correct?

a. The International Court of Justice is one of the five principal organs of the
United Nations;
b. The International Tribunal for Rwanda was established 1994 in by the General
Assembly;
c. The Office of Legal Affairs provides legal advice to the Secretary-General;
d. The Statute for an International Criminal Court was ratified in Rome in 2002.
5. A peacekeeping operation can be authorized by:

a. The General Assembly;
b. The Security Council;
c. The Secretary-General;
d. Both a. and b.
6. The minimum contribution to the United Nations’ regular budget was (as of 2002) fixed at:
a. 0.1 percent;
b. 0.01 percent;
c. 0.001 percent;
d. 1.0 percent.
7. To the “Central” United Nations belong:

a. The Principal Organs, the Regional Commissions and the United Nations
Programmes and Funds;
b. The General Assembly, the Security Council, the Trusteeship Council, the
Economic and Social Council, the International Court of Justice and the
Secretariat;
c. Principal Organs, Commissions, Programmes and Funds, and Major Agencies;
d. Both a. and b.
8. Most of the non-governmental organizations:

a. Operate under ECOSOC;
b. Are concerned with the ECOSOC’s activities;
c. Have various kinds of consultative status with ECOSOC;
d. Are invited to participate in the work of the General Assembly.
9. The International Committee of the Red Cross is invited to participate in the work of:
a. The Economic and Social Council;
b. The International Court of Justice;
c. The General Assembly;
d. All three of the above mentioned principal organs.
10. Which of the following has observer status?

a. African Union (AU);
b. The Holy See;
c. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA);
d. None of the above mentioned organizations.
LESSON 1
ANSWER KEY
1. c. October 24, 1945
2. c. Express aims and ideals
3. c. As stated in Articles 1 and 2
4. c. The Office of Legal Affairs
5. d. Both a. and b.
6. c. 0.001 percent
8. c. Various kinds
9. c. The General Assembly
10. b. The Holy See

LESSON 2
THE PRINCIPAL ORGANS OF THE UNITED NATIONS
Learning Objectives 2.4 Trusteeship Council

• Key questions • The Past
• The Present
Introduction
2.5 International Court of Justice
2.1 General Assembly • Role and Composition
• Role and Function • Function
• Organization
• Comments 2.6 Secretariat and the Secretary-General
• Role and Function of the Secretariat
2.2 Security Council • Role and Function of the Secretary-General
• Role and Power • Reorganization and Reforms
• Organization and Function
• Comments Learning Questions
• Knowledge
2.3 Economic and Social Council • Awareness
• Role and Power • Application
• Organization and Function • End-of-Lesson Quiz
• Comments
Lesson 2 / The Principal Organs of the United Nations 18
LESSON 2
(Ref: Basic Facts about the UN; pages 6- 15, 24-32 and Articles of the Charter)
Learning Objectives
While Lesson 1 has provided the purpose and principles of the Organization as well as
major features of the system, Lesson 2 will be a more in-depth discussion of the “Central”
United Nations and its six principal organs. The student will get an understanding of their
roles, interrelationships, and functions, as well as how the work is carried out. By the end of
the lesson the student should have achieved a fair understanding of the General Assembly, the
Security Council and the Secretariat, in addition to an awareness of the other principal organs.
What is the main function of the General Assembly?
What is the main function of the Security Council?
What is the main function of the Economic and Social Council?
What is the role of the Secretary-General?
What are the two major roles of the International Court of Justice?

Introduction
The Charter authorizes the establishment of six principal organs. These are: the
governing General Assembly, GA (Chapter IV); the Security Council, SC (Chapter V); the
Economic and Social Council, ECOSOC (Chapter X); the Trusteeship Council (Chapter XII);
the International Court of Justice (Chapter XIV); and the executing Secretariat (Chapter XV).
They have their own organization, mandates and procedures, and members of these organs are
selected in accordance with certain rules and regulations. The General Assembly should be
considered as the governing body and, as such, functions as the main deliberative organ of the
United Nations.
2.1 General Assembly (GA)
Role and Function

The GA is the main deliberative organ, and it consists of all Member States of the
United Nations, which have (i) accepted the obligations contained in the Charter; (ii) applied
for a membership; and (iii) have been accepted as worthy members (Art.4-6). The Assembly
may discuss any matter referred to it within the scope of the Charter. It makes
recommendations to the Member States or to the Security Council on any such questions
except when the Security Council is exercising its functions assigned to it in the Charter. In
particular, the GA shall initiate studies and make recommendations for the purpose of
international cooperation in the political field and in the economic and social fields (Art. 13).
The Assembly approves the budget of the Organization and apportions the expenses of the
Organization among the
Members (Art. 17).
Each year, from mid-
September until mid-
December, the General
Assembly holds a regular
session. However, at the
request of the Security
Council or majority of the
Member States, special
sessions can also be held.
The Heads of States
generally make the opening
statements of the general
debate, which starts on the
third Tuesday in September.
Each of the Member
States has one vote.
Figure 1: General Assembly Hall on Opening Day.
However, a Member that is
in arrears in the payment of its financial contribution to the Organization may jeopardize its
right to vote (Art. 19). Decisions on key issues are decided by two-thirds majority of the
Members present, while a simple majority decides other matters. However, in many cases,
resolutions are passed by consensus.
The General Assembly can address questions and made recommendations concerning
the maintenance of international peace and security, the admission of new Members to the
UN, the election of the non-permanent members to the Security Council, and the elections of
members to the Economic and Social Council and the Trusteeship Council. Jointly with the
Security Council, the Assembly elects judges to the International Court of Justice, and, on the
recommendation of the Security Council, it appoints the Secretary-General.
The GA is presided by a President (President of the General Assembly), who is

assisted by 21 vice-presidents and the chairs of the six Main Committees. During debates of
the General Assembly and its subordinate committees, speakers’ interventions are delivered in
one of the six official languages of the United Nations and simultaneously translated into the
other five. These include Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish.
At a regular session, the Member States address a wide range of international issues.
Most of these issues will later be discussed in various committees or other bodies established
by the General Assembly. Their findings and recommendations will be presented to the next
(or another) Assembly, which will, expressed in resolutions, make necessary decisions.
Organization
The main bulk in preparing these resolutions is carried out by the six Main
Committees, which by their composition and working agenda reflect the entire work of the
United Nations. The following are the six Main Committees’ general responsibilities:
• First Committee: Disarmament and international security

• Second Committee: Economic and financial issues
• Third Committee: Social, humanitarian and cultural issues
• Fourth Committee: Special political affairs and de-colonization
• Fifth Committee: Administrative and budgetary questions
• Sixth Committee: Legal issues
All Member States have the right to be represented on each Main Committee and all
the Ad Hoc Open-ended Working groups. In addition, there are other committees, such as:
• Procedural Committees – comprising the General and the Credential Committee;

• Standing Committees – divided into the Advisory Committee on Administrative and
Budgetary Questions, and the Committee on Contributions; and
• Subsidiary and Ad Hoc Bodies of the General Assembly − consists of large groups
of Intergovernmental Bodies, Ad Hoc-opened Working Groups, Advisory Bodies
and Expert Bodies
In general, the committees and various working groups also consider agenda items
referred to them by the Assembly and make recommendations. In some cases, they also draft
solutions for submission to the General Assembly plenary. The number of Member States
(MS) is generally stipulated by the respective mandates (GA resolution) but always with as
broad a geographical representation as possible. But due to political reasons, the number of
MS frequently changes. (www.un.org/ga/57/about.htm)
Comments
Although the Security Council is responsible for international peace and security, the
GA has also played a role in this area. In 1956, when the Security Council was deadlocked
over the Suez War, the situation provided an opportunity for the GA to take necessary actions
under the “Uniting for Peace” resolution. That means that the GA may take action if the
Security Council fails to act in its effort to maintain peace and security. The de-colonization
in the 60s brought new members to the United Nations, and the GA’s influence grew
significantly during this period. The consolidation of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)
provided an opportunity for the developing countries, to a certain extent, to balance the power
of the Permanent Five in the Security Council.
During the last decade the GA has sometimes become a forum for expressing
dissatisfaction over the Security Council’s handling of conflicts, for example, in the former
Yugoslavia (Bosnia-Herzegovina and Kosovo). But the GA has also been involved in the
promotion of issues that are related more to peace building, such as the human rights
monitoring mission to Haiti, as well as some by the GA-initiated electoral monitoring
missions.
2.2 The Security Council (SC)
Role and Power

The Charter confers on the
Security Council the primary
responsibility to maintain
international peace and security
(Art. 24). The Council is granted
special power to facilitate the
peaceful settlements of disputes
(Art. 33-38) and to determine
any threat to peace, breach of
peace or act of aggression. They
also have the responsibility to
take necessary action in order to
maintain or restore peace and
security (Art. 39-51). Thus, the
Council has the legal right to
Figure 2: The Security Council in Session. authorize the use of force − for
example, sanctions or military
force − if deemed necessary (Art. 42). While the other principal organs make
recommendations to governments, the Security Council, when discharging its duties, acts on
behalf of all Members of the United Nations. As a whole, the Security Council agrees to
accept and carry out the decisions of the Council in accordance with the Charter (Art. 25).
The Council may establish such subsidiary organs it deems necessary for the performance of
its functions necessary, such as a peacekeeping operation (Art. 29).
Organization and Function

The Security Council is organized to function continuously. Although most of its
meetings are during normal working hours, a meeting of the Security Council can be called on
one hour’s notice, 365 days per year. Membership in the Security Council consists of five
permanent members (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) and
ten non-permanent members. Five new non-permanent members are elected each year by the
General Assembly for a term of two years, starting on January 1st (Art. 23). A President,
whose seat rotates monthly amongst the Member of the Council, guides the work of the
Council.
Each member of the SC has one vote. Substantive decisions of the SC are made by an
affirmative vote (a yes vote) of nine members including the concurring votes (“yes,”
“abstain,” or no vote) of the permanent members. The concurring vote of the permanent five
emanates from Article 27 in the Charter where concurring votes on substantive issues are
required from the five permanent members of the Security Council. A vote of “no” from one
of the five permanent members constitutes a veto and, consequently, blocks the Security
Council from adopting the resolution under consideration. The article is pragmatic since it is
intended to save the Council from decisions of activities impossible to fulfil, for example,
enforcement actions or sanctions against one of the permanent five. For a procedural vote, a
straight majority of nine votes is necessary (Art. 27).
As with all principal organs, the Security Council has its own structure as well, which
comprises of different committees, working groups and commissions. In addition, all
peacekeeping operations and criminal tribunals are vested under the Council’s authorization.
Under the provisional rules of the Security Council the following entities are established:
• Standing Committees
• Ad hoc Working groups
• Military Staff Committee
• Counter Terrorism Committee (three sub-committees)
• Sanction Committees (Iraq, Libya, Somalia, Angola, Rwanda, Liberia, Sierra Leone,
Afghanistan)
• Peacekeeping Operations
• Commissions (UN Monitoring, Verification and Inspection Mission – UNMOVIC,
and UN Compensation Commission – UNCC)
• Criminal Tribunals (former Yugoslavia and Rwanda)
• UN Command in Korea
Except for the Standing Committees and the Military Staff Committee, the other
entities are all more or less temporary subsidiary organs established by a Security Council
Resolution. Each one deals with a specific situation, has an operational mandate, and reports
and makes recommendations to the Council. Thus, they are limited in time and scope.
(www.un.org/Docs/sc/)
Comments
From the very beginning, the General Assembly assumed the responsibility of
establishing the principles and ideals on which global peace would rest. The Security Council
should act in accordance with these principles and, thus, speedily prevent any breach or
attempted breach of international peace and security. During the Cold War, the competition
and the mistrust between the East and West hampered the Council’s decision-making process,
and instead of an early response to crisis, the Council found itself sometimes effectively
prevented in utilizing the collective security system as envisaged in the Charter. The cease of
the Soviet era ended the Cold War, resulting in more cooperative work in the Council, and the
veto was used less frequently. However, the question of Iraq split the Council, and for the first
time in the United Nations history, a full-fledged war was launched against a Member State
without the proper authorization of the Security Council. This event is most unfortunate, since
the "threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any
state" is outlawed by the Charter of the United Nations. The necessity to find a solution to the
on-going debate concerning the Council’s membership and the use of veto power is further
underscored.
2.3 Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)
Role and Power

The UN Charter affirms that stability and well-being are fundamental conditions for
peaceful and friendly relations among the States. Based on the universal principles of equal
rights and self-determination, the United Nations is to advance a wide range of issues within
the fields of economic and social developments (Art.55). Under the authority of the General
Assembly, the Economic and Social Council has the responsibility for the overall guidance of
the United Nations activities in economic and social fields (Art. 60). The Council is
empowered to initiate studies and make recommendations to the General Assembly,
governments, and to the United Nations’ linked specialized agencies concerning economic,
social, cultural, health and other related matters. The Council is also authorized to make
recommendations for the purpose of promoting respect for and observance of human rights
(Art. 62). In order to achieve these objectives, the ECOSOC is mandated to enter into
agreements (subjected to approval by the General Assembly) through consultations and
coordination with concerned agencies (Art.63). The ECOSOC responsibilities also include
assisting the Security Council when so required (Art.65).
Organization and Function

Today, the ECOSOC comprises 54 Members with one vote each. Of these 54
members, 18 members are elected each year and serve for a three-year term. The Council
meets in an annual five-week session alternating between New York and Geneva, in addition
to holding short sessions throughout the year. Simple majority rules the voting procedures.
Although those sessions are substantial in terms of agendas and decisions, the year-round
operational work is carried out through the Council’s various subsidiary bodies, which report
to the Council committees, regional commissions. None of the other United Nations principal
organs have so many subsidiary bodies as ECOSOC. In addition, over 1,600 non-
governmental organizations have consultative status with the Council (See Lesson 1). This
sprawling machinery includes:
• Nine Functional Commissions: (i) Social Development; (ii) Crime Prevention and
Criminal Justice; (iii) Human Rights; (iv) Narcotic Drugs; (v) Population and
Development; (vi) Science and Technology for Development; (vii) Sustainable
Development; (viii) Status of Women; and (ix) National Statistics.
• Five Regional Commissions: to promote the regional economic and social
development in Africa, Asia and the Pacific, Europe, Latin America and the
Caribbean, and Western Asia
• Standing Committees (among others, the Committee on Non-Governmental
Organizations)
• Expert, Ad Hoc and Related Bodies
• Executive Committees of various United Nations Agencies/Bodies, which include the
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), the United Nations
Children’s Funds (UNICEF), and the United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP). Under UNDP, several funds are managed. (www.un.org./esa/coordination/ecosoc/)
Comments
The socio-economic agenda and the role of the ECOSOC have been discussed from
the very outset. In the beginning the United Nations was supposed to formulate and
coordinate the global economic policy. However, this intention of allowing the United
Nations to be the global economic architect was never carried out, but instead, the Bretton
Woods’ institutions (the World Bank Group and the International Monetary Funds) were
established. As a result, the United Nations was diverted away from economic policy
formulation and later into the less controversial development assistance. The macro-economic
policy was formulated through the Bretton Woods institutions by the industrial powers.
This arrangement did not promote the economic development, and the Cold War
further aggravated the differences that de-colonization revealed. Thus, the economic
inequities between developed and developing countries prevailed, and the growing income
disparities became a threat to international peace and security. At the end of the 1980s, the
future role of the ECOSOC again flared up, revealing contrasts between North and South.
Even if the basic question concerning the allotment of the responsibility for formulating the
global economic policy remains, the end of the Cold War created a more open debate. Some
coordinating functions of the ECOSOC have recently improved, particularly with regard to
the socio-economic activities and operational activities for development, but the question of
the ECOSOC’s fundamental role in shaping the global economy as foreseen in the Charter
still prevails.
2.4 Trusteeship Council (TC)
The Past
The Charter provides for the establishment of “an international trusteeship system for
the administration and supervision of such territories (trust territories) as may be placed there
under subsequent individual agreements” (Art. 75). The trusteeship system was relevant in the
aftermath of the World War II and during the de-colonization period between the 60s and 70s.
The system served its purpose, that was, to supervise and promote advancement and progress
towards the independence of 60 territories placed under the system. Such territories were
either (i) territories held under mandates established by the League of Nations (e.g. Namibia);
(ii) territories which have been detached from enemy states as a result of the World War II; or
(iii) territories voluntary placed under the system. The trust territories were to be
administered by a designated authority (to be called the administering authority), which could
be one or more states or the United Nations. The Trusteeship Council under the authority of
the General Assembly monitored the administering authority to act under the purposes and
principles of the Charter.
The Present
With the termination (1994) of the Trusteeship Agreement on Palau, the Trusteeship
Council completed its task. The Secretary-General, therefore, recommended the General
Assembly to take necessary steps to eliminate the organ. It was not done, and instead, in 1997,
the Secretary-General suggested the Trusteeship Council to be reconstituted as the forum
through which the Member States exercise their collective trusteeship for “the integrity of the
global environment and common areas such as the oceans, atmosphere and outer space… At
the same time, it should serve to link the UN and the civil society in addressing these areas of
concern….” In 1998, a task force was mandated to prepare proposals on environmental and
human settlement areas. (www.un.org/documents/tc.htm)
2.5 International Court of Justice (IJC)
The following text is an extract from the website of the Court

Role and Composition
The International Court of Justice is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations.
Its seat is at the Peace Palace in The Hague (Netherlands). It began work in 1946, when it
replaced the Permanent Court of International Justice, which had functioned in the Peace
Palace since 1922. It operates under a Statute largely similar to that of its predecessor, which
is an integral part of the Charter of the United Nations. The Court has a dual role: to settle in
accordance with international law the legal disputes submitted to it by States; and to give
advisory opinions to the General Assembly and the Security Council on legal questions
referred to it. The same service will be given to other organs of the UN and specialized
agencies, which are authorized by the General Assembly to request them (Chapter XIV, Art.
92-96).
The Court is composed of 15 judges elected to nine-year terms of office by the United
Nations General Assembly and Security Council sitting independently of each other. It may
not include more than one judge of any nationality. Elections are held every three years for
one-third of the seats, and retiring judges may be re-elected. The Members of the Court do not
represent their governments but are independent magistrates. The judges must possess the
qualifications required in their respective countries for appointment to the highest judicial
offices, or they must be jurists of recognized competence in international law. The
composition of the Court also has to reflect the main forms of civilization and the principal
legal systems of the world.
Function
Only States may apply to and appear before the Court. The State’s Members of the
United Nations and States not party to the Court (under conditions laid down by the Security
Council) are so entitled. The Court is competent to entertain a dispute only if the States
concerned have accepted its jurisdiction in one or more of the following ways:
(1) by the conclusion between them of a special agreement to submit the dispute to the
Court;
(2) by virtue of a jurisdictional clause, i.e., typically, when they are parties to a treaty
containing a provision whereby, in the event of a disagreement over its interpretation
or application, one of them may refer the dispute to the Court;
(3) through the reciprocal effect of declarations made by them under the Statute whereby
each has accepted the jurisdiction of the Court as compulsory in the event of a dispute
with another State having made a similar declaration. In cases of doubt as to whether
the Court has jurisdiction, it is the Court itself that decides.
Contentious cases: The procedure (Statute of the Court, Chapter III Art. 43-60) followed by
the Court in contentious cases is defined in its Statute, and in the Rules of Court adopted by it
under the Statute. The proceedings include a written phase and an oral phase. After the oral
proceedings, the Court deliberates in camera and then delivers its judgment at a public sitting.
The judgment is final and without appeal. Should one of the States involved fail to comply,
the other party may have recourse to the Security Council of the United Nations. Since 1946,
the Court has delivered 69 judgments on disputes concerning inter alia land frontiers and
maritime boundaries, territorial sovereignty, the non-use of force, non-interference in the

internal affairs of States, diplomatic relations, hostage-taking, the right of asylum, nationality,
guardianship, rights of passage and economic rights.
The Court decides in accordance with international treaties and conventions in force,
international custom, general principles of law, and, as subsidiary means, judicial decisions
and the teachings of the most highly qualified publicists.
Advisory capacity: The advisory procedure (Statute of the Court, Chapter III) of the Court is
open solely to international organizations. The only bodies at present authorized to request
advisory opinions of the Court are the five (principal) organs of the United Nations and 16
specialized agencies (e.g., UNHCR) of the United Nations family. On receiving a request, the
Court decides which States and organizations might provide useful information and gives
them an opportunity of presenting written or oral statements. The Court’s advisory procedure
is otherwise modelled on that for contentious proceedings, and the sources of applicable law
are the same.
In principle, the Court’s advisory opinions are consultative in character and are,
therefore, not binding on the requesting bodies. Certain instruments or regulations can,
however, provide in advance that the advisory opinion shall be binding. Since 1946, the Court
has given 24 Advisory Opinions, concerning inter alia admission to United Nations
membership, reparation for injuries suffered in the service of the United Nations, territorial
status of South-West Africa (Namibia) and Western Sahara, judgments rendered by
international administrative tribunals, expenses of certain United Nations operations,
applicability of the United Nations Headquarters Agreement, the status of human rights
rapporteurs, and the legality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons. (www.icj-cij.org/)
2.6 Secretariat and the Secretary-General
Role and Function of the Secretariat

The Secretariat is organized into 14 Departments and Offices. In addition to the
Headquarters in New York, it maintains its presence in Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi. While
the central political activities of the United Nations are centered in New York, the United
Nations Office in Geneva (UNOG) is the focal point of conference diplomacy and activities
concerning human rights and disarmament. The United Nations Office in Vienna (UNOV)
focuses on activities in the field of international drug-abuse control, crime prevention and
criminal justice, peaceful use of outer space, and international trade law. The United Nations
Office in Nairobi (UNON) is the headquarters for activities that concern the environment and
human settlements.
The Secretariat is comprised of the Secretary-General and other such staff, as the
Organization requires. The Secretary-General is appointed for a period of five years by the
General Assembly after recommendation from the Security Council and is the chief
administrative officer of the Organization (Art. 97). The Secretariat itself consists of different
organizational units necessary to carry out the day-to-day work of the Organization. Due to
their mandates and sizes, they are organized as offices, departments, and offices of Special
Representatives to the Secretary-General (other high level entities), which are each headed by
an official accountable to the Secretary-General. From the New York Headquarters and from
other places around the world, the staff serves the Organization by administering programmes
and policies as decided by the five other principal organs (Art. 97-101).
“The duties carried out by the Secretariat are as varied as the problems dealt with by the
United Nations. These range from administering peacekeeping operations to mediating
international disputes. Secretariat staff also survey economic and social trends and problems;
prepare studies on subjects such as human rights and sustainable development; organize
international conferences on issues of world-wide concern; monitor the extent to which the
decisions of United Nations bodies are being carried out; interpret speeches and translate
documents into the Organization’s official languages; and conduct information programmes
to acquaint the world’s communications media with the work of the United Nations.” The
main functions of the Secretariat’s fourteen Departments and Offices are as follows:
• Executive Office of the Secretary-General (OSG): Composed by the SG senior advisers and
provides overall guidelines to the Organization.
• Office of Internal Oversight Service (OIOS): Monitor, evaluate and audit the UN operations.
• Office of Legal Affairs (OLA): Provide the legal service to the Organization.
• Department of Political Affairs (DPA): Advice and support to the SG on all political matters
and carries out among others activities related to the prevention, control and resolution of
conflicts, peace-building and electoral assistance.
• Department for Disarmament Affairs (DDA): Promote the goals of disarmament and provides
support for norm setting in this area.
• Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO): Be responsible for planning, preparation,
management and direction of the peacekeeping operations.
• Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA): Strengthen the coordination
among the UN entities that give assistance in response to emergencies.
• Department of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA): Generate/analyze relevant data,
facilitate negotiations and advise, at the request, the translation of policy agreement into
programmes at country level.
• Department of General Assembly Affairs and Conference Services (DGAACS): Provide
technical and secretariat support to the GA as well as to intergovernmental/expert bodies
meeting in N w York. Also provide translation and publishing services.
• Department of Public Information (DPI): Inform globally about UN purposes and activities.
• Department of Management (DM): Provide to the Secretariat policy guidance and support
concerning finance, human resources and support service.
• Office of the Iraq Programme: Manage the “Oil-for-Food” programme to Iraq.
• Office of the United Nations Security Coordinator (UNSECOORD): Act on behalf of the SG
and the UN agencies, programmes and funds to ensure coherent response to emergency
situations.
• Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention (ODCCP): Enhance the UN capacity to
address issues concerning drug control, crime prevention and international terrorism.
“As of 2002 more than 7,000 men and women, under the regular budget, from some 170
countries make up the Secretariat staff world-wide. As international civil servants, they and
the Secretary-General answer to the United Nations alone for their activities, and take an oath
not to seek or receive instructions from any government or outside authority. Under Article
100 of the Charter, each Member State undertakes to respect the exclusively international
character of the responsibilities of the Secretary-General and the staff and to refrain from
seeking to influence them improperly in the discharge of their duties.”
Role and Function of the Secretary-General
“The Secretary-General is described by the Charter as the ‘chief administrative officer’

of the Organization (Art. 97). He is, of course, much more than that. Equal parts diplomat
and activist, conciliator and provocateur, the Secretary-General stands before the world
community as the very emblem of the United Nations. The task demands great vigor,
sensitivity and imagination, to which the Secretary-General must add a tenacious sense of
optimism--a belief that the ideals expressed in the Charter can be made a reality.”
“The work of the Secretary-General involves a certain degree of inherent, creative

tension that stems from the Charter's definition of the job. The Charter empowers him to bring
to the attention of the Security Council any matter, which, in his
opinion, threatens international peace and security. It also calls
upon him to perform ‘such other functions’ as are entrusted to him
by the Security Council, the General Assembly and the other main
United Nations organs (Art. 99). Thus, the Secretary-General
functions as both spokesperson for the international community and
servant of the Member States – roles that would seem to guarantee
some amount of friction. Far from constricting his work, however,
these broad outlines grant the Secretary-General an extraordinary
mandate for action.
The Secretary-General is best known to the general public for

using his stature and impartiality – his ‘good offices’ – in the
Fig. 3: UN Secretary-
General Kofi Annan. interests of ‘preventive diplomacy’. This refers to steps taken by
the Secretary-General or his senior staff, publicly and in private, to
prevent international disputes from arising, escalating or spreading. Indeed, as events and
crises unfold across the globe, the Secretary-General' s words and deeds can have profound
impact.”
The 2001 Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to the United Nations and to Secretary
General Kofi Annan. The Nobel Committee cited the UN’s efforts to bring a “more peaceful
world" and credited Secretary-General Annan with “bringing new life to the organization.” In
response, the Secretary-General stated, “It honors the UN but also challenges us to do more
and do better, not to rest on our laurels . . . It is a great responsibility at such a difficult
moment but reinforces us in pursuing the search for peace.”
Reorganization and Reforms

The Secretariat has undergone a considerable reorganization in order to streamline the
organization and cut the budget deficit. In 1997, the General Assembly adopted a reform
package to that end. As a result, measures have been taken to consolidate various programmes
related to development, human rights, peacekeeping, humanitarian assistance and the fight
against crime and drug trafficking. Since then, the UN has created a closer cooperation and
better coherence throughout the system. Within the Secretariat the establishment of a senior
management group facilitates the day-by-day activites. Fruitful partnerships have been built
with a wide range of non-State actors. In the field, the set-up of a unified country team has
brought together the representatives of the Organization’s multiple funds, programmes and
specialized agencies and has led to a better transparency and coordination throughout the UN
system. Signinficant improvements have also been made in order to deploy and manage
complex peacekeeping and peace-building operations. For the biennium 2004-2005, the
Secretary-General has proposed further improvements: the capacity to assist individual

countries in building strong human rights institutions will be strengthened; some departments
and in particualar the Department of Puplic Information will be restructered and United
Nations information centres will be rationalized around regional hubs; the management of the
large number of trust funds will be improved, planning and coordination will be further
enhanced, and the administration will be streamlined; and better service to the Member States
will be administered. (www.un.org/documents/st.htm)
Learning Questions
Knowledge
What is the major role of the General Assembly?
Who are the Members of the General Assembly?
What legal power does the Charter grant to the Security Council?
How many Member States are represented in the Council?
Who are the permanent members of the Security Council?
What is the meaning of the concurring vote used in the Security Council?
What is the responsibility of the Economic and Social Council?
What is the role of the International Court of Justice in the United Nations?
What are the major achievements of the Secretary-General’s reform programme?
Awareness
What is the role of the General Assembly concerning international peace and security?
What are the major responsibilities of the six Main Committees of the Assembly?
How is the work of the General Assembly organized?
What is the interrelationship between the General Assembly and the Security Council?
What was the purpose of the veto power in the Security Council?
What are the major responsibilities of the nine Commissions of the Economic and Social
Council?
What is the present responsibility of the Trusteeship Council?
What is the purpose of the International Court of Justice?
What are the main functions of DPA and DPKO?
Application
During the same dinner (as in Lesson 1) you find yourself fiercely defending the
Secretary-General (SG) and his role in the United Nations. After your five-minute statement
you got your friends’ cheers and applause. Obviously you were successful, but what were
your key points in describing the role of the SG?
LESSON 2
END-OF-LESSON QUIZ
1. The phrase “. . . shall initiate studies and make recommendations for the purpose of
international cooperation in the political field and in the economic and social fields….”
applies to:
a. All the principal organs;
b. The General Assembly;
c. The Security Council and the Economic and Social Council;
d. The Secretariat.
2. The General Assembly never holds sessions:

a. Once each year;
b. At the request from the Security Council;
c. At the request of a Member State;
d. At the request of a majority of Member States.
3. Article 42 applies to the:

a. Security Council’s (SC) right to maintain international peace and security;
b. SC’s right to settle disputes by peaceful means;
c. SC’s responsibility to restore peace;
d. SC’s right to authorize the use of force.
4. Which of the following statements is correct?

a. The SC consists of five permanent members and 10 non-permanent members,
and half of the 10 non-permanent members are selected each year by the
General Assembly;
b. The 10 non-permanent members are selected every second year by the General
Assembly;
c. The 10 non-permanent members are selected each year by the General
Assembly;
d. Half of the 10 non-permanent members are selected each year by the Security
Council.
5. Substantive decisions of the SC are made by an affirmative vote of:

a. Nine members of the SC;
b. The permanent members and nine of the non-permanent members;
c. All members of the SC;
d. Nine members including the concurring vote of the permanent members.
6. Which of the following statements concerning the Economic and Social Council is false?
a. The Council is authorized to make recommendations for the purpose of
promoting human rights;
b. Under the authority of the General Assembly, the Council has the
responsibility to formulate and coordinate the global economic policy;
c. Under the authority of the General Assembly, the Council has the
responsibility for the overall guidance of the United Nations activities in
economic and social fields;
d. Both a. and b.
7. With the termination of the last Trusteeship Agreement (Trust Territory of the Pacific
Islands) the Trusteeship Council was eliminated.
a. True
b. False
8. The principal judicial organ of the United Nations is:

a. The Permanent Court of International Justice;
b. The International Court of Justice;
c. The Office of Legal Affairs;
d. The International Law Commission.
9. The Court cannot:

a. Settle in accordance with international law the legal disputes submitted to it by
States;
b. Advise the Secretariat and other organs of the United Nations on matters
related to international, public, private and administrative laws;
c. Give advisory opinions on legal questions referred to it by authorized
international organs and agencies;
d. Decide in accordance with international treaties and conventions in force,
international customs and general principles of law.
10. The Secretary-General is:

a. The Chief Executive Officer of the United Nations;
b. The Chief Administrative Officer of the Organization;
c. Appointed by the Security Council;
d. Appointed by the Security Council after recommendation from the General
Assembly.
LESSON 2
ANSWER KEY
1. b. The General Assembly
2. c. At the request of a Member State
3. d. SC’s right to authorize the use of force
4. a. The SC consists of five permanent members and 10 non-permanent

members, and half of the 10 non-permanent members are selected each
year by the General Assembly
5. d. Nine members including the concurring vote of the permanent members
6. b. Under the authority of the General Assembly, the Council has the responsibility
to formulate and coordinate the global economic policy
7. b. False
8. b. The International Court of Justice
9. b. Advise the Secretariat and other organs of the United Nations on

matters related to international, public, private and administrative laws
10. b. The Chief Administrative Officer of the Organization

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LESSON 3
THE UNITED NATIONS’ ROLE IN
MAINTAINING PEACE AND SECURITY
Learning Objectives 3.5 Types of Peace Operations

• Key questions • Preventive Deployment
• Traditional Peacekeeping
Introduction • Humanitarian Assistance and Protection of
Humanitarian Operations
3.1 Political Context • Implm. of Comprehensive Settlements
• The Environment • Conflict Mitigation
• The Context • Enhanced Peacekeeping
• Peace Building
3.2 The Key Concepts of an Interrelated
System with Various Mechanisms for 3.6 Planning and Preparation
Response • Principles
• The Interrelated System • Assessment
• Response Mechanisms • The Planning Process
• Involvm. of Host and Contributing Countries
3.3 Universal Principles Guiding • Improvement of the Planning and
Peacekeeping Operations Implementation Capacity
• Authorization
• Legitimacy 3.7 Management Responsibilities
• Consent • In the Secretariat
• Impartiality and Neutrality • In the Field
• Unity
• Use of Force 3.8 Peacekeeping Partnership
• Operational Principles • Civilians in Peace Operations
• The Partnership Concept
3.4 Organizational Structure and Main • Definition
Functions
• Military Forces (Force Level Missions) Learning Questions
• Observer and Similar Missions • Knowledge
• Civilian Police • Awareness
• Application
• End-of-Lesson Quiz
Lesson 3 / The United Nations’ Role in Maintaining Peace and Security 36
LESSON 3
(Ref: Basic Facts about the UN; pages 67- 124, and Articles of the Charter)
Learning Objectives
The current political environment and the latent and existing threats to peace and
stability are of serious concerns to the world. Within the last ten years we have seen various
arrangements for meeting these threats, and for this purpose, the United Nations has
developed an interrelated system that is both flexible and responsive. Still, security is as
elusive as ever and requires constant attendance where traditional concepts must yield to a
broader perception of peace and security. Since the purpose of this course is not to provide the
students with perspectives but rather with a descriptive knowledge about the prevailing
security system, this lesson gives information about how and with what means the United
Nations responds to threats that affect the international peace and security.
What is the interrelated system in the United Nations’ efforts to maintain peace and security?
What is the meaning of the term “collective security”?
What are the principles of peacekeeping?
What types of Peace Operations exist?
Who or what authorizes the use-of-force?
Who has the overall responsibility of a mission in the field?
What is “Peacekeeping Partnership”?

Introduction
The maintenance of international peace and security is the central part of United
Nations activities. Over the years, the Organization has developed a wide range of
instruments, which altogether provide a coherent mechanism that responds well to the various
security challenges the international community may encounter. Although peacekeeping is
one of the means that has proved workable, it is only one fragment of what today is called
peace operations. However, the international climate requires not only problem-solving
measures, but also a variety of tools for promoting lasting peace and security. This lesson and
the one that follows (Lesson 4) provide the student with an insight into the overall picture of
the United Nations interrelated system that maintains peace and security. While Lesson 4
discusses the promoting tools, this lesson deals with what is commonly identified as peace
operations and how these operations respond to the international community’s call for conflict
management.
3.1 Political Context
The Environment
With the end of the Cold War came an altered political environment. Superpower
rivalry ceased and the international community became eager to promote a new global
security system based on equality, the individual’s rights, and social and economic
developments. But in spite of this change, violence still prevailed. The inter-state conflicts
decreased, but instead the world witnessed a dramatic increase of intra-state conflicts. Out of
the 110 conflicts between 1988 and 2002, only 10 % may be referred to as conflicts of inter-
state character and the rest as intra-state conflicts. Consequently, the international
community, also transformed by geo-political, economic, technological and environmental
changes, found itself more concerned with the major causes of systemic and intractable
violent conflict such as ethnic, religious and socio-economic factors with less emphasis on
preventing or containing conflicts between nations. In addition, the events of September 11,
2001, brought a new dimension to the political environment and the role of the military as the
traditional guarantee of a prevailing security concept has been reconsidered.
The Context
This has resulted in a new political context that requires a broad and collaborative
approach, which subsequently calls for new innovative notions of military and non-military
security, along with the socio-economic development of nations and peoples involved.
Although the military continues to play an important role, cooperative non-military methods
in preventing conflicts, arms control, and disarmament, along with the establishment of
usually accepted norms and values among civilian and military societies, become some of the
driving forces in building confidence between nations and structures. However, the lessons
learned from the past years have fostered a new era where human rights, interdependence, and
globalisation are the foundation for the future challenges. The new global security is no
longer limited to the questions of land, weapons and the culture of reaction. Instead, it
emphasizes the culture of early prevention where issues such as the well-being of individuals
and the social and economic development in and between States are the means of attending to
the sources of conflicts. Healthy social conditions and distribution of wealth that in itself will
strengthen the social and economic fabrics and generate further resources for a sustainable
progress should promote the reinforcement of peace and stability.
Subsequently, peace and security and development can no longer be dealt with as
separate issues. They are interrelated and must be addressed simultaneously. This, in turn,
requires a culture of burden-sharing undertakings on several tracks that serve to broaden the
instruments of conflict resolution and confidence building, as well as to provide opportunities
to monitor manifest or latent conflicts. As a result, the United Nations is increasingly
cooperating with regional and national organizations, institutions, NGOs and others involved
in acting in defence of the common humanity. Unfortunately, the issues of international
terrorism have brought a new dimension to peace and security where the concerns for human
security have come to the forefront of attention. Instead of addressing the roots and causes,
the ideas of pre-emptive intervention in order to eliminate potential threats as a mean for
prevention has gained prominence.
3.2 The Key Concepts of an Interrelated System with Various Mechanisms for Response
The Interrelated System

The international community has frequently entered into discussions concerning the
definition of peacekeeping at which peacekeeping was primarily considered a military
endeavor, although civilian components were included. However, peacekeeping is currently
much more complex and involves activities, which are usually just referred to as
“peacekeeping.” “Peacekeeping” is considered to be not only the separation and observation
of military forces, but also more of a wide range of activities that stretch preventive actions
and conflict management to post-crisis activities of which peacekeeping is only one part.
Recognizing the complexity of today’s conflicts and the multi-dimensional approach needed
to resolve such conflicts, the international community has gradually accepted some new
definitions that more distinctly identify the main pillars in maintaining peace and security.
Thus, it can be stated that all operations conducted under and/or in accordance with
the United Nations Charter (with the purpose of maintaining or restoring peace) can be
identified as peace operations. The term peace operations encompasses diplomatic activities
in order to achieve peace (peacemaking), as well as post-crisis activities with the purpose to
build a sustainable peace (peace building). The military involvement in these operations must
always be considered as supporting activities, and, consequently, the military involvement
within this context is called a peace support operation. Briefly, peacemaking, peace building
and peace supports are the capstones of a peace operation. Since the definition is not fully
recognized, this document still uses “peacekeeping” as a collective term.
The United Nations has developed several instruments for that purpose, such as:
preventive actions and peace making; peacekeeping; peace building; disarmament; sanctions;
and peace enforcement. The first ones can be employed only with the consent of the parties
to the conflict. Sanctions and enforcement, on the other hand, are coercive measures and thus,
by definition, do not require the consent of the parties concerned. Disarmament can take
place on an agreed-upon basis, or in the context of coercive action under Chapter VII.
Collectively and under the term peace operations, all of these instruments, methods and
operations present an inter-related system to prevent, manage and resolve conflicts at various
levels. Although there are various definitions, the following may serve as guidance:
Responsive Mechanisms
Preventive action aims to prevent disputes from developing between parties, to prevent
existing disputes from escalating into conflicts, and to limit the expansion of conflicts when
they occur. Preventive actions can be carried out as preventive diplomacy, deployment of
troops, or combinations of both. Preventive action may also include the United Nations’
means to fight terrorism, since the Organization participates in the global efforts to: “dissuade
disaffected groups from embracing terrorism; deny groups or individuals the means to carry
out acts of terrorism; and to sustain broad-based international cooperation in the struggle
against terrorism.” In the United Nations’ efforts to act against terrorism, the Organization
also assists the Member States in proper legislation.
Peacemaking is a diplomatic action to bring hostile parties to negotiate a settlement of

their dispute through such peaceful means as those foreseen under Chapter VI and VIII
(regional arrangements) of the United Nations Charter. As such, peacemaking is central to all
peace processes and, in general, is conducted by the diplomatic community.
Peacekeeping is “a United Nations presence in the field (normally involving military

and civilian personnel) with the consent of the conflicting parties. The purpose of
peacekeeping is to implement or monitor the implementation of arrangements relating to the
control of conflicts (cease-fire, separation of forces, etc.) and to resolve or to ensure the safe
delivery of humanitarian relief.”
Peace building “includes the identification and support of measures and structures,
which promote peace and build trust and interaction among former conflicting parties, in
order to avoid a relapse into conflict.” As such, peace building serves as the critical linkage
between the cease of the hostilities and the economic and social development. In
consolidating peace United Nations agencies, governmental and non-governmental
organizations play important roles.
Disarmament refers primarily to the reduction and eventual elimination of weapons of

mass destruction, such as nuclear, chemical and biological weapons. The new political
realties have also led to limitations of various conventional armaments, such as small arms
and the use of landmines. Disarmament also refers to part of a demobilization process often
monitored by an international organization.
Sanctions and embargoes are enforcement

tools, which are used to bring economic pressure
“on a target State or entity to comply with the
objectives set by the Security Council.” The
authority for enforcement is provided in Chapter
VII of the United Nations Charter.
Peace-enforcement, also provided in

Chapter VII of the Charter, may be needed when
all other efforts fail. It includes the use of armed
force to maintain international peace and security
in situations in which the Security Council has
Figure 1: De-mobilization in Guatemala. “determined the existence of a threat to the peace,
breach of the peace or act of aggression.”
Peace Support Operations (PSO) is the term frequently used for operations that are
primarily military. Since there is no clear United Nations definition of “peace support
operations” yet, the definition here refers to those activities requiring the functions related to
potential use of force and, thus, includes all above-mentioned activities except peacemaking
and peace building, which are more commonly provided by diplomats, political leaders, and
other non-military personnel.
3.3 Universal Principles Guiding Peacekeeping Operations
Although no peacekeeping doctrine exists, there are some accepted and universal
principles of peacekeeping that apply to the entire structure of the operation, from the United
Nations Headquarters in New York down to the smallest element of the mission, including the
political, humanitarian and military components. It is essential that all these elements of a
mission comprehend and comply with these principles, which should serve as both a guide
and a common frame of reference for all participants in a mission.
Authorization
One of United Nations fundamental principles is the concept of “collective security.”
The evolution of UN peacekeeping should be seen as an effort to make the vision of collective
security a reality. Chapter VI of the Charter authorizes the use of peaceful measures “by
negotiation, enquiry, mediation, conciliation, arbitration, judicial settlement, resort to regional
agencies or arrangements, or other peaceful means of their own choice.” Chapter VII
authorizes economic sanctions to prevent aggression and/or the use of armed force, if
necessary, to maintain peace. However, peace-enforcement envisaged in this Chapter did not
prove practicable and instead, the United Nations resorted in specific situations to an
alternative method of maintaining international peace and security − peacekeeping.
Peacekeeping is somewhere between the diplomatic solutions discussed in Chapter VI and the
military measures discussed in Chapter VII and is, therefore, described by the late Secretary-
General Dag Hammarskjöld as falling under the non-existent Chapter "Six-and-a-Half" of the
UN Charter. Although the term ”peacekeeping” does not exist in the Charter, the
establishment of a peace (keeping) operation through a Security Council Resolution provides
the necessary legal authority.
Legitimacy
A peacekeeping mission derives its legitimacy from international support, adherence
to statuary law, and conventions and the credibility of the mission. This is especially true
since the mission is established and given its mandate by the Security Council, which by the
Charter is responsible for the maintenance of international peace and security. Having the full
support from the Security Council becomes more evident particularly when an operation
encounters difficulties. The legitimacy is further enhanced by the multi-national composition
of a mission, including personnel from a wide range of Member States. In addition, it is
essential that the mission has a clear and achievable mandate and acts within
international/national laws, conventions and rules provided in the mandate. Failure to do so
could jeopardize the authority and affect the mission’s operational effectiveness. Even if the
Security Council decides upon an operation, the last years have witnessed some unilateral or
collective actions where the approval for such operations has been received retroactively.
Consent
In contrast with an enforcement operation, a peacekeeping operation is set up with the
consent and cooperation of the main parties involved in the conflict. The consent is an
inherent requirement not only for the establishment of the force but also for the direction of
the force in implementing its mandate. In the mission area, the consent refers to the
acceptance of activities of the United Nations force by all recognized parties to the conflict
(e.g., freedom of movement). As the complexity of a peacekeeping mission increases,
universality of consent becomes less probable. Seeking and promoting consent is, therefore,
an important activity in which all personnel can engage.
Impartiality and Neutrality

A United Nations force must be impartial in character. The force cannot take sides
without being a part of the conflict it has been mandated to control or resolve. In the mission
area, impartiality is based primarily on objective, even-handed, and consistent pursuit of the
mandate regardless of provocations and challenges. Without impartiality there is little
prospect of preserving the confidence and cooperation of conflicting parties. Therefore,
peacekeepers should not take any action that would create an impression that the mission is in
any way partial to any of the concerned parties. Proof that one or more parties are favoured
over another in any way will result in loss of credibility and increased difficulties in executing
operational tasks. However, efforts to maintain impartiality must not promote inaction or
condone violations on the part of any faction.
A careful distinction should be made in the student’s mind between impartiality and
neutrality. Impartiality, as discussed above, refers to actions – the equal treatment of both
sides in a conflict. However, neutrality is a political or diplomatic position. Neutrality is a
publicly-made statement of not favouring one side in a dispute, but impartiality involves the
actual equal treatment of both sides. It is almost impossible to be seen as impartial in the
absence of a statement of neutrality, but a nation’s statement of neutrality is not sufficient for
its peacekeepers to be perceived as neutral.
Unity
A multi-dimensional operation involves a wide spectrum of civilian and military
functions. Civilians and military personnel belong to various nationalities with their own
culture, professional background, and perspectives of the operation. Regardless of this
diversity, a peacekeeping force must act as an integrated unit and, thus, reflect the will of the
international community as a whole if the operation is to be effective and accountable.
Therefore, a unified command and knowledge of the mandate and the operational principles
that must be reflected at every level of the force are the prerequisites for a successful
operation. In light of the political objectives defined in the mandate, the head of the mission is
responsible for establishing the unity and the inter-operability among the mission’s various
components.
Use of Force
In peacekeeping operations, force will not be used to carry out the mandate. To use
force would fall under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter and would be considered as
an enforcement action. However, non-use of force does not exclude defence of United
Nations personnel and property or the use of armed forces in resisting armed attempts that
prevent peacekeeping forces from discharging their duties and mandates. The use of
“defence” force should be clearly defined in the rules of engagement (ROE), which clarifies
the different levels of force that can be used in various circumstances.
Operational Principles
A peace operation is primarily a political mission, and its operational principles derive
from the given mandate. Depending on the given mandate and the composition of the force
(mission), the principles differ. Over the years, a range of basic operational principles
(activities) have been developed and may include, among other things: observation or
supervision of the parties’ adherence to an agreement; interposition where the peacekeeping
force is deployed between opposing elements; control measures such as patrols, checkpoints
and observation posts; and mediation/negotiation (See Lesson 8). Common for all operations,
however, are those that provide full transparency throughout the mission, especially a
transparency that is consistent with the prevailing requirements for security. All personnel
(and parties) should be fully aware of the motives, mission, and intentions of the operation,
since incomplete or inaccurate communication will foster suspicion and undermine
confidence and trust. To that effect, liaison is the physical mechanism that promotes
transparency and ensures timely passage of information. In addition, transparency includes
wearing the distinctive and easily recognizable United Nations’ insignia that enhances overt
and visible operations.
3.4 Organizational Structure and Main Functions
Military Forces (Force Level Missions)

Peacekeeping has developed from what is sometimes called first-generation
(traditional) to second-generation peacekeeping activities. The first generation of
peacekeeping was military operations, where the maintenance of cease-fires and the
separation of forces were the major objectives, for example, the operation in Gaza (1956-
1967). Due to the complexity of the conflicts, the second generation of peacekeeping was
born. These missions consisted of military and civilian components with mandates including:
preventive deployment; implementation of comprehensive settlements; involvement in
humanitarian assistance; and protection of humanitarian operations during continuing
conflicts. Regardless of the type of mission, the military force is composed of headquarters,
which plan and conduct the entire operation, units with the capacity to carry out operational
activities, and logistic elements for transport, maintenance and supply. A Force Commander
heads the military force.
Observer and Similar Missions

In addition to the force level missions, there are observer or verification missions,
which sometimes operate in tandem with the force level missions. The Military Observer
Missions emanate from the end of the 40s, with the preliminary tasks to supervise a cease-fire
and/or an armistice agreement. The missions are composed of a small headquarters, headed by
a Chief Military Observe (CMO), and a logistic element provides necessary operational
support. In carrying out their tasks, the unarmed observers work in teams, which are normally
deployed on both sides of a border or a cease-fire line. They observe and report any violation
of a cease-fire or any other activities that are considered breaches of an agreement. The
military observers have, in a number of operations, been able to promote consent and positive
cooperation, not only between the United Nations and the conflicting parties, but also between
the parties themselves. Not surprisingly, their tasks have gradually been expanded to include
duties within the humanitarian, political, administrative and logistical areas. Their ability and
general competence have proven that services of military observers quite often overlap in both
military and civilian functions, and, therefore, they may be considered more or less as General
Purpose Officers.
With the expansion of United Nations peacekeeping, other types of observer missions
were established, such as: civilian police monitor missions; geographical observers mission;
“verifiers”; election monitors; election observers; and European Commission (EC) monitors.
In general, these missions only employ civilians, although some with military backgrounds,
whose functional titles (such as supervisors, monitors and observers) indicate their level of
responsibility. Among these new types of missions is the United Nations Monitoring,
Verification and Inspection Commission (UNMOVIC), which is of special interest since it is
empowered with a mandate to disarm a country (e.g., Iraq) of its weapons of mass destruction.
Civilian Police
In the beginning of the 1960s, one of the first civilian police missions was deployed in
Cyprus as a complement to the already existing peacekeeping force (UNFICYP). Under the
umbrella of the force, the mission had a weak mandate, and its usefulness was sometimes
questioned. However, the experience gained became important and served as useful guidance
when the concept of civilian police extended to other missions. The financial and political
constraints on United Nations peacekeeping promoted an increased deployment of civilian
police contingents, and particularly the huge missions in the beginning of the 1990s witnessed
contingents of several hundreds of police officers.
Like the Military Observer Missions, the Civilian Police is organized in a

headquarters, supported by a logistic element, and works in teams − a Police Commissioner
heads the mission. Their "unarmed" presence and non-military appearance made them more
politically acceptable than the uniformed soldiers previously assigned as military observes.
The United Nations Civilian Police was instrumental, for example, in Haiti (MIPONUH),
Croatia (UNCRO), and Bosnia and Herzegovina (UNMIBH). These UN Civilian Police had
no actual law enforcement authority (except under certain circumstances), but instead were
responsible for monitoring local police activities. In recent years, their duties have been
further expanded to include training and assistance in the creation of reliable police forces in
countries where law and order resources are not adequate. The operation in East Timor
(UNMISET) is a good example of where the civilian police component currently consists of
650 police officers. In their specific role, the civilian police monitors have proven to be an
excellent instrument in the peacekeeping environment.
3.5 Types of Peace Operations
When conducting peacekeeping operations, the United Nations relies on activities that
are consistent with the Charter, as well as principles and methods that have proven effective
for past operations. These activities include (but are not limited to): (i) preventive
deployment; (ii) traditional peacekeeping, such as the supervision of agreements and
interposition; (iii) humanitarian assistance and protection of humanitarian operation; (iv) the
implementation of comprehensive settlements; and (v) conflict mitigation. The activities
generally include elements of peacemaking and peace building. They may be described as:
Preventive Deployment
Conflict prevention is normally a combination of early warning, preventive diplomacy
and preventive deployment. Together, these may be regarded as confidence-building
measures to maintain peace and security in an area. Identification of a conflict by early
warning will allow more time for preventive diplomacy or military action. Preventive
deployment may take place when one or more countries decide that a United Nations presence
along a border can discourage hostilities. For example, the former Yugoslav Republic of
Macedonia (FYROM) requested the presence of the United Nations on its side of the border,
and the Security Council authorized the Secretary-General to establish the United Nations
Preventive Deployment Force (UNPREDEP) in Macedonia (FYROM) – a force comprised of
military, civilian and administrative personnel. However, the incentives in conflict prevention
will be undone if the United Nation does not further develop its capacity to mitigate global
threats, the use of weapons and, in particular, those involving weapons of mass destruction.
Traditional Peacekeeping
A traditional peacekeeping operation involves a neutral and lightly-armed force. It
takes place with the consent of the parties. A cease-fire agreement is normally in place before
deployment. The purpose with such operations is to monitor the cease-fires and, by their
presence, enable combatants to
pull back to a safe distance from
each other. By monitoring and
reporting on the parties’
adherence to commitments
regarding, for example, a cease-
fire, a demilitarised zone and
areas of troop limitation, and by
investigating complaints of
violations, the operations
constitute an important
confidence-building measure.
Thus, the mission helps to
advocate and maintain peaceful
conditions so that the conflicting
parties can pursue a negotiated Figure 2: UN Peacekeepers in the Middle East.
settlement. Observation,
supervision and interposition are the most common types of traditional peacekeeping
operations. Most of the earlier operations in the Middle East and the on-going UNFICYP in
Cyprus and UNDOF at the Golan Heights are considered traditional peacekeeping operations.
Humanitarian Assistance and Protection of Humanitarian Operations

Volatile political situations and man-made disasters have often created dreadful
circumstances for civilian populations. Although these problems are primarily the concern of
other United Nations’ agencies, international or non-governmental relief organizations, it may
require the involvement of a United Nations’ force, sometimes deployed under conditions of
continuing warfare. The mandate is to try to stabilize a situation, protect the civilian
population, and protect and assist the humanitarian agencies in providing humanitarian supply
and refugee relief, while at the same time working with the concerned parties toward a
negotiated settlement. Even though some of these operations are authorized under Chapter VII
of the Charter, such as the use of force in order to ensure specified humanitarian objectives,
they are also required to remain neutral and impartial between the warring parties. Examples
of missions with significant humanitarian assistance responsibilities are ONUC (Congo),
UNAMIR (Rwanda), and ONUMOZ (Mozambique). The present mission in the Democratic
Republic of Congo (MONUC) acts under a similar mandate. (See also Lesson 4)
Implementation of Comprehensive Settlements

In the late 1980s, a new type of peacekeeping was introduced with the goal of
assisting the parties to a conflict in implementing an already agreed-upon comprehensive
settlement. These new peacekeeping tasks could involve a wide range of functions:
monitoring a cease-fire; the demobilization of military units; assisting elections; rebuilding
infrastructure; temporarily taking over some of the functions of a national government;
monitoring national civil police; and the repatriation and rehabilitation of refugees. The prime
examples of multi-dimensional peacekeeping have been the operations in Namibia (UNTAG)
and in Cambodia (UNTAC). Other similar operations were ONUMOZ (Mozambique) and
UNAVEM II (Angola) but also SFOR in Bosnia and Herzegovina and recently KFOR in
Kosovo, although neither are UN operations. The on-going operation in Sierra Leone
(UNMASIL) has a similar mandate with the objectives to assist in the implementation of the
disarmament, demobilization and reintegration.
Conflict Mitigation
These operations are mandated with an attempt to mitigate the effects of armed
conflicts by delimiting the rules of an on-going war. The mandate authorizes the use of force,
but only for limited and local purposes and not necessarily to bring a war to an end.
Examples of such situations include the UN Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina, (UNMIBH)
or the UN Protection Force (UNPROFOR).
Enhanced Peacekeeping
Although the United Nations in recent years has improved its capacity for managing
complex emergencies, the Organization is expected to muster the political will among the
Member States and to find further innovations if it is to be prepared for the challenges of the
new millennium. The lessons from the events of September 11, 2001, and the discouraging
discussions foregoing the Iraqi War further underscore these challenges. Recognizing the
political realities and the increase of potential or latent violence, a new generation of
peacekeeping is considered to be more “militarily” active and more preventive. The new
generation of peace operations will have the intent of preventing, restoring or maintaining
peace by using two applications: “(i) the use of positive incentives to induce, in the first
instance, consent and cooperation with the peace operation and beyond that reconciliation and
(ii) the threat of coercion to gain consent and cooperation” – show of a more credible force. In
this respect, the most successful operation was applied by the United Nations Transitional
Administration in Eastern Slovenia (UNTAES).
Peace Building
Briefly peace building refers to post-conflict activities. With the creation of a
Peacebuilding Office within the Department of Political Affairs (DPA), the United Nations
has established another mechanism dealing with peace in a broader context. The office aims
to prevent the outbreak, the recurrence or continuation of armed conflicts. It handles intricate
programmes and mechanisms concerning political, developmental, humanitarian and human
right issues. Currently more than 13 peace building or political missions are set up worldwide.
Most of them are set up in the aftermath of peacekeeping operations such as United Nations
Political Office in Somalia (UNPOS) and United Nations Tajikistan Office of Peace-building
(UNTOP).
The new generation of peace operations will call on peacekeepers to be ready – both
in appearance and in reality – to use force in order to prevent, dissuade, and persuade warring
parties. Therefore, future peacekeepers must be more professional in carrying out a given
mandate and also more capable of defending themselves, other mission components and the
mandate. Even if the peacekeepers have the mandate for “self-defence,” this new environment
may require more robust rules of engagement against those who, for example, seek to
undermine a peace agreement by violence.
But of equal importance is the confrontation of the economic and social problems in
the aftermath of a conflict. The necessity to strengthen legal institutions and to improve the
respect for human rights and international humanitarian law are fundamental issues in a peace
operation, as well as in the post-conflict environment. Future operations must also incorporate
mechanisms dealing with demobilization, disarmament and reintegration (DD&R) in the long-
term mission plan, in order to avoid former conflict-areas from falling back into chaos. The
use of civilian police, other rule-of-law elements, human rights and other experts will be
supplementary mechanisms to meet these demands. (www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/home.shtml)
3.6 Planning and Preparation
Principles
The history of United Nations peacekeeping is replete with emergency responses to
crises. Whereas ad hoc preparations were acceptable when the number and complexity of
operations were limited, presently there is a more institutional approach to expedite the
establishment of the multi-faceted operations. This requires cooperation of all concerned
parties in implementing the mandate, effective management and timely advice by United
Nations Headquarters, appropriate and unified command structure in the field, and adequate
logistic and financial support. Peacekeeping operations do not rely exclusively on military
action, but rather a corroboration of diplomatic, economic and humanitarian endeavors to
pursue political objectives. Consequently, planning is a coherent effort in order to define and
implement a given mandate and to integrate all tasks under one mandate.
Assessment
The effective execution of peacekeeping operations requires an assessment of the actual
situation. This is achieved by the combined efforts of the various departments of the
Secretariat and involves other actors within the United Nations system as well. Within the
Secretariat, and apart from the Executive Office of the Secretary-General, the planning
process encompasses “substantial” departments such as: the Department of Peacekeeping
Operations; Department of Political Affairs; Office of Humanitarian Coordination;
Department of Administration; Department of Public Information; and the Office of Legal
Affairs. Their combined assessment through the Integrated Mission Task Force embraces a
wide range of factors that serve to increase the effectiveness of the operation. In order to
actualise the input of the planning processes, the Secretariat, as a rule, dispatches survey
missions to the pre-designated mission area. The purpose of these fact-finding missions is to
observe the conditions in the field, facilitate forthcoming liaisons, and recommend the nature
of the overall operational activities, which all result in a planning concept for the operation.
The concept will then constitute the size and type of operation, which can either be an
observer mission consisting of unarmed officer (military or civilian police) observers,
peacekeeping forces, a combined observer/force mission, or a multi-dimensional force.
The Planning Process

Traditionally, the proposed concept requires the consent of the parties to the conflict.
When this is not the case, the complexity and comprehensiveness of the planning process
increases dramatically and may involve other regional actors, particularly if the mission is
going to operate under Chapter VII. Regardless of the type of operation, the proposed
mandate for the operation must be adopted by the Security Council and with broad support
from the international community. Even if no formal decision exists, a pre-planning process
will commence before such decision in order to gain time. It may involve the assessment of
the actual situation in the area, likely available resources, and the pre-designation of a
planning team. The actual planning starts when a decision is available. Transparency and
cooperation among and between the Security Council, the Secretariat, and the concerned
countries/parties are essential elements in this process. The Secretary-General continuously
reports to the Security Council and coordinates with potential troop-contributors about the
resources necessary to launch and implement the operation.
Subject to the Council’s approval, the Secretary-General must then make required
arrangements that involve choosing the head of the mission and asking Member States to
provide troops, police or other civilian personnel, supplies, equipment, and transportation,
among other things. The existing list of key personnel and the stand-by arrangements
concerning required equipment and troops has greatly facilitated these activities. In approving
the Secretary-General’s report, the Council also decides the duration of the operation and how
the operation is going to be financed. Based on the planning concept and the approval from
the Security Council, the Secretariat, with the involvement of pre-designated key personnel,
further develops a comprehensive plan that takes into account the allocation of troops,
personnel equipment, the level of sustainability, and specifically all the functions to be
performed in the mission. This integrated process, where all actors are gradually involved,
provides the best conditions for a successful operation.
The Involvement of Host and Contributing Countries

The assurance of support from the contributing countries and the country whose
territory is to be the operational theatre is essential. The contributing countries, and especially
the troop-contributing ones, must assure the provision of manpower and equipment, and the
host country must guarantee that they will make every effort to facilitate the deployment of
the force/mission. Although the stand-by agreements do not guarantee unconditional
contributions from the Member States for a specific operation, they do reflect potential
contribution on a case-by-case basis. In the mission area (host country), it is mandatory that
the mission enjoys the status, privilege and immunities of the United Nations as provided for
in the Charter (Art. 105) and in the Convention on Privileges and Immunities of the United
Nations. Therefore, the Secretary-General undertakes the conclusion of a status agreement
with the host government(s) concerning the work of the operation − the Status of Forces
Agreement (SOFA). A similar agreement regulates the activities between the United Nations
and troop-contributing countries – the Model of Force Agreement (MOFA). (See Lesson 1)
Improvement of the Planning and Implementation Capacity

In 2000, the Secretary-General tasked an independent panel to study and make
recommendations of the whole concept of future peace operations (Further referred to in
Lesson 2). The panel was chaired by Algeria’s former Minister of Foreign Affairs, Lakhdar
Brahimi, and the report came to be known as The Brahimi Report. The Brahimi Report
recommended a series of recommendations that, to a large extent, has been implemented. The
establishment of a mechanism for strengthening cooperation between the Council and troop-
contributing countries has improved the transparency in the planning process. The Secretariat
has expanded its resources for coping with the requirements of the planning, deployment and
management of traditional and multi-dimensional operations where the establishment of the
Integrated Mission Task Force is an essential part. Progress has also been achieved in
implementing the rapid deployment concept, which includes, among other things, the strategic
deployment stocks and the United Nations Logistics Base at Brindisi. Other improvements
include a better utilization of civilians, as well as a better stand-by arrangement for all pre-
designated key personnel in tentative missions. Although the troop-contributing countries are
responsible for the training and preparation of their civilian and military personnel, the United
Nations has established a well-functioning entity, which provides and supports the Member
States in their preparations. (www.un.org/peace/reports/peace_operations/docs/recommended.htm)
3.7 Management Responsibilities
The Security Council has the responsibility for the maintenance of peace and security
and acts on behalf of all the Member States.
In the Secretariat
The Secretariat carries out decisions taken by the other principal organs (GA, SC, etc.),
which, with regard to peacekeeping, entail planning, executive direction and logistical
support. The Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) is to a great extent responsible
for these activities.
In the Field
A peacekeeping operation is established following a resolution of the Security Council
or, in exceptional cases, the General Assembly. The executive direction of an operation
(Including political directives and operational control) extends from the Secretary-General to
the Head of the Mission. Depending on the mission, overall command/management in the
field is exercised by a Special Representative of the Secretary-General (SRSG), the Force
Commander (FC), or a Chief Military Observer (CMO) appointed by the Secretary-General
with the consent of the Security Council. The Head of the Mission is responsible to the
Secretary-General and exercises partly political but fully operational control over the force
(except for disciplinary questions, which remains a national responsibility). When a
peacekeeping force performs non-military functions not limited to military tasks (multi-
dimensional force), it normally requires civilian components in addition to military ones. In
such cases, overall command in the field is vested by the SRSG to whom the heads of the
various components report.
BASIC STRUCTURE
PEACE-KEEPING M ISSION MANAGEMENT
Special Representative of the Secretary-General
Human Rights
Deputy SRSG Component
Force Commander Head CivPol Component Head Election Component
Chief Military Observer
Chief Administrative Officer Head Humanitarian Component
Figure 3: Principal organization of a multi-dimensional mission.

(UN DPKO Training and Evaluation Service)
3.8 Peacekeeping Partnership
Civilians in Peace Operations

In the early years of peacekeeping and particularly during the Cold War era, the
civilians were mainly personnel from the United Nations Field Administration and Logistics
Division (FALD). Their main responsibility was to provide all the administrative and logistic
support, which was not directly provided by the operation-participating governments. At the
end of the 80s and beginning of the 90s, the involvement of the civilians expanded greatly,
particularly in the area where peacekeeping operations had to perform duties that were non-
military in nature. In missions such as those in Cambodia, the former Yugoslavia, Namibia,
Somalia and others, the civilians, apart from their traditional support to the military forces,
performed duties similar to those of a civilian society, as well as large and mandated
humanitarian assistance programmes. The involvement of civilians not only changed the
peacekeeping concept, but it also required new forms of cooperation between the military and
civilian planners and managers, not only in terms of planning and implementation but also in
a change of attitudes.
The Partnership Concept

The partnership concept was conceptualised as an interoperable function where the
various actors and individuals, as well as organizations and institutes, must be aware of the
characteristics and capabilities of each other. The term “partnership” applies to individuals
and organizations that work together in order to improve the effectiveness of modern
peacekeeping operations. It is now commonly accepted as the formal and informal link
between the various players who have different roles in a multi-dimensional activity.
Peacekeeping Partnership involves, among others, the military, humanitarian aid agencies,
good governance officials, non-governmental organizations and civilian police. In fact, all
those who are or will likely be involved in any operation of multi-dimensional character are
part of the Peacekeeping Partnership. Through integrated planning, training exercises,
seminars, workshops and other learning activities, ideas and opportunities are exchanged.
Entities and individuals benefit from each other with the purpose of maximizing the efficiency
of a field operation. Since the partnership is a kind of interchange of information, it
extensively must affect the planning processes. Several organizations have come to recognize
the importance of maintaining an awareness of others in partnership and have, therefore,
established exchange or liaison programmes where staff personnel and officials are assigned
for duty with other organizations. This is beneficial for both parties, as the arrangements
allow an early joint awareness in both strategic and operational planning. (See Lesson 5)
Definition
The word Partnership has become a key word regardless of if it involves peacekeeping,
other similar operations, or just an expression for a close and less formal cooperation. In
Africa, as well as in many other places, there is a training programme for partnership. NATO
has a Partnership for Peace (PfP) programme, where NATO goes beyond its traditional
boundaries and involves its new democratic partners in the former Soviet bloc and some of
Europe' s neutral countries in order to enhance European security. More explicitly, the purpose
is to provide “a framework for enhanced political and military cooperation for joint
multilateral activities, such as humanitarian assistance, peacekeeping, and crisis management
and enables Partners to improve their interoperability with NATO.”
(See also: www.ciss.ca/ppc.htm or www.state.gov/www/regions/eur/nato_fs-pfp.html)
Learning Questions
Knowledge
What are the efforts of the interrelated system in the United Nations to maintain peace and
security?
What are the differences between peacekeeping and peace enforcement in terms of consent?
What provides the legal authority for the implementation of a peacekeeping operation?
What is the definition of peacekeeping?
What is impartiality and why is it so important in a peace mission?
What is “collective security” and what does it mean?
Which Chapter of the Charter provides for the use of sanctions and embargoes?
What constitutes the use of force in a peacekeeping mission?
Who exercises the full responsibility of a multi-dimensional force in the field?
Awareness
How would you describe a preventive action?
What political issues can be raised in using “use of force”?
What are the similarities between peacemaking and peace building?
What is the significance of traditional peacekeeping?
How would you describe the differences between SOFA and MOFA?
What could motivate the Security Council to mandate a peace enforcement operation?
What is the definition of an observer mission?
Which are the new and most significant elements in the planning and preparation of a
peacekeeping operation?
How would you describe Peacekeeping Partnership?
Application
Fortunately, you have been asked to attend a seminar at which the United Nations
operations are discussed. The discussion evolves around peacekeeping soldiers and the
possibility that they have to use their weapons. You have read the Introduction to the UN
System Course and consider yourself to be reasonably well-informed on the topic.
Consequently, you state that peacekeeping soldiers only use their weapons in self-defence.
You are immediately questioned about the meaning of self-defence and what the
implications are for a peacekeeping soldier. What is your answer?
LESSON 3
END-OF-LESSON QUIZ
1. Which of the following does not fit into the new political context?
a. Individual’s right;
b. Arms control;
c. Culture of reaction;
d. Monitoring manifested conflicts.
2. Peace operations include:

a. Peace making;
b. Peace building;
c. Peace support;
d. All of the above.
3. Which Chapter of the Charter provides for the use of sanctions and embargoes?
a. Chapter VI;
b. Chapter VII;
c. Chapter VIII;
d. Chapter “six-and-a-half.”
4. Which of the following statements is the most correct one?

a. Peacekeeping is a United Nations presence in the field with the consent of the
conflicting parties;
b. Peacekeeping does not require the consent of the parties concerned;
c. Peacekeeping takes place on an agreed basis or in the context of coercive
action under Chapter VII of the Charter;
d. Preventive action aims to bring hostile parties to negotiate a settlement of their
disputes.
5. What principle of peace enforcement is the most important one if the operation is to
succeed?
a. Clear definitions of the rules of engagement;
b. Impartiality;
c. Legitimacy;
d. Authorization under Chapter VII.
6. Which of the following operations is characterized as traditional peacekeeping?

a. ONUC (Congo);
b. UNFICYP (Cyprus);
c. UNTAG (Namibia);
d. UNTAC (Cambodia).
7. Which of the following statements most correctly applies to peacekeeping operations?

a. Use of force only in self-defence;
b. Use of force only under Chapter VII;
c. Use of force only in resisting armed attempts that prevent a peacekeeping force
from discharging its duties and mandate;
d. Non-use of force does not exclude defence of United Nations personnel and
property.
8. Which of the following types of operations is/are considered second-generation

peacekeeping?
a. Preventive deployment;
b. Protection of humanitarian operations;
c. Multi-dimensional peacekeeping;
9. Who exercises the full responsibility of a multi-dimensional operation in the field?

a. The Secretary-General;
b. The Special Representative of the Secretary-General;
c. A Force Commander;
d. None of the above.
10. Peacekeeping Partnership involves:

a. All organizations involved in a peace operation in the field;
b. Those who are or likely will be involved in any operation of multi-dimensional
character;
c. Members of NATO’s Partnership for Peace programme;
d. Both a. and c.
LESSON 3
ANSWER KEY
1. c. Culture of reaction
2. d. All of the above
3. b. Chapter VII
4. a. Peacekeeping is a United Nations presence in the field with the

consent of the conflicting parties
5. c. Legitimacy
6. b. UNFICYP (Cyprus)
7. d. Non-use of force does not exclude defence of United Nations personnel and
property
9. b. The Special Representative of the Secretary-General
10. b. Those who are or likely will be involved in any operation of multi-
dimensional character

LESSON 4
THE ROLES OF THE UNITED NATIONS IN THE
FIELDS OF DEVELOPMENT AND RELATED
HUMANITARIAN ACTIONS
Learning Objectives 4.5 Human Rights (HR) and Principles

• Key Questions for Protection of Human Rights
• Establishment
Introduction • Instruments
• Functions
4.1 The Development Concept • Human Rights and Development
• The Interface between Development and • Human Rights and Peace Operations
the Maintenance of Peace and Security
• Strategy 4.6 Principles and Applications of
• Implementation International Humanitarian Law
• Law of Geneva (Geneva Conventions of
4.2 The Interface between Disaster Relief 1949)
and Development • Law of The Hague
• Summary of the Provisions of
4.3 Humanitarian Imperatives International Humanitarian Law
• Disaster Relief and Humanitarian
Operations Learning Questions
• The Humanitarian Dimension • Knowledge
• Reconciliation • Awareness
• People-Centered Activities – Roles of • Application
the UNVs • End-of-Lesson Quiz
4.4 Distinctions/Similarities between

Human Rights Law and International
Humanitarian Law (IHL)
Lesson 4 / The Roles of the UN in the Fields of Development and Related Humanitarian Actions 56
LESSON 4
(Ref: Basic Facts about the UN; pages 127-241, and Articles of the Charter)
Learning Objectives
Lesson 4 is considered part of what is in this course called the operational framework.
The reason is to emphasize that development and other related activities should be regarded as
an integrated part of the United Nations’ main objective – to maintain international peace and
security. The development activities are the curative measures but with the objectives to
address the root and causes as well. They are the major mechanism in promoting a lasting
peace. Lesson 4 addresses some of the main features of the development concept in order to
give an understanding of development as the major part of the long reconstruction process
that commences at the end of an emergency. The chapters that deal with human rights and
humanitarian law have been included because they are considered as the promoting elements
in the reconstruction and democratisation process that follows an emergency. The main
objective of Lesson 4 is to provide the student with an understanding of these basic principles.
What is the development concept about?
What is the relationship between “Maintenance of Peace and Security” and “Development”?
What are the main features of the UNDP’s work?
What is the “Interface between Disaster Relief and Development”?
What are the implications of “humanitarian imperatives” for peace operations?
What is participatory development?
What is reconciliation?
What are the differences and similarities between human rights and humanitarian law?
What are the implications of humanitarian law for the conduct of military operations?
Whom does humanitarian law protect?
What are the main instruments of human rights?
What are the main features of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights?

Introduction
The reconstruction of a society is one of the most complex endeavours undertaken by

the international community. It entails several phases and includes activities from disaster
relief to development and reconciliation.
The new political context requires a broad,

collaborative, and humanitarian approach.
Therefore, solutions and mandates, empowered to
create confidence between and among conflicting
parties through economic and social development,
have become the most important and useful
mechanisms to enhance international and regional
security. Likewise, the protection and promotion of
human rights is important and must be considered
as part of the development concept as well as part
of international security. Adherence to the
International Bill of Human Rights is a necessary
political condition for prosperous development,
and, therefore, Human Rights should be thought of
as a natural humanitarian/political bridge between
security and development. Although security and
development – and the advancement of human
rights – are the fundamental capstones in the
Figure 1: Pounding swords into democratisation process, the process per se can
ploughshares. (Outside UN never be fully achieved, particularly in war-torn
Headquarters) societies, if the process does not include
reconciliation.
4.1 The Development Concept
The Interface between Development and the Maintenance of Peace and Security
From a given perspective it may be stated that emergencies are the result of unresolved
development problems. Economic or social injustice generates poverty, which can be the root
cause for conflict and man-made disasters. Poverty creates conflicts over resources and can
become a breeding ground for political crisis where the conditions are perceived incorrectly.
Violence is always a potential outcome in the absence of a democratic system. Conflicts of
ethnic and religious character have been witnessed in Central Africa, Europe, and elsewhere,
compounded by social revolts where old links are still maintained with external forces, such
as in Central America. These are examples of causes that have brought conflict and disaster
to entire regions. Development has been the key to the prevention of conflicts since it brings
necessary social and economic justice and establishes the capacity of building entities and
democratic institutions.
Strategy
United Nations activities in the fields of peace and security are well known. Political
crises, humanitarian emergencies, civil unrest, and other natural or man-made disasters easily
get the interest of the world media. The United Nations is brought into action, and the world
focuses on the Security Council and what kind of ease its decision may bring to suffering
people. Of less media interest are the United Nations actions in the field of development in
spite of the fact that more than seventy percent of the Organization’s budget is devoted to
development. This media neglect leads to an absence of public awareness of the global impact
the United Nations’ various programmes have on the world population. Often without
attracting attention, the United Nations and its family of agencies are engaged in a vast array
of work that touches every aspect of people's lives around the world.
In the past and before the Post-Cold War era, development was conceptualised in a
giving-and-receiving formula that subsequently created dependency among the beneficiaries.
In the era of globalisation, that concept has changed. Today, development is neither a short-
term nor medium-term of engagement. Development is about “improvement of human well-
being and removal of poverty, diseases and ignorance, productive employment and to meet
the priority needs of all people than can be sustained over future generations” (Boutros
Boutros-Ghali – Agenda for Development). It is a strategic undertaking, and provides an
integrated framework addressing the overriding policy objectives concerning social justice
and economic progress including democratic, economic, social and human rights policies on a
macro level. This holistic approach is considered more likely to result in progress, and
international cooperation. Thus, development is a part of the social and economic
transformation, which takes place globally. The United Nations serves as the centerpiece for
consensus building in formulating and advocating policies and strategic goals.
Implementation
Through a series of International Development Decades, policies and goals for each
decade are set, which provide the foundation for progress on all aspects of development. This,
together with the former Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali’s Agenda for
Development, serves as a blueprint for addressing the global issue of economic and social
development. The Economic and Social Council is the United Nations’ principal body in
coordinating these activities. The Council’s Department of Economic and Social Affairs is
responsible for policy, analysis and coordination, among other things, and serves as the
substantive element in formulating the global policy while the five Regional Commissions
assist in formulating the regional policy in the regions of Asia, the Pacific, Africa, Latin
America, the Caribbean and Europe.
In the operational field, the United Nations Development Programme is the main
coordinator of development assistance. The programme works worldwide and is represented
in more than 130 countries, where it assists the countries in developing their own capacity to
build sustainable human development. In addition, there are numerous governmental and non-
governmental bodies that are instrumental in implementing sustainable development.
However, it is no secret that the development activities during the last decade have been
extremely disappointing with poverty deepening and the environmental degradation
worsening. Not surprisingly, the Johannesburg Summit (2002) stated the need for action and
results instead of new strategies or political debates. Economic growth, social development,
and environmental protection are the three main areas that will take “sustainable development
to the next level, where it will benefit more people and protect more of our environment.”
(Resources: Report from Johannesburg Summit)
The UN system has devoted more attention and resources to the promotion of the
development of human skills and potentials than any other external assistance effort. The
system's annual disbursements, including loans and grants, amount to more than ten billion.
The UN Development Programme (UNDP), in close cooperation with over 170 Member
States and other UN agencies, designs and implements projects for agriculture, industry,
education, and the environment. It supports more than 5,000 projects with a budget of $1.1
billion (2002-2003). It is the largest multilateral source of grant development assistance. The
World Bank, at the forefront in mobilizing support for developing countries worldwide, has as
of March 2002, disbursed loans outstanding totalled at $120 billion. In addition, UNICEF
spent more than one billion in 2001, primarily on immunization, health care, nutrition, and
basic education in 138 countries. (For achievements, see www.un.org/Overview/achieve.html)
The developing countries require assistance to strengthen their economies. The World
Bank Group, with its market-promotional policies, plays an active role in lending money and
providing technical assistance and policy advice. The group is comprised of the International
Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the International Development Association, which
provides credits to the poorest nations, and the International Finance Cooperation, which both
give loans in order to finance the private sectors in the developing countries. Another
financing institution is the International Monetary Fund (IMF). In accordance with the
Charter, the IMF is supposed to be the multilateral instrument for “coherent macro-economic
policies designed to achieve the Charter’s economic and social goals”. Even if the Fund does
not play the central role as foreseen, it has a crucial responsibility in providing temporary
credits to Member States experiencing “balance-of-payments difficulties” and financial
support of economic adjustment programmes.
Other institutions provide assistance, such as: the World Trade Organization, which has
the responsibility of overseeing international trade; the United Nations Industrial
Development Organization, which is mandated to promote industrial development and
cooperation; the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), for rural development; the
International Labor Organization (ILO); the World Health Organization (WHO); the United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organizations (UNESCO); and many others that
are all part of the development framework. All of these organizations share a common goal to
advance the Charter’s pledge to “promote higher standards of living, full employment and
conditions of economic and social progress and development.”
4.2 The Interface between Disaster Relief and Development
Societies affected by natural or man-made disasters need international assistance in

order to recover and return to “normal” conditions. Therefore, it is necessary to understand
that the transition from emergency to development requires a sound and comprehensive
rehabilitation phase in order to minimize the probability of a reiteration of the emergency. In
other words, there is a need for a concerted effort to eliminate the root causes. Subsequently,
the rehabilitation phase requires a firm policy that links not only the rehabilitation, but also
the relief activities to the future development activities. In theory, this is very clear, but in
practice it is more difficult.
Since relief activities focus on providing the basics for survival, such as food, water,
shelter, medical supplies, and protection, it is essential to find the mechanisms and actors
which promote conditions essential to restore this process towards development. The
rehabilitation tools that bridge relief and development are sometimes difficult to obtain
initially, but ought to include activities, such as conditions for security and stability,
strengthening the social fabric, rebuilding damaged infrastructure, the promotion and
protection of human rights, and the reintegration of displaced persons. Under these
conditions, disparities within a nation, and the involvement of local, national, regional, and
international actors can foster an atmosphere that can become highly sensitive.
As indicated, the interface between disaster relief and development covers a wide range
of activities – some of them are far-reaching both in terms of scope and permanency, while
others are more limited. Therefore, it is essential that field operators have an understanding of
which policy will prevail in terms of rehabilitation and development. They must subsequently
adopt approaches that include the consultation and participation by the local population and
culture without weakening national or local authorities or other formal structures.
4.3 Humanitarian Imperatives
Humanitarian imperatives can never be limited to just

emergency operations. They must be considered as part of
the overall strategy regardless of if it applies to emergencies
or development. The humanitarian imperatives, which are
not a part of the overriding political strategy, must concur
within the political concept if a peace process is to be fully
achieved. Human interaction, therefore, is a key concept if
goals such as social welfare, justice, and peace are to be
settled.
Disaster Relief and Humanitarian Operations

In the 60s, 70s and 80s, the international community’s
response to various emergencies, such as disaster relief, was
well established and focused on providing relief to
Figure 2: Humanitarian populations suffering from natural disasters such as droughts
Imperatives. Cyprus 1964.
and flooding. Unfortunately, the aid or relief activities ceased
when the most urgent requirements were met, and the opportunity to formulate a durable
curative strategy (such as development) was often missing. The end of the Cold War saw
other types of disasters, where man-made emergencies caused by injustice, ethnic/religious
conflicts, and political power struggles became more frequent. These kinds of emergencies
produced more uncontrollable conditions since they contained political violence, civil unrest,
and breakdowns of democratic and even state institutions. All this changed the concept of
disaster relief, and the world community recognized that the response to crisis in this new
political environment was far more complex than in the past. Traditional disaster relief
operations were combined with military units for the protection of humanitarian mandates,
and even enforcement actions with the use of force became a reality. Development became an
even more important part in the efforts to achieve a durable peace.
Under these circumstances, the humanitarian consequences of sanctions or other

enforcement activities must be contemplated. Unfortunately, economic sanctions may cause
shortages of commodities of vital importance for the population in the long run, and the use of
force, if excessively used, may affect the infrastructure and even cause fatalities. (The most
criticized sanctions against Iraq may serve as an example.) Even though some of these
operations were authorized under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, UN personnel
are still required to remain neutral and impartial in their overall objectives. Under some
circumstances, when the use of force became a necessity and was operationally performed,
the United Nations was sometimes accused of being an aggressor, resulting in serious political
and humanitarian consequences. As a result, some humanitarian organizations, particularly
NGOs, became reluctant to cooperate since they believed that a possible linkage to the
military or to United Nations policy might jeopardize their own independence and, even
worse, the whole humanitarian mandate. Even if some reluctance still exists, the last years
have witnessed clear improvements in the civil/military relationship.
The Humanitarian Dimension

The new – or perhaps quite old – pattern of conflicts and wars emerging towards the end
of the 20th century challenged the international community intellectually, politically, and
morally. Civil societies and governments increasingly conducted civil or intrastate wars in
which civilians, civilian resources, social, economic, and cultural structures were targeted.
Contemporary wars seem to be increasingly societal with violence directed at civil
institutions. Under these conditions, the ordinary citizens suffered the most. Emergency
assistance, followed by peace building, rehabilitation, reconstruction and other confidence-
building measures are the pillars in the re-establishment of the normality lost in a society torn
apart by war or similar emergencies. Development has been the curative strategy in the re-
building efforts. Although the international community is able to ease the living conditions, as
well as to bring peace and development to affected areas, it has been apparent that conditions
other than the traditional political and socio-economic notions must be recognized if a durable
peace is to be achieved.
With the involvement of various components including the military, it is essential to

keep the humanitarian imperatives in mind when these kinds of operations are implemented.
As part of an overall strategy, humanitarian aid must be provided in light of political realities,
and subsequently, aid activities must be integrated with and replaced by indigenous political,
security, and humanitarian structures. Thus, the humanitarian dimension of political problems
must be considered, and human needs must be considered and linked to the political solutions.
In this perspective, the social and economic relationships must be understood as well. Apart
from the strategic aspects, the new dimension of humanitarian aid also comprises a broader
agenda. Assistance to create new institutions and capacity-building entities, as well as
demining, demobilization, integration of refugees, monitoring of human rights issues, gender
issues, and the need to strengthen the social fabric, promote burden sharing, all of which
involve humanitarian actors. This demands a coherent view of humanitarian problems, as well
as an operational coordination in the field where the analysis of the roots and causes must be
linked to the treatment of symptoms as part of the development strategy. In order to meet
these challenges, the Executive Committee on Humanitarian Affairs (ECHA) was created by
the Secretary-General in the framework of the UN reform. With the aim of enhancing the
coordination between UN agencies in various fields, the ECHA is composed of executives at
the highest level who meet on a monthly basis in New York.
Reconciliation
The experiences from the last few decades of inter- and intrastate conflicts have indeed
indicated that the human wounds from a conflict in which many have suffered can only be
cured if preceded by a healing process and reconciliation. Such reconciliation may take
different forms. While national reconciliation may refer to the reinstitution of psychological,
cultural, economic, and political conditions, the human reconciliation may involve
participatory dialogs between former adversaries and/or between brothers and enemies.
Today, there is no normative system for the reconciliation processes. Governmental
organizations are – with a few exceptions – not geared to handling these deeply human
aspects of complex conflicts, and very little is understood about the process that has inspired
people to go through genuine reconciliation and forgiveness. But even if the importance of the
reconciliation process is accepted as a steppingstone in achieving sustainable peace and
development, it is still an open question of how the international community can best
implement reconciliation as an indisputable part of the peace process.
People-Centered Activities − Roles of the UNVs

Recognizing these humanitarian perspectives, the UN has adopted a people-centered
strategy that involves the local population and makes sure that projects and other similar
activities are well anchored in that community. Development, humanitarian activities in a
peace operation, and reconciliation require the involvement of local people. No project can be
decided and implemented with just a top-down approach. In order to achieve full success and
to bridge for a continuation within the concerned local community, it is essential that the local
population be involved from the very outset of the project, which creates a more people-
centered assumption of responsibility. Therefore, it is paramount that local needs and
interests be well expressed in decisions as well as in subsequent implementation. But
likewise, it is important that the project/activity makes use of local knowledge and skill. Even
if this goes without saying, it has not always been implemented. The fact is that the
project/activity requires a strategy that concerns approaches and methods in getting people
involved in projects that effect their lives and living conditions. Consequently, the indigenous
population must be engaged, encouraged, motivated, and also empowered if they are to fully
participate in a project.
Over the course of many years, the United Nations has played an increasing role in the
promotion of this people-centered approach in which participatory development, gender, and
human rights/international humanitarian law have been essential components. UNDP, in
particular, has promoted these three particular areas, which are the foundation for social
justice, human well-being, and peace.
4.4 Distinctions/Similarities between Human Rights Law and International

Humanitarian Law (IHL)
In general, International Humanitarian Law (IHL) applies to the prevailing conditions in

war or similar circumstances, while Human Rights (HR) pertains to peaceful conditions. As
such, they are complementary as they seek to protect individuals in different circumstances
and in different ways.
In the United Nations field operations, there is sometimes a misinterpretation about the
applications of HR and IHL. Therefore, it is essential to clarify both the distinctions as well as
the similarities between these two bodies of international law.
The Human Rights Law is, on one hand, the inherent and fundamental right of all
people. It guarantees rights and freedoms while ensuring every person can fully evolve in the
society as well as protect himself/herself against every kind of abuse. These rights are linked
to national laws and to the constitutions of States. The Human Rights Law also adheres to the
international law of human rights (protection of human rights), which are the rules that States
have agreed to observe with regards to rights and freedoms of individuals.
International Humanitarian Law, on the other hand, is applicable in inter- or intrastate

armed conflicts and provides: (i) the standards for protection of conflict victims (Law of
Geneva); and (ii) rules related to means and methods of combat and conduct of hostilities
(Law of The Hague). These two sets of laws have been merged in the two Protocols additional
to the Geneva Convention, adopted in 1977 and sometimes known as the Law of War. Thus, it
can be stated that the Human Rights Law is more applicable in times of peace and stability,
while International Humanitarian Law aims at safeguarding the fundamental rights of non-
combatants and victims of armed conflicts.
The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) and
the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) are the two principal organizations
responsible for the extent at which the HR and IHL are applicable, as well as which
mechanisms can be used for the implementation of these two interconnected sets of law. In
emergency operations the two organizations work in partnership with various civilian and
military components.
4.5 Human Rights (HR) and Principles for Protection of Human Rights
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with
reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS (Art. 1),
Adopted by General Assembly Resolution 217 A (III) of 10 December 1948.
Human rights are the only universal and overriding instruments that set out our rights as
global citizens and individuals. The instruments consist of civilian and political rights, as well
as economic, social and cultural rights, which are all based on respect, dignity and the worth
of each individual. They are all interdependent, indivisible, and equally important.
(www.unhcr.org)
Establishment
There is a renewed consciousness of the rights of every human being to decide and
control his/her own destiny. Human Rights have become the universal principle that may
even overrule strictly traditional notions of national sovereignty, particularly when the
sovereignty no longer does justice to the aspirations of peoples in attaining their fundamental
freedoms. The League of Nations, the predecessor to the UN, acknowledged human rights.
When the Charter of the United Nations was drafted and ratified, it reaffirmed the Founders’
faith in human rights, and in 1946, the Commission on Human Rights was established under
Economic and Social Council Resolution 9. Since then, a great number of various
declarations, conventions and protocols have been adopted, which have progressively
increased during the elapsed years. The development indicates the rising awareness of Human
Rights as one of the most fundamental principles envisaged in the Charter of the United
Nations. Today, the Human Rights instruments have a global impact not only on the
individual human being, but also on a foundation of international peace and security and
promotion of development.
Instruments
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948 sets out a list of basic rights − a
"common standard of achievement" for “everyone in the world, whatever their race, colour,
sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or
other status.” Two instruments, both adopted in 1968, later followed the Declaration: The
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights; and the International
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights with corresponding Optional Protocol. The three
together constitute what is called the International Bill of Human Rights. The last convent
also provided the establishment of the Humana Rights Committee. The close link to
International Humanitarian Law was further underscored in 1977 by the Diplomatic
Conference on the Reaffirmation and Development of International Humanitarian Law
applicable in Armed Conflicts, which adopted the Protocol additional to the Geneva
Conventions of August 12, 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-
International Armed Conflicts (Protocol II). For further information about all the various
chronological events of human rights issues, visit www.unhcr.ch/chrono.htm.
One of the most important events in the development of Human Rights was the World
Conference on Human Rights in Vienna in 1993, at which the States were recommended to
draw up an action plan in order to identify steps where the States would improve the
promotion and protection of human rights – the Vienna Declaration and Programme of
Action. The comprehensiveness and complexity of human rights raised the demand for a
mechanism empowered to promote and monitor human rights globally and independently.
The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) was
created, which currently is the principal organization of human rights. The mandate of
OHCHR is derived from the Charter (Art. 1, 13 and 15) and General Assembly resolution of
December 1993.
Functions
Today, OHCHR channels its work concerning promotion and protection of HR through
three branches, which are responsible for: (i) research and strategy development; (ii) technical
assistance to countries; and (iii) support to the United Nations human rights bodies. Through
the Technical Cooperation Programme, OHCHR assists States in building and strengthening
national structures for the overall observance of human rights and maintenance of the rule of
law. This is done through various approaches. At the institutional level there are treaty-
monitoring bodies which monitor implementation of the principal (six) treaties. At request,
States may also be given assistance in the training (training courses) of armed forces, police
forces, or the legal profession, as well as “advisory service for the incorporation of
international human rights norms and standards into the national legislation.” Promotion and
protection of HR can also be done through special rapporteurs or through the establishment of
a long-term presence, along with a field presence, which may include monitoring components.
But the most fundamental right is that anyone may bring a human rights problem to the
attention of the United Nations, which is done by thousands of people every year.
The reporting mechanisms are an essential part of the monitoring system. A report on a
human rights violation must describe the facts, the purpose of the report, and the human rights
that have been violated. Abusive language or insulting remarks about the concerned State is
not tolerated, and the inclusion of any such language may cause the report to not be
considered. Violations can be communicated from individuals or groups who claim to be
victims of violations or from any person or group of people that have direct, reliable
knowledge of violations. When non-governmental organizations (NGOs) present
communications on violations, the conditions are “that the NGO is acting in good faith in
accordance with recognized principles of human rights, and that it has direct, reliable
evidence of the situation it is describing.” (OHCHR Fact Sheet 7, communication procedures)
Human Rights and Development

UNDP, as the major organization responsible for development, has put human rights
into the context of development, thus recognizing the needs for a more explicit human rights
link to the developmental concept.
“Human rights and sustainable human development are interdependent and mutually
reinforcing. Development is unsustainable where the rule of law and equity do not
exist; where ethnic, religious or sexual discrimination are rampant; where there are
restrictions on free speech, free association and the media; or where large numbers of
people live in abject and degrading poverty. Similarly, human rights are enhanced
when gender equity or poverty reduction programmes empower people to become
aware of and claim their rights.” (UNDP 1998)
The UNDP statement further reinforces that human rights are the most universal
documents to which the international community adheres. Even if the Commission of Human
Rights was established under the ECOSOC and, thus, from the beginning more of an
economic and social concern, further development has clearly indicated the importance of the
human rights issue.
Human Rights and Peace Operations

OHCHR’s support of human rights bodies has recently been expanded to include the
whole United Nations system. In peacekeeping, within its area of responsibility, the
Organization provides assistance in terms of human rights information, advisory service,
legislative analysis and training. Recognizing the respect for human rights as a fundamental
mechanism in promoting peace and security, the OHCHR and the United Nations Department
of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) have a close cooperation. The establishment of an inter-
departmental team that works on issues like planning, establishment, and institutional
arrangements for human rights components of peacekeeping operations, as well as the training
of staff personnel, increases the combined effectiveness of United Nations peacekeeping and
human rights activities.
The involvement in both development and peacekeeping provides a natural linkage to

and the implementation of human rights. Several hundreds of military and civilian
professionals have provided necessary information and knowledge to vulnerable populations
and, thus, participated in establishing an understanding and respect for the rights of each
individual and society.
Figure 3: A child's opinion.

4.6 Principles and Applications of International Humanitarian Law (IHL)
As previously stated, IHL is based on the Law of Geneva, more commonly known as
the Geneva Conventions of 1949, and the Law of The Hague. The two sets of laws
respectively deal with the (i) protections of persons who are not participating in the conflict
(non-combatants) and (ii) limitation of methods and means of warfare. (See www.icrc.org)
Law of Geneva (Geneva Conventions of 1949)

The document is the principal instrument for the protection and aid to all victims of war
and evolves around the four Geneva Conventions of 1949. They are:
- First Convention, which protects the wounded and sick in armed forces in the field;
- Second Convention, which protects the wounded, sick, and shipwrecked among armed
forces at sea;
- Third Convention, which protects prisoners of war;
- Fourth Convention, which protects civilians.
Each Convention of the Geneva Conventions is headed under three provisions: (i) the
General Provisions that deal with the respect for the convention and their application in
international conflict, followed by a number of articles with provisions about the duration of
application, special agreement which Contracting Parties may conclude, the right of protected
persons, duties of Protecting Powers, activities of the ICRC and the conciliation procedure
between Contracting Parties; (ii) Repression of Breaches of the Conventions; and (iii) the
Final Provisions which defines “the procedures for the signature, ratification.”
Law of The Hague

This body of law is based on two fundamental principles, namely, those of military
necessity and those of humanity, “which together mean that only those actions necessary for
defeat of the opposing side are allowed, whereas those which uselessly cause suffering or
loses are forbidden.” Thus, the purpose of the law is to regulate the choice of the targets and
the use of weapons. As such, the law regulates the conduct of hostilities on land, sea, and air
and also sets the rules respecting the rights and duties of neutral powers as well as regulations
on the use of specific weapons and ammunition.
Of special interest is that the law binds individuals as well as states. Members of armed
forces who are found guilty of committing or authorizing unlawful acts may be tried by legal
bodies of their own state or, due to certain circumstances, by equivalent bodies of other states.
The establishment of the two War Crimes Tribunals in former Yugoslavia and Rwanda are
examples of this.
Summary of the Provisions of International Humanitarian Law

At present the two sets of laws (the Law of Geneva and the Law of The Hague) have
been merged into two Protocols additional to the Geneva Conventions and adopted in 1977,
whereby Protocol I strengthens the protection of victims of international armed conflicts, and
Protocol II strengthens the protection of victims of non-international (internal) conflicts.
The following seven points are a summary of the provisions of International

Humanitarian Law. However, it must be clearly stated that the seven points do “not have the
force of an international legal instrument and is in no way intended to replace the treaties in
force.” It is designed to facilitate dissemination of international humanitarian law.
(Understanding Humanitarian Law, International Committee of the Red Cross, Sept. 1983)
1. Persons hors de combat and those who do not take a direct part in hostilities are entitled to
the respect of their lives and their moral and physical integrity. They shall, in all
circumstances, be protected and treated in a humane way, without any adverse distinction.
2. It is forbidden to kill or injure an enemy who surrenders or who is hors de combat.
3. The wounded and sick shall be collected and cared for by the party to the conflict and who
has them in its power. Protection also covers medical personnel, establishments, transports
and equipment. The emblem of the Red Cross or the Red Crescent is the sign of such
protection and must be respected.
4. Captured combatants and civilians under the authority of an adverse party are entitled to the
respect for their lives, dignity, personal rights, and convictions. They shall be protected
against all acts of violence and reprisals. They shall have the right to correspond with their
families and to receive relief.
5. Everyone shall be entitled to benefit from fundamental judicial guarantees. No one shall be
held responsible for an act he/she has not committed. No one shall be subjected to physical or
mental torture, corporal punishment, or cruel and degrading treatment.
6. Parties to a conflict and members of their armed forces do not have an unlimited choice of
methods and means of warfare. It is prohibited to employ weapons or methods of warfare of a
nature to cause unnecessary losses or excessive suffering.
7. Parties to a conflict shall at all times distinguish between the civilian population and
combatants in order to spare the civilian population and property. Neither the civilian
population nor civilian persons shall be the objects of attack. Attacks shall be directed solely
against military objectives.
Thus, it may be said that the IHL and its application to the field is the guiding
instrument for those concerned in a conflict or in a post-conflict area where certain rules have
to apply. Aid workers and others working in (former) war zones must understand the
principles of IHL in order to observe and report breaches of these principles. However, it must
be understood that although IHL applies to international human rights standards, including but
not always limited to humanitarian law, it also applies to situations of armed conflicts.
Figure 4: Civilians fleeing the war between Sudan

and Ethiopia. UNHCR photo, S. Lahusen 1995.
Learning Questions
Knowledge
Why should development be regarded as a tool to maintain international peace and security?
What is the purpose of reconciliation?
How can people-centered activities further strengthen development?
What are the objectives and purposes of the Law of Geneva?
What is the purpose of the Law of The Hague?
What are the objectives and purposes of Human Rights?
What are the preconditions for an individual to report on any human rights violation?
What are the principal instruments of the International Humanitarian Law?
What are the two most fundamental principles in limiting military warfare?
Awareness
What is the essence of the strategic concept for development?
What is your opinion on the World Bank and its support to the developing countries?
How can “humanitarian imperatives” contribute to a peace process?
How would you describe the differences between national and human reconciliation?
How would you describe the link between a relief operation and development?
How would you describe the differences and similarities between Human Rights and
Humanitarian Law?
Under what circumstances are the two sets of laws applicable?
Applications
1. As a teacher for your hometown college, you and your second-year students are
discussing the United Nations’ role in maintaining peace and security. One of the students
asks you why so much money is spent on peacekeeping and similar operations and less on
development. How will you answer?
2. Recognizing the interest among the students, you would like to know their awareness and
understanding of Human Rights. You decide to give a multiple-choice test. List five
essential questions you think are the most appropriate.
LESSON 4
END-OF-LESSON QUIZ
1. The best key interfacing element between the development and maintenance of peace and
security is conflict prevention through, for example, the development of social and
economic justice.
a. True
b. False
2. How much of the United Nations budget is devoted to development?

a. 60%
b. 70%
c. 40%
d. 20%
3. The United Nations Development Programme:

a. Is the main coordinator of development assistance;
b. Formulates the policy concerning development;
c. Is the principal body for the environmental activities;
d. Addresses the issues of economic and social development.
4. The description “instrument for coherent macro-economic policies designed to achieve the
Charter’s economic and social goals” applies to:
a. The World Bank Group;
b. The World Trade Organization;
c. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development;
d. The International Monetary Fund.
5. Why are the humanitarian imperatives so essential in the transition from

emergency to development?
a. Because it must be considered as a part of the overriding strategy;
b. It must concur with the political concept;
c. It is a capstone in achieving sustainable peace and development;
d. It is a bridge for continuing work with local communities.
6. Which statement is correct?

a. The HR is the fundamental rights of all people;
b. The IHL provides the standards for conflict victims;
c. The IHL relates to the means and methods of combat and conduct of
hostilities;
7. The principal organization responsible for HR is:

a. OHCHR;
b. UNHCR;
c. ICRC;
d. International Court of Justice (ICJ).
8. The International Bill of Human Rights consists of the International Covenant on

Economic, Social and Culture Rights and the International Convent on Civil and Political
Right.
a. True
b. False
9. The World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna was held in:

a. 1993
b. 1977
c. 1946
d. 1968
10. A human rights problem can be brought to the attention of the United Nations by:
a. Special rapporteurs;
b. Anyone;
c. States;
d. Representatives of the UNHCHR (UN High Commissioner for Human Rights).
11. The Geneva Convention and the Law of The Hague deal, respectively, with: (i) protection
of person who are participating in armed conflicts; and (ii) limitations of methods and
means of warfare.
a. True
b. False
LESSON 4
ANSWER KEY
1. a. True
2. b. 70%
3. a. Is the main coordinator of development assistance
4. d. International Monetary fund
5. b. It must concur with the political concept
7. a. OHCHR
8. b. False
9. a. 1993
10. b. Anyone
11. b. False

LESSON 5
THE ENVIRONMENTS
Learning Objectives
• Key questions
Introduction

• Working Environment
• Local Environment
• Gender Issues

• General Conditions
• Missions and Mission Headquarters
• Military and Civilian Entities

• Background
• Functions

• General Conditions
• Security Provided by Military Organizations
• Provisions by Other Entities
Learning Questions
• Knowledge
• Awareness
• Applications
Lesson 5 / The Environments 74
LESSON 5
Learning Objectives
The political and operational context of an operation is essential to have a clear

understanding of the working environment. In an emergency, the knowledge of the culture
and local customs, as well as an awareness about the security, are prerequisites if the Field
Operators (FOs) are going to be successful in their performances. Apart from the tasks given
to the FO, they also may encounter significant difficulties if they do not fully understand the
prevailing conditions. Lesson 5 provides the student with some background information that
is necessary in order to fully appreciate the Lessons concerning “Demands and Duties” and
“Safety and Security.”
Why it is so important to understand the environment where your work is going to be carried
out?
What are the most significant elements you have to consider in the locale?
What are the major obstacles, in terms of environmental issues, you may face in a mission?
What are the major functions of a CIMIC office?
What kind of security can a military force provide?

Introduction
The environment in which the field operator is going to work is complex. In particular,
it concerns the local environment, with its specific habits and cultures and the mission itself as
a multicultural society with representation from a great number of countries. Last but not
least, the security environment with its own obligations and demands, to which the FOs have
to be both responsive and attainable.
A solid educational background and professional experience are the fundamental

elements in recruitment and selection of personnel. Apart from these criteria the social
competence − to cope and deal with human nature − should also be of concern. Behavioural
principles, such as socializing, forming friendships, understanding and accepting new habits,
and adjusting to others’ cultures are as important as education and working experience, and
they are prerequisites if the work is to be successful. To this respect, confidence and
accountability are the key words. Consequently, prospective Field Operators should make
every effort to prepare for the assignment by making use of official reports, information about
the mission, public libraries, and conversations with others who have experience in the
specific area. In addition, a positive attitude, an open mind, and a fair sense of humour are
valuable assets in daily work.
Working Environment
Assignments within the United Nations system offer a variety of tasks. It may be duties
in either a small office, at the countryside, or in a large office building in the capital.
Whatever condition exists, the tasks are challenging.
To work with a development project is normally a positive experience but a challenge as

well. Although there is a favourable attitude among the locals, the FO will frequently find
resources scarce, particularly in developing countries. The manpower itself is seldom an
issue. However, the lack of technical skill, technical means, and sometimes also the absence
of sufficient project funding are scarce. Ineffective bureaucracy, miscommunication or just
insufficient planning might be reasons for these inadequacies. Discrepancies or weak
relationships between locals and local institutions may negatively influence the work. In
societies affected by war or similar events, the challenges are far more complex and difficult
than in “normal” development processes. Shortages of human resources, destroyed
infrastructures (roads, communications etc.), insecure environments, and political and military
volatility produce a level of complexity that is not easy to cope with. The loss of trust, dignity
and confidence, combined with the destruction of relationships or loss of relatives, may create
an individual or collective trauma that can also, under these circumstances, cause a potential
danger. All this will indeed broaden the agenda of the field operators.
Local Environment
Cultural shock is the natural response when an individual is taken from his/her own
national and ethnic environment and placed in another. This can often result in feelings of
discomfort or disorientation. Some people deal with the problem more effectively than others,
and those who have the benefit of previous assignments will overcome the event more quickly
than ‘first-timers’. The local environment is per se a potential dilemma if it is not seriously
considered. The language problem, with no means of communication except through
interpretation, may create a sense of isolationism. The food, the climate, and poor living
conditions may increase the feeling of unpleasantness, which will be further aggravated by the
absence of loved ones. The mission environment and/or the local culture and habits are other
factors that will affect the field operator. These characteristics are extremely important and
may become problematic issues if field operators work alone, independently and sometimes
without sufficient guidance.
Equally important is a careful assessment of the health environment. The living

quarters, type of accommodation, medical facilities, availability of food, and quality of water
have to be included in the overall assessment of the environment. Inadequate housing may
cause health problems, and if little or no attention is paid to these matters, the field operators
may encounter problems that may jeopardize further work. Even if the living quarters are of
undesirable quality, they can be fully acceptable if well maintained, cleaned, and always kept
neat and tidy. Temporarily employed local cleaners should always be carefully instructed in
order to keep up with the required standards. Food and water should always be protected
from flies and other insects, and the whole building should be disinfected frequently.
To buy food at the local market is a pleasure, particularly if the FO has a genuine
interest in cooking. Vegetables, fresh meat and fish are sometimes exposed to bacteria, and a
familiarity with the market and the quality of the various products is a must before a shopping
excursion. Even if a local cook is employed, that does not guarantee the quality of the food.
The ability to digest the various local dishes should not be used as a sporting measure of the
field operator’s adjustment to local conditions.
Water is another problem. While developed countries may consume 200 liters per
person per day, this is far from what may be acceptable in areas with scare sources of water.
Field operators need to be observant.
An excessive use of water in areas with
a very limited quantity will be regarded
as an offensive act. Water in tropical
areas should be assumed as polluted or
infested in one way or another until the
quality is guaranteed. The absence of
purification facilities, even in good
hotels, may result in infected swimming
pools and tap water and, thus, should not
be considered as potable water. Even ice
cubes should be regarded with
suspicion. The use of bottled water,
Figure 1: ACIF tubwell in Mynmar. bottled soft drinks and, in the field,
A. Hollman, January 1997. boiled water is recommended.
In this respect, personal hygiene should not be forgotten. A hot climate does not
normally cause severe problems, but in combination with a high level of humidity, if one does
not take care of their personal hygiene, they can expect to have a very unpleasant experience.
Under these circumstances it is important for the FO to keep their personal hygiene on a high
standard but also to advise others (mission personnel) who may be less attentive to a tidy
appearance.
The “health environment” includes the availability and quality of medical facilities.
Infected syringes, needles, and/or other medical equipment may cause severe diseases,
including deadly HIV infections. The FO must carefully assess the situation. In a well-
established mission, this is not a matter of major concern, since the mission has probably
established safe and reliable support from a local hospital or through its own medical unit.
However, FOs deployed far from these facilities must ensure that they may receive medical
treatment when and if necessary.
Gender Issues
Gender issues should be well respected in its cultural context. Social rules governing
the relations between men and women often have different norms from one culture to the
next, so what may be interpreted as innocent behaviour in one cultural context may be taken
as an offence against the accepted norms in another. Personnel must never engage in or
threaten to commit any act that could result in physical, sexual or psychological harm or
suffering of women or children. Such acts include rape, sexual abuse, sexual harassment,
intimidation, trafficking, and forced prostitution. Even if sexual conduct may be accepted at
home, it may not be accepted in the mission or the mission area due to cultural differences.
Neither field personnel nor the local population are not to be viewed as objects to be trifled
with. Therefore, personnel should not be involved in any sexual behaviour or relationships
that may lessen the credibility of or bring reproach to the employing organization (e.g., the
United Nations). They should not jeopardize the effectiveness of the organization, operation,
or the work. The field operators’ personal behaviour, appearance and professional
performance are the tools necessary to bring the project to a successful end.
However, gender issues are much more than abuses, harassment, or trafficking. Gender
in the political context includes the advancement of women, the recognition of the differences
between men and women (as well as their different needs), women’s self-reliance, and the
promotion of social and economic equality. Briefly, women (as well as men) have to be fully
recognized in their respective roles. In all United Nations programmes and activities gender
issues are fully integrated,
and the gender perspectives
are a key element in most
development aid activities.
Gender Mainstreaming is
nowadays a globally
accepted strategy for
promoting gender equality.
The Security Council
Resolution from 2000
(1325) further emphasizes
the gender perspectives in
peace support operations,
as well as in all stages of a
peace process.
(www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/)
Figure 2: Unification.
General Conditions
The political, humanitarian and socio-economic dimensions of an emergency have
dramatically increased the demands for other types of missions, which are more civilian in
character. The emergency itself, the initial lack of coordination, the intensive media-watch,
and the potential donors’ requests for immediate access and information create uncontestable
demands to understand and coop with the situation to make necessary decisions. This requires
not only knowledge of the UN system but also a good understanding of military systems (if
employed), as well as knowledge of the capacities and mandates of various collaborating
international governmental and non-governmental aid organizations.
The size of the mission is dependent on the mandate and may consist of thousands of
personnel or just a few. Various nationalities with different educations and/or ethnic
backgrounds create a diversified atmosphere, which initially is a challenge in and of itself.
The cultural and educational distinctions involve not only national habits and customs but also
differences in values. Different behaviours may cause a mandate to be interpreted differently,
and even the assessment of the current situation may cause discrepancies. Initial priority
should be paid to the process of formulating some coherence about the mandate/task and to
find some commonalties in a code-of-conduct. The language barrier may also cause some
concerns not only in terms of understanding but also in terms of the value and interpretation
of certain words or phrases. In a non-military mission, it might be easier for a civilian field
operator to adopt himself or herself into the existing culture. But in the military, the civilian
field operator may find a kind of camaraderie, which can be difficult to penetrate. The
military vocabulary, performance, and uniformed appearance may also present some initial
obstacles. Civil and military organizations are aware of this militarism and have established
an agenda for civilian/military cooperation (CIMIC), in order to improve the relationship.
Missions and Mission Headquarters

The mission headquarters and its composition reflect the mandate. Components
responsible for the various tasks as authorized by the mandate are generally under the
authority of the Head of Mission. Such a mission headquarters is normally deployed in an
urban area and most often in the capital, enabling coordination and a liaison with national
officials. Large missions with an impact on the region have liaison offices established in the
neighbouring countries. Sub-headquarters, offices, and sub-offices are located at other places
in the country or in the mission area. Mission headquarters have a blend of civilian and
military personnel, particularly when the mandate is geared to a complex emergency situation.
As with all bureaucratic organization, the field operator will find difficulties in finding
appropriate offices and persons to discuss and ventilate problems. Occasionally, the field
operator may encounter problems that have come to be called “mission culture.”
In complex operations, the military force will have its own headquarters. Mission
personnel (mostly military personnel) from a variety of countries provide a kaleidoscope of
ideas and approaches that may sometimes be difficult to grasp. In a headquarters of
considerable size, often consisting of hundreds of soldiers, this fact is more obvious and
further highlighted by the very distinct military behaviour and appearance. Military
headquarters are typically well-structured organizations based on a hierarchical system with
strict rules and regulations. All personnel are disciplined and trained under similar conditions,
and all ranks are dressed in uniforms. Officers and soldiers behave in a certain way; they
normally have a smart appearance, and their performance is both decisive and demanding.
Personnel have a loyalty to their unit, task, and country, and within all ranks a strong military
comradeship exists. In some cases, it can be difficult to understand and penetrate this “corpe
d’esprit.”
A force is organized into headquarters, operational units, and supporting elements.

Headquarters consist of various sections and units structured in a similar way all over the
world. Although headquarters are well-structured and easily recognized, the civilian field
operator may experience difficulties in finding his/her way around this labyrinth of strange
abbreviations such as G2, G3, Ops., Log., etc. How are they organized? Who is who? Who is
the key person? Where to knock at the door – and which door? All these are fundamental
questions to be answered if the FO wants to understand and later use the system. It is of great
advantage to learn the system as soon as possible. It will be appreciated by the military, and it
will indeed facilitate the FOs in their forthcoming collaboration with the force. In an
emergency operation with a multi-dimensional composition, this is of great importance since
vital support and protection may be provided by the military.
Military and Civilian Entities

In addition to the force level missions, there are observers or verification missions
(mission level), sometimes combined and/or under the command of a force level mission. The
missions have headquarters, a small staff, operational units consisting of small teams of two
or three unarmed observers, and a supporting element. These types of missions employ
uniformed military professionals and “civilian” reserve officers who have been assigned tasks
such as supervising a cease-fire and/or an armistice agreement, verifying the withdrawal of
troops, demobilization (monitoring border areas) and a number of other tasks. As for the
mission headquarters, these observers or civilian police missions have a headquarters
reflecting the mandate. Headquarters, sub-offices and other elements are rather small, have a
friendly atmosphere, but do not have the same supporting capacity as the military force’s
headquarters. Although the “military observer” missions have been rather successful,
demands for non-military involvement were raised. As a result, the beginning of the 90s
witnessed contingents of several hundreds of civilian police officers. Their "unarmed"
presence and non-military appearance made them more politically acceptable than military
observers. Their tasks are comprised primarily of monitoring/counselling local police
activities regarding basic security and law-and-order (e.g., criminal investigation,
arrest/detention and crowd control). In the last few years, their duties have been further
expanded to include training and assistance in the creation of reliable police forces in
countries where law and order resources were not adequate. (See also Lesson 3)
With the expansion of United Nations field operations other types of missions, special
purpose missions, were established such as: general monitoring missions; geographical
observers mission (e.g., UNHCOI – monitoring food distribution in Iraq), “weapon
destruction verifiers” (UNSCOM later UNMOVIC in Iraq); election monitors; election
observers; and EC monitors. In general, those missions only employ civilians, although some
with a military background, whose functional titles, like supervisors, monitors and observers,
indicate the level of responsibility. Such mission headquarters provide basic assistance in
terms of administration, transportation, communication, and medical support and also provide
some general information about their tasks.
Other missions may lack a stringent structure and, thus, exclude personnel from any
administrative or guiding support. Development projects are frequently sited far away, and
personnel may be forced to rely on their own competence and innovations.
Figure 3: Food distribution.
These projects may be managed by a UN agency, such as the UNDP or some other
UN-related organization. However, they may also be autonomous under the chapeau of an
international, national or non-governmental organization. Not seldom, several organizations
are deployed at the same site. Frequent meetings are crucial and beneficial to make necessary
coordinations or just to exchange information. This, together with socializing, creates a good
working atmosphere and may ease the feeling of isolation. Likewise, it is important to involve
the local actors, not only as professionals, but also as human beings. As for the mission
headquarters, it is an advantage to understand and know who the key persons are and how
they can be contacted.
Background
There are different interpretations of the terms disaster relief operation, humanitarian
actions, and humanitarian assistance operations. In general, disaster relief operations aim at
easing the living conditions for populations severely affected by a natural disaster, while
humanitarian actions or humanitarian assistance are mandated due to man-made disasters
caused by political and/or social or economic conflicts. If the distinction is accepted, it might
be stated that relief operations are carried out under circumstances when the political and
security environment is relatively stable, and the delivery of the necessary commodities such
as food, water, shelter and medical supplies are primarily logistics operations. When it comes
to humanitarian emergencies caused by volatile conflicts, the circumstances and the security
environment are significantly different. The conditions are characterized by political
instability, civil unrest, a non-secure environment, and perhaps violence. Consequently, these
humanitarian actions or assistance operations must address both human suffering and the
rights of civilians under international law to be protected from discrimination, violence, and
other serious violations of human rights.
Humanitarian action operations require both civilian and military elements. The
civilians bring in necessary supplies through various non-governmental organizations and
United Nations aid
agencies, while the
military elements assume
the responsibility for
transport, protection, and
security. In the past,
these circumstances have
created a contrasting
relationship between
military and civilian
humanitarian actors. The
military traditionally has
not wanted to be
hampered with civilian
tasks, and the civilians
have not wanted
Figure 4: CIMIC: A UNHCR worker from Rwanda and a UN involvement with the
Peacekeeper from Ethiopia assist refugees from military because it might
Zaire and Rwanda. H. Davies, August 1994.
jeopardize their
impartiality. In such
cases, military and civilian personnel become involved on a level of rivalry including
differing views over mandates and overall coordination. Using their initiative and
organizational capacity, the military tends to seize the opportunity and take advantage of
unforeseen circumstances without considering either the political consequences or the
humanitarian imperatives. The civilians, uneasy about military ethics and culture, do not have
the same homogenous structure as the military and have less success at rapid mobilization.
Differences in attitude and approach to the conflict are also contrasting issues.
Functions
Because of these different views, it became necessary to find a mechanism that would
improve interaction between civilians and the military. Today, there are a large number of
activities that explain the background in political and strategic issues pertinent to effective
humanitarian operations. They are all headed under the title Civilian and Military Cooperation
(CIMIC). Through joint training courses, seminars, and workshops, civil and military
participants become familiar with the nature of these operations, the different obligations and
demands of the various actors, as well as the differences and similarities in mandates and
terms of references. A number of governmental/non-governmental organizations and
institutions run training courses where the CIMIC concept is the key issue. The establishment
of a common code-of-conduct of civil/military relations will further enhance future
cooperation. The generic establishment of a CIMIC office in the field mission headquarters is
another important innovation.
The office serves as the primary interface between the military and the humanitarian
components and facilitates the
coordination and cooperation
among all the humanitarian actors.
The office ensures that the civil-
military operations activities are
coordinated and linked to the
operation’s overall objectives. It
brings together military and
civilian efforts, avoids
duplications, and serves as a
clearinghouse for all the intricate
problems that can arise when
dealing with humanitarian
problems in a multi-dimensional
operation – a venue for sharing
information concerning military
Figure 5: Civilian and military cooperation issues and on-going humanitarian
preparing for mass. programmes.
General Conditions
Most emergency operations take place in areas affected by natural or man-made
catastrophes. Even if the disaster itself, by its magnitude and nature, severely affects the living
conditions of the local population, the catastrophe also causes the interruption of safe
conditions. In emergencies caused by civil unrest or war, the inability of national (local)
authorities to ensure security creates additional dangerous situations that may threaten the
lives of United Nations personnel and others.
Field workers operate in malign and explosive

environments where exposure to ambushes,
landmines, and the exchange of fire between
warring parties are not uncommon events. The
conditions may be further aggravated when relief
workers (and others) have to work in isolated areas,
far from normal infrastructure and sometimes under
unbearable conditions. Basic medical facilities and
means of transport are not always accessible, and
knowledge about current security conditions is often
hard to attain. The record of such situations
indicates that life-threatening situations, sometimes
fatal, have occurred with an alarming frequency in
recent years.
Figure 6: War zone in Croatia.

The United Nations has made substantial efforts to enhance the security for its field
personnel. The establishment of the Office of United Nations Security Coordinator
(UNSECCORD) was an urgently needed improvement. Through a security network,
UNSECCORD closely monitors the prevailing security conditions, assesses the situation and
actively coordinates the efforts to enhance the security.
The effective provision of security depends on a wide range of factors. What is the level
of threat? What kind of security is required? What is available? How can the security
environment be enhanced? The United Nations, in combination with its agencies and NGOs,
has utilized a number of instruments to provide security such as peacekeeping forces with
protective mandates, military and civilian police of various types, local arrangements with
warring parties, use of local police force, and various combinations. However, the complexity
and comprehensiveness of most operations require that all humanitarian pursuits, when
accepted by the parties concerned, are also part of confidence-building activities, which
should, among other things, be considered as a means of enhancing the security environment.
In the following sections, the most common organizational security structures are presented.
It should be noted that most major organizations within the United Nations system have their
own security organization with the ability to advise employed personnel on matters
concerning security and safety.
Security Provided by Military Organizations

In addition to other peacekeeping activities, the military force is normally tasked to
provide protection to UN field personnel. Such protection may include physical protection in
case of life threats but also, in cooperation with the UNSECCORD, to coordinate other
security activities such as advice, assessment, and evacuation of field personnel out of the
mission area if needed. A military force is normally deployed all over the mission area.
Through checkpoints, observation posts, patrols and an area-watch, the military will acquire
very useful information about the prevailing situation. Through an excellent communication
network, units and individuals are able to communicate and, thus, provide reports about
changes or events of importance. Their transport capacity provides a high degree of mobility,
and units and personnel can be transported from one place to another very rapidly.
All units are armed and, in general, able to protect or rescue mission personnel when
necessary. In highly volatile areas, transports can be escorted, and in case of hostilities,
civilian field personnel may find themselves safer if accommodated in military camps.
Supporting units include medical elements of various sizes and with medical facilities of high
standards. Through organization and professional experience in the assessment of security
conditions, the military is able to provide briefings about security and assist with movements
or other activities in the mission area. In case of high levels of hostilities, the Head of Mission
may decide to evacuate all personnel and initially all civilian personnel. If this occurs, the
force is normally authorized to assume the full responsibility for the evacuation.
Military Observer or Civilian Police Missions do not have the same capacity in terms of
protection, transport or medical support. In terms of manpower, they are far behind a force,
which affects the overall presence in a mission. On the other hand, they have superior
knowledge about the general situation, and through local populations they know the security
status. Since they are unarmed they are not able to provide physical protection, but through
their professional education and training they are useful in the assessment of current situations
and in advising on questions concerning safety and security. Their unarmed presence is
generally not considered a threat to the conflicting parties and, thus, allows observers and
civilian police to promote consent and positive cooperation not only between the United
Nations and the conflicting parties, but also among the parties themselves. As a side effect,
the security conditions have frequently been improved.
Provisions by Other Entities

Because the main purpose of security is to guarantee safe conditions for relief workers
and others in carrying out their duties, other mechanisms have been utilized as well. In some
cases, non-governmental organizations established liaisons and entered into security
arrangements with the local warring factions. Accepted by the local parties, these “forces”
have played a significant role, although not always with a positive result. Their main duties
were to serve as bodyguards, escort convoys and personnel, and guard warehouses. They
could be trusted as long as they were well paid. However, in volatile situations, such
personnel may actually become a threat because of longstanding loyalties to their own
factions. In some recent examples, the disadvantages have often prevailed over the
advantages of utilizing local guards. Depending on the political situation, a better solution
can be the use of local police entities belonging to a national police force. Depending on the
situation, their loyalty always has to be considered. However, such arrangements may involve
guarding UN storehouses and engaging in escort duties. The concept has in some missions
proven to be useful. However, it requires an acceptance from other concerned relief
organizations, and it should always be recognized and approved by the local security
coordinator and/or by the United Nations (UNSECCORD).
The use of private security organizations is a problematic issue in the international

setting. Private security agencies have, on some rare occasions, been used for the physical
protection of personnel involved in humanitarian assistance or development activities. As
hired professionals with no stake in the project (or conflict) and with no political or social
relations, their cooperation with local authorities will always be a weakness. In addition, the
dividing line between hiring professional bodyguards and contracting security firms with
considerable weapons capacity is rather thin; this is a risky business fraught with political
danger for the international community in general and the United Nations in particular.
Indeed, there are situations when special security attention is not necessary, such as
when there are peaceful conditions, general stability, and an established national police force.
But between violent and non-violent conditions, there is a gray zone that might be difficult to
assess. In this zone, there may be situations in which the United Nations, agencies and non-
governmental organizations decide that special personnel for the provision of security are not
needed. Although these conditions may exist, prudence suggests that danger lurks behind such
a judgment. The situation may change or the assessment may turn out to be incorrect.
Although there are and always will be operations or missions where the security conditions
are acceptable, necessary assessments should be made by professionals with security
knowledge and experience.
Learning Questions
Knowledge
Why is it so important to understand and know the environment in which your work is going
to be carried out?
What does “gender issues” mean?
What are the functions of the UNSECCORD?
What do you consider as the most essential issues in assessing the health environment?
What kind of security can be provided by military organizations?
What is CIMIC?
Awareness
What are the major issues to consider in what is called the Social and Cultural Environment?
What are the differences between a mission headquarters and a force headquarters?
Applications
At your college you become involved in discussions concerning sexual harassment and
gender issues. One of the students, aware of your future assignment, asks you how this
applies to the United Nations in general and to a peace (field) mission in particular. What is
your answer?
LESSON 5
END-OF-LESSON QUIZ
1. In societies affected by war, the environment most probably includes a(n):

a. Ineffective bureaucracy;
b. Lack of personnel resources;
c. Lack of security;
d. Both b. and c.
2. The living quarters, type of accommodation, and quality of water are all part of the:
a. Mission environment;
b. Health environment;
c. Local environment;
d. Force environment.
3. Gender issues are matters mostly concerning:

a. The relations between men and women;
b. Issues encompassing rape, sexual abuses, sexual harassment, intimidation,
trafficking and forced prostitution;
c. The advancement of women, women’s self-reliance, and promotion of social
and economic equality;
4. A military force is structured in:

a. Headquarters, sub-headquarters, offices and sub-offices;
b. Headquarters, operational units and supporting elements;
c. Staff units, operational units and supporting elements;
5. Personnel assigned to tasks such as supervising a cease-fire and/or an armistice agreement

are normally:
a. Civilian Police;
b. Civil Police;
c. Military Observers;
d. Civilian Personnel.
6. What is the main purpose of a CIMIC office?

a. To improve the interaction between the civilians and the military in an
operation;
b. To develop a code-of-conduct on civil-military relations in a humanitarian
operation;
c. To serve as the primary interface between the military and the humanitarian
components, and to facilitate coordination and cooperation;
d. To serve as a clearinghouse when dealing with humanitarian problems in a
multi-dimensional operation.
7. If necessary, an evacuation of all civilians out of a peacekeeping mission area is normally

executed by:
a. UNSECCORD;
b. The deployed peacekeeping force;
c. The deployed peacekeeping force in coordination with UNSECCORD;
d. Respective organization.
8. A military observer mission has a limited capacity to provide physical protection because:
a. It is unarmed;
b. It has a limitation in transport means;
c. It has a lack of medical support;
9. Local police belonging to national police forces may assist in:

a. Providing security assessments;
b. Providing security advice;
c. Serving as bodyguards;
d. Escort duties.
10. Who is responsible for the security matters in your mission (office/organization)?
a. Your superior;
b. The Head of the mission (office/organization);
c. The local security coordinator;
LESSON 5
ANSWER KEY
1. d. Both b. and c.
2. b. Health environment
4. b. Headquarters, operational units and supporting elements
5. c. Military Observers
6. c. To serve as the primary interface between the military and the

humanitarian components, and to facilitate coordination and cooperation
7. b. The deployed peacekeeping force
9. d. Escort duties
10. c. The local security coordinator

LESSON 6
PRINCIPLES, GENERAL DUTIES, AND
RESPONSIBILITIES
Learning Objectives
• Key questions
Introduction
6.1 Background

• General Obligations
• General Duties and Demands

• Behavioural Principles
• Code-of-Conduct

• Expectations
• Fitness
Learning Questions
• Knowledge
• Awareness
• Application
Attached
The Code-of-Conduct of the Blue Helmets
Lesson 6 / Principles, General Duties, and Responsibilities 90
LESSON 6
Learning Objectives
The Lesson deals with some of the principles concerning the general duties and
responsibilities, which should be kept in mind by civilians participating in any United Nations
field missions. The Lesson should be seen as a logical follow-up to previous lessons. It is not
the intention to provide a full description of what is expected of the professionals, experts, or
volunteers working in the field, but rather a cohesive view of the forthcoming expectations.
Detailed information about the actual mission is assumed to be provided through in-country
briefing by appropriate organizations. This lesson will facilitate and establish an awareness of
the general duties and demands and, thus, assist the newly arrived field operator in avoiding
unexpected pitfalls and shortcomings during the first weeks of his/her assignment.
What are the main objectives to keep in mind when working for the Untied Nations?
What are the personal traits?
What is expected from you as an affiliated of a United Nations organization?
How would you describe the cultural and social demands?
What are the differences between obligations and personal demands?
What kind of personal requirements are expected of you?
What is the rationale behind a code-of-conduct?

Introduction
UN field missions are composed of a variety of sub-units, which respond to specific

tasks in specific areas. Typically, they are all multifaceted where politics, humanitarian
intervention/assistance, and development are merged in a pattern not always easy to
understand. In addition, there is the mixture of military personnel and civilians and where the
civilian participation has considerably expanded in the last decade. The blend of civilians
from various parts of the world, in combination with their multi-ethnic cultural background, is
both a strength and a weakness. On the one hand, it is a political strength because it reflects
the international community’s determination to manage and solve a problem. On the other
hand, it is an operational weakness because of the civilians’ sometimes inadequate
preparations that initially hamper an efficient implementation of a programme or an operation.
Although the weakness is temporary, it is essential that this period be as short as possible. A
good knowledge of the field operator’s forthcoming general duties and responsibilities is,
therefore, a prerequisite prior to a future field assignment.
6.1 Background
The history of humanity shows that individuals, societies, and nations have always
assisted and helped each other in times of need and this tendency only increases during wars,
catastrophes, and similar events. Thus, it has always been in the nature of the human being to
bring help and support when so needed.
The unbearable conditions during the Crimean War promoted the creation of the
International Red Cross. The modern warfare during the 20th century spawned other similar
organizations with a similar purpose − to bring help to suffering populations. The end of the
colonial system revealed other problems caused by the colonial legacy. The creation of new
nation states became a slow process. The expected positive economic and social development
sometimes turned into a negative trend, and dependency on international assistance
sometimes became an unwanted result for many new nations. This, together with some
severe droughts and subsequent famines, fostered the dramatic evolution of the non-
governmental organizations. All this
affected United Nations as well and the
Organization became more involved in
the development of these new nations,
but it also assumed more responsibilities
for populations suffering from natural or
man-made disasters. The end of the
Cold War era increased the participation
of the international community.
The establishment of the

peacekeeping instrument brought
another dimension to the work carried
out by civilians. The military
Figure 1: A UNV assisting at a road environment and its culture differed
construction site.
from the civilian atmosphere and the
civilian field operators were challenged by the military structure and its approach. The
expansion of peacekeeping tools witnessed a multiplication of the operational demands that
could not be met by the military alone; subsequently, civilian personnel were extensively
recruited. The demands upon the United Nations’ work and its challenges in the field fostered
a widespread sense of voluntarism. In 1970, the General Assembly created the United
Nations Volunteers (UNV) programme to serve as an operational partner in development
cooperation at the request of United Nations Member States. Since then, the UNV has
become the United Nations’ major supplier of middle- and upper-level specialists.
Today, tens of thousands of civilian and military professionals, experts, volunteers,

and others work all over the globe under the chapeau of the United Nations. They come from
different cultures and with different educational background but all with the same aim and
purpose – “to meet the priority needs of all people that can be sustained over future
generations.” They have to serve at the best of their ability while adhering to some basic
professional principles that include obligations and duties.
General Obligations
While serving on a mission, a Field Operator will be responsible to the Head of Mission
and, therefore, he/she should not seek or accept orders or instructions from any other
authority. In order to maintain objectivity and efficiency in their performances, the field
operator should keep in mind the best interests of the United Nations, the government, or the
NGO they are serving. The field operator should have the ability to make the distinction
between “idealistic” and “realistic” attitude and approaches to problems and be able to
determine the best actual achievable, rather than desirable, course of action. The field
operators are almost always part of a team and have to cooperate fully and assist in carrying
out all operational activities. They have to not only demonstrate their commitment,
dedication, and high motivation, but also to share the best of their professionalism and
experience. It is also assumed that the operators have the ability to analyze a problem and
inform the superiors or counterparts about the findings in a clear and factual manner. FOs
must also be prepared to accept organizational and representative tasks in the performance of
their duties.
Duties will be carried out in an environment foreign to that of their home nation, usually
encumbered by difficult living conditions, high stress situations, and foreign languages. As
representatives of the United Nations, operators must ensure that they are capable of
accomplishing the tasks required and that the performance will favourably reflect upon the
United Nations and/or employing organization. That requires an FO who is physically fit, of
sound character, mature in attitude and outlook, and possesses the appropriate professional
and technical qualifications for the mission/work. In addition, it is expected that the FOs have
a genuine interest and commitment to supporting the efforts of others in areas where requests
are received.
The FOs, as well as others working in an international environment, should display the
following personality traits:
• Good judgement and accountability, supported by a common-sense approach;
• An objective approach to problem solving;
• The ability to discuss difficult situations without offending;
• A polite demeanour, combined with a firm, but flexible and honest approach;
• Considerable self-discipline and patience;
• A friendly, open approach and a ready sense of humour;

• An ability to influence others, engendered in imaginativeness and persuasiveness;
• Credibility as a leader;
• Mindful of the interests of the employing organization (United Nations);
• Comfortable in both working and social environments;
• Capable of understanding the organization and functional arrangements of the mission;
• Acts in the interest of other people or community he/she has to assist.
In a UN field mission, the FO must bear in mind that the job is one of numerous parts,
even if they sometimes seem totally unrelated. An awareness that Non-Government
Organizations, other United Nations civilians, and/or military components and humanitarian
agencies have been working in the mission area long before the FO arrived, and accordingly
have established long-standing contacts and liaisons, can be very useful to the newly-arrived
FOs. Equally, the FOs are later expected to demonstrate their professionalism and
experiences in helping and assisting new, incoming personnel.
General Duties and Demands

Depending on the level of seniority and professional experiences, the FOs may work at
central positions or in the field but still addressing all the areas compounded in emergencies
or development. In central positions, FOs must be prepared to carry out investigations and
analyses, as well as to make recommendations from a more political/strategic level. They
must be able to communicate not only using technical means, but also to formulate and
clearly express their view of a certain issue in a clear, concise, and convincing language. They
adapt themselves to the organizational environment and accept rules and procedures that are
the practices of prevailing staff or departmental conditions, always keeping in mind the
interest of the United Nations. As the head of an entity, the FO will need to provide leadership
where the interest of employed personnel, the task, and available resources have to be
managed as effectively as possible. Representation is another part of expected duties and
should not be neglected since it, if well maintained, provides a favourable image of the
mission. In the field, the FO will encounter the same demands although the tasks will become
more challenging due to other living conditions and scarce administrative resources.
In the areas of his/her professional capacities the FOs should be prepared to:
• Support, collaborate, encourage and
motivate;
• Maintain an impartiality and
objectivity;
• Establish and support partnerships
and links between and among
entities/communities;
• Work in a team, i.e. share and
interact with others and build on the
ideas of others when appropriate;
• Network and collaborate with other
partners and counterparts;
• Adapt to different social, cultural
and political circumstances;
Figure 2: Hospital Work in the South Pacific. • Promote gender equality.
All FOs are recruited and selected on the basis of their experience and professionalism
relevant to the assigned work. In spite of the fact that they have different professional
backgrounds, cultures, social and educational experiences, they must all possess
psychological stability and flexibility in order to withstand unexpected challenges. An innate
level of mental stability, strengthened through training/preparation must be part of the FOs’
credentials. However, mental stability relies on factors that training alone cannot provide, no
matter how extensive it may be. The existence of a family or loved ones, a healthy social life,
a sound economy, and an absence of personal dilemmas are conditions that contribute to a
good Field Operator. They are all factors that provide a psychological resiliency and firmness,
which are indispensable when difficult conditions prevail.
Behavioural Principles
Appearance and performance should reflect what is expected of United Nations
personnel. FOs must display tolerance towards other cultures, some of which may differ in
personal attributes and habits from their own. Appreciation of local customs and behavioural
patterns is essential as well as to recognize the locals’ tasks and positions. Personal
disapproval, disagreement, disappointment, anxiety, or irritation should be minimized so that
such feelings do not prevent the FO from maintaining friendly and cooperative relationships
with the people with whom they are working. On the other hand, the FO must understand the
personal perception of respect that is important in many cultures.
As mentioned in Lesson 5, many societies have strict rules concerning relationships

between men and women, but there are also rules on how to pay attention to spiritual leaders,
religious artifacts and places of worship. FOs working out of their home country must be
aware that although their personal behaviour may be considered as normal in their own
society, some of these habits may cause offence in other societies. For example, collecting
souvenirs of religious artifacts is considered both sacrilegious and a criminal offence, and a
seemingly simple gesture, such as patting a small child on the head, is considered highly
offensive in some cultures. Most “local” elders will be happy to discuss their faith, customs
and habits with interested “foreigners” as long as the approach is made in a respectful manner,
and does not compromise the elder’s position in his society. Therefore, prospective FOs
should make every effort to prepare for the assignment by making use of public
documentation, written reports and conversations with others who previously served in the
area. This will ensure that no one will accidentally cause offence.
Thousands of people are deployed in various missions around the world. In each
mission, small or large, the credibility depends not only on the ability to carry out the United
Nations mandate, but also on the quality of behaviour demonstrated by each individual. Both
the population of the hosting organization or country, as well as the international community,
closely observes the conduct of the United Nations personnel, particularly in highly visible
and problematic missions. Consequently, it is important that each person serving under the
United Nations demonstrates extraordinary discretion, restraint, and sensitivity towards other
cultures, so that their behaviour does not have a chance of reflecting a poor image of the
Organization as a whole.
Understanding the requirements, the expected performances, and appearances are crucial
if the FO is to be successful in his/her duties. Not surprisingly, it is required that an FO
should have good manners of which flexibility, sensitivity, and patience are the key issues.
Additionally, the FOs must comprehend the overall guiding principles of a UN organization,
such as impartiality, loyalty, integrity, and independence. These key words may be
interpreted differently but, in general, the following applies:
• Impartiality is the foundation for the United Nations. Therefore, an FO should not favour
any party over the other, but act as a bridge when disputes occur. Feelings and private
opinions must be subordinated in order to achieve peace.
• Loyalty means that the FO must be loyal not only to the United Nations and its goals and
principles, but also to the work and supervisors. Trust and confidence are critical issues in
tense or difficult situations.
• Integrity is the foundation for credibility and authority. The FO must always avoid
activities, which may reflect poorly on the FO’s position or the United Nations, and,
therefore, he/she must expect and accept special public and private constraints.
• Independence means, among other things, that the FO must refrain from all political
activities and not seek or accept instruction from anyone outside the United Nations.
Besides following these guidelines, the FOs have to bring their own professionalism and
experience. They need to accept the overall principles when working in the UN system, but
they should always ensure that their own ideas are in accordance with the local people and,
thus, share the ideas and opportunities with their counterparts.
Code-of-Conduct
The experiences have obliged most organizations to issue some sort of a code-of-
conduct. The standard of a behavioural code is a sensitive topic, which is often emotionally
charged since it tries to impose a certain behaviour on individuals with different educational
and ethnic backgrounds. However, some type of standards of conduct is necessary with a
view to conforming individuals to the specific requirements of the mission. Every
peacekeeping operation has a code-of-conduct, which is adjusted sometimes to local demands
or other special circumstances. The rules express in an explicit language what is expected by
the military peacekeepers and, to a certain extent, they serve as guide to those civilians who
would like to know what is and what is not acceptable. Compliance to the formal rules and
regulations of the organization to which the FO belongs to is an additional demand. Failure to
comply with these guidelines will result in consequences that may jeopardize the work of the
mission and may also erode confidence and trust in the FO and/or in the United Nation itself.
The rules can be found at the end of Lesson 6.
This lesson and the information provided by the organizations in the field are assumed
to describe the duties and responsibilities in the field. However, some information is neither to
be found in Lesson 6 nor provided in the in-country briefings. Irrespectively, the FO has the
responsibility to obtain all additional information, not only about the working requirements,
but also about what is expected by the FO as an individual and as a part of a team. Depending
on the prevailing conditions, some issues may be more important than others.
Expectations
The overall guiding principle is the mandate. In a large mission the mandate may be a
part of the UN resolution, but it can also be a part of a policy document issued by a
government or non-governmental agency. Sometimes, particularly in small missions (a
project with limited objectives), the mandate might be a project document. But even if it is
just a project document, it falls under some overriding principles or policy decisions.
The FO should acquaint himself or herself to the

mandate and the expressed policies/principles by
studying them and, thus, fully understanding and
appreciating the overall goals of his/her forthcoming
work. Even if all necessary information has been
provided in terms of duties, expectations, and job
descriptions, there will always be questions of personal
or professional character. The FOs should never hesitate
to ask any questions, regardless of if they think it is
irrelevant. Questions and answers are essential parts of
the human interaction and the means for sharing of ideas
and opportunities. In asking his/her superiors or
counterpart appropriate questions, both parties will
obtain a clearer understanding and, thus, future
misinterpretation will be avoided.
The question of authority is another area of

concern. What kind of decision can be taken, and on
whose behalf? To overstep one’s authority causes
Figure 3: Preparations
confusion, embarrassment, and may, if not properly
before an election. handled, jeopardize the work itself. Therefore, the matter
of authority is an issue to be discussed in connection with
the job description and the areas of responsibilities.
In the beginning of an assignment, it is a good idea to keep a low profile when

discussing specific issues. Although the FO may have a profound knowledge in his/her
professional area, it is better to listen, reflect, and make use of the information when the time
is more appropriate. This does not mean that the FOs just have to “sit there,” accept what is
being said, and not to respond to it. But it should be considered more of an exercise in
recognizing that they, for the time being, have limited local experience that does not allow a
correct assessment of the questions seen from the overall perspectives. It is better to bide
one’s time, reflect on what has been discussed, and respond later. “Listen, learn, and wait” is
a common rule to all newly assigned personnel.
Teamwork is crucially irrespective of where and how. FOs will work with a partner(s)
from other countries (or counterparts from the local community) with other values and
expectations. What are your expectations and what are the expectations of others? Knowing
your partner(s) is the foundation for future cooperation. Being able to sit together and share
information and ideas is an essential part of mutual trust and confidence. Likewise, it is
beneficial to discuss how the work is to be carried out, what should be achieved, and how to
find a joint solution. In dealing with local counterparts, their proposals and suggested
solutions should be encouraged and supported as much as possible (if the ideas are
achievable). All this sounds rather simple in theory but more difficult in practice. A positive
chemistry between the working partners promotes ideas and opportunities, but when the
chemistry does not exist, the situation becomes more problematic. Respect, understanding,
appreciation, subordination, and listening combined with a good share of humour are useful
tools in all working relationships. Teamwork is always a matter of “give and take,” and
information-sharing and discussions are proved and workable tools.
Figure 4: Investigations at The State Prison.
Fitness
As of the year 2002, more than 11,000 FOs out of a total number of 39,000
peacekeepers worked in emergency or similar operations where the working conditions were
demanding and stressful. Consequently, physical fitness is an important requirement since the
FO will perform duties in a foreign environment, sometimes encumbered by difficult living
conditions, stress situations, or traumatic experiences. Considering the extraordinary
circumstances of an emergency operation, it is understandable that good physical and mental
fitness are almost a necessity in order to withstand the constraints and pressure that are a part
of daily life. Thus, the FO is expected to be splendidly fit, no sickness, no allergies or other
psychological or physical problems that may jeopardize his/her work, since any health
problem may be difficult to cope with in areas with limited medical facilities. Of equal
importance is the ability to confront intense or traumatic situations. Although it is beyond the
scope of this course, in dealing with stress management it should be emphasized that
knowledge in advance about the mission, such as living conditions, duration of the
assignment, and nature of the mission, can reduce the factors that may contribute to emotional
instability. A strong character, a well-rounded personality, and stable mental health are assets
that are essential to a pleasurable experience in the field.
Depending on the given contract, FOs may enjoy the legal and international privileges
and immunities defined in the Convention of Privileges and Immunities of the United
Nations. These are defined under Article VI (Experts on Missions for the United Nations) of
the Convention on Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations, which are usually
adhered to by the governments in a mission area. Notwithstanding international acceptance of
the philosophy of Article VI, FOs must comply with the actual country'
s laws and regulations.
The Secretary General has the right and authority to waive the immunities and international
privileges accorded to an FO in any case where, in his opinion, such immunities and
privileges would impede the course of justice.
In general, all personnel working under the United Nations’ umbrella are protected.
However, there are differences when it comes to types of contract. While some personnel are
entitled to an official Laissez-Passer, some others are not. In some cases, the employing
organization issues an identity card, and in some cases, it will be issued from the United
Nations Headquarters. In addition to the proper identification, all temporary employed
personnel will be provided with some sort of terms of service normally contained in a
“Conditions-of-Service Agreement.”
Learning Questions
Knowledge
What is achieved by keeping in mind the best interests of the United Nations?
What is the reason to keep a clear distinction between idealism and realism?
What are the differences between obligations, duties, and responsibilities?
What are the major differences between a UNV and an FO?
What is the meaning of impartiality in reference to the FO work?
What is the foundation for credibility and authority and why?
What is the reason behind the demand that the FO must refrain from political activities?
What is the rationale behind a code-of-conduct?
In which document does an FO find his/her terms of service?
Awareness
How would you explain the word integrity in reference to your assignment as an FO?
How would you explain the rationale behind fitness?
Lesson 6 deals, to a considerable extent, with the FO’s duties, obligations, demands, and
conduct. What do you think are the reasons behind this?
What is expected of an FO in the areas of his/her professional capacity?
What is your opinion concerning the FO’s immunities?
Application
Some days prior to your departure, you are asked for an interview in the local radio
station about your forthcoming service with the United Nations. Since the reporter knows you
as an honest and always well-prepared college teacher, he would like you to answer some
questions concerning the United Nations behavioural principles in the field. Easily done, you
think, and make necessary preparations by using the Code-of-Conduct for the Blue Helmets.
However, during the interview, which goes well, the reporter suddenly asks you why the
United Nations has several and different codes-of-conduct, and why it is not possible to have
one common code-of-conduct for all personnel working in the field. What is your answer?
LESSON 6
END-OF-LESSON QUIZ
1. The blend of civilians from various parts of the world in a multi-dimensional operation is a
strength because:
a. It reflects the international community’s will to solve a problem;
b. It provides necessary financial contributions;
c. It provides necessary support to the military components;
2. The General Assembly created the United Nations Volunteer Programme to:
a. Promote youth participation in the United Nation development programme;
b. Serve as an operational partner in development cooperation;
c. Serve as the major supplier of middle and upper-level specialists;
d. Provide technical assistance to skill-short governments.
3. In order to maintain their objectivity, the UN Field Operators (FO) should keep in mind
the interest of:
a. The United Nations;
b. The government they are serving;
c. The organization they are serving;
4. Due to the wide range of tasks, the FO should display the following personal traits:
a. Good judgement, accountability and a firm and persuasive performance;
b. Good judgement and a documented ability to influence others;
c. An open approach and a facility to fraternize with locals;
d. An ability to influence others engendered in imaginativeness and
persuasiveness.
5. In terms of general duties and demands, the FOs should be prepared:

a. To adapt themselves to the local demands of the political environment;
b. To adapt themselves to the organizational environment;
c. To make recommendations only from the technical level;
6. An FO must be prepared to accept representative tasks and responsibilities in the

performance of their duties.
a. True
b. False
7. An FO must adhere to the four overall guiding UN principles of impartiality,

loyalty, integrity and independence at which loyalty stands for:
a. Loyalty to the United Nations;
b. Loyalty to the work;
c. Loyalty to the supervisor;
8. An FO should refrain from all political activities because:

a. The FO may encounter difficulties in his/her personal performance;
b. The FO may encounter difficulties in his/her professional performance;
c. It may jeopardize his/her independence as a UN employee;
d. Both a. and b.
9. A Code-of-Conduct is/are in general:

a. A behavioural and commonly accepted code for all UN professionals;
b. A code for civil servants;
c. A code for United Nations peacekeepers;
d. Guiding principles adhering to the general principles of culture as well as to
the practices and behaviours as a member of a mission.
10. Physical fitness is necessary because of:

a. Difficult living conditions;
b. Constrains and pressure from daily life;
c. The ability to confront intense and traumatic situations;
LESSON 6
ANSWER KEY
1. a. It reflects the international community’s will to solve a problem
2. b. Serve as an operational partner in development cooperation
3. a. The United Nations
4. d. An ability to influence others engendered in imaginativeness

and persuasiveness
5. b. To adopt themselves to the organizational environment
6. a. True
8. c. It may jeopardize his/her independence as a UN employee
9. d. Guiding principles adhering to the general principles of culture as

well as to the practices and behaviours as a member of a mission

Attachment to
Lesson 6.3
The Code-of-Conduct of the Blue Helmets
WE ARE UNITED NATIONS PEACEKEEPERS
The United Nations Organization embodies the aspirations of all the people of the world
for peace. In this context the United Nations Charter requires that all personnel must
maintain the highest standards of integrity and conduct.
We will comply with the Guidelines on International Humanitarian Law for Forces
Undertaking United Nations Peacekeeping Operations and the applicable portions of the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights as the fundamental basis of our standards. We, as
peacekeepers, represent the United Nations and are present in the country to help it
recover from the trauma of a conflict. As a result, we must consciously be prepared to
accept special constraints in our public and private lives in order to do the work and to
pursue the ideals of the United Nations Organization.
We will be accorded certain privileges and immunities arranged through agreements

negotiated between the United Nations and the host country solely for the purpose of
discharging our peace-keeping duties. Expectations of the world community and the local
population will be high and our actions, behaviour, and speech will be closely monitored.
We will always:
Conduct ourselves in a professional and disciplined manner, at all times;
Dedicate ourselves to achieving the goals of the United Nations;
Understand the mandate and mission and comply with their provisions;
Respect the environment of the host country;
Respect local customs and practices through awareness and respect for the culture,
religion, traditions, and gender issues;
Treat the inhabitants of the host country with respect, courtesy, and consideration;
Act with impartiality, integrity, and tact;
Support and aid the infirm, sick, and weak;
Obey our United Nations superiors and respect the chain of command;
Respect all other peace-keeping members of the mission regardless of status, rank, ethnic
or national origin, race, gender, or creed;
Support and encourage proper conduct among our fellow peace-keepers;
Maintain proper dress and personal deportment at all times;
Properly account for all money and property assigned to us as members of the mission;
and
Care for all United Nations equipment placed in our charge.
We will never:
Bring discredit upon the United Nations, or our nations through improper personal
conduct, failure to perform our duties or abuse of our positions as peace-keepers;
Take any action that might jeopardize the mission;
Abuse alcohol, use drugs, or traffic in drugs;
Make unauthorized communications to external agencies, including unauthorized press

statements;
Improperly disclose or use information gained through our employment;
Use unnecessary violence or threaten anyone in custody;
Commit any act that could result in physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to
members of the local population, especially women and children;
Become involved in sexual liaisons which could affect our impartiality, or the well-being
of others;
Be abusive or uncivil to any member of the public;
Willfully damage or misuse any United Nations property or equipment;
Use a vehicle improperly or without authorization;
Collect unauthorized souvenirs;
Participate in any illegal activities, corrupt or improper practices; or
Attempt to use our positions for personal advantage, to make false claims or accept
benefits to which we are not entitled.
We realize that the consequences of failure to act within these guidelines may:
Erode confidence and trust in the United Nations;
Jeopardize the achievement of the mission; and
Jeopardize our status and security as peacekeepers.
(Ref: United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations Training Unit, 1998)

LESSON 7
SAFETY AND SECURITY
Learning Objectives 7.4 Special Security Precautions

• Key questions • Highjacking of a UN Vehicle
• Mine Awareness
Introduction • Snipers
7.1 The Principal Context 7.5 First-Aid

• Background • Accidents
• Principles • Weather Conditions
• Burns
• Before Departure to the Mission 7.6 Health Precautions
• As a Resident • General Rules
• At Work
Learning Questions
7.3 Travel • Knowledge
• General Rules • Awareness
• Driving • Applications
Lesson 7 / Safety and Security 106
LESSON 7
Learning Objectives
Lesson 7 begins with the background and the principal context of what is commonly
called Safety and Security, but the main part is about security precautions in the field. The
lesson follows a logical pattern in dealing chronologically with the FO’s preparation, travel to
the mission area, arrival, precautions at home/office, and when in field. To some extent, it
deals with first-aid and health precautions as well. Though this lesson offers some guidance,
the responsibility of obtaining the necessary knowledge either prior to involvement in the
mission area or in situ rests with the FO.
The Lesson is based on the official booklet “Security Awareness – An Aide-Memoire,”

issued by the United Nations Security Coordination Office (UNSECCORD) in New York, the
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Geneva, as well as information provided in
UNITAR/POCI course concerning United Nations Military Observer. Lesson 7 should be
considered as a shortened and combined version of these first two ones, not a replacement of
the official booklet issued to all UN personnel. Lesson 7 is written in order to provide
security knowledge as early as possible and an understanding of the seriousness of the
security.
How many fatal accidents occurred during the period discussed?
Why is driving one of the most dangerous activity in the field?
What are the security precautions before departure?
What are the precautions as a Resident (at home)?
Under what circumstances are special security precautions needed?
How do you prepare yourself to handle minor medical emergencies?
Which UN office has overall security responsibility?

Introduction
Safety and security for United Nations personnel working in the field has become of a
major concern. Hundreds of field workers (military and civilians) have lost their lives either
due to hostile actions or through incidents of which car accidents were the main cause.
Although the United Nations Security Coordinator (UNSECCORD) is responsible for policy
and procedural matters, as well as to issue proper recommendations to ensure the safety and
security in the field, the major responsibility lies upon each field operator. Consequently,
acquaintance with the UN security plans should have the top priority as soon as the FO arrives
to the mission. Negligence to comply or accept the security instructions/demands is not only
a danger to the FO but may also impose a threat to the third party. A constant awareness of
properly administrated precautions is an indispensable tool in order to ensure personal safety
and security.
7.1 The Principal Context
Background
Complex political situations frequently cause civil unrest where violence and the use of
arms create dangerous conditions for Field Operators. In recent years the situation has been
further aggravated. In 1999, the Office of the United Nations Security Coordinator
(UNSECCORD) recorded 292 violent security incidents against United Nations staff around
the world, including violent robbery, physical assault, and rape. Detention and hostage-taking
activities have reached new levels. Worst of all, between 1992 and 2002, 936 United Nations
staff members sacrificed their lives in the service of peace.
Total Fatalities for all UN Missions through May 1, 2003
Types Accident Hostile Act Illness Other

Total Number 769 583 342 123 Total: 1817
NOTE: Statistics based on available United Nations data covering the period 1948 through 2003. This data is
still under review and may, therefore, contain omissions or errors.
(Source DPKO, United Nation)
“In order to cope with the situation, the General Assembly, in Resolution 54/192,
requested the Secretary-General to take all the necessary measures to ensure that all United
Nations personnel are informed about the relevant customs and traditions in the host country,
the standards that the personnel are required to meet, and to receive adequate training in
security, human rights, and humanitarian law. However, United Nations personnel includes
not only military and police staff, but also the thousands of civilians who serve in
peacekeeping, peacemaking, humanitarian, and development missions; and not only
international staff, but also the locally recruited men and women without whom the United
Nations simply could not fulfil the mandates given by the Member States.” (Deputy United
Nations Secretary-General Frechette, June 16, 2000)
Principles
• Every FO should comply with the provided security and safety rules issued in the
mission. However there are some principles guiding these rules: Adherence to the
universal principle of impartiality.
• Confidence building: A secure environment is dependent on confidence among the

various actors in the mission area. Confidence-building measures are part of the physical
protection of the field operator.
• Security consent: If possible and when convenient, the necessary security consent should
be obtained from the national and local authorities. In an emergency area, consent
includes acceptance of various aspects of UN activities, such as freedom of movement,
use of communication means, employment of local staff, etc.
• Adherence to security measures in the mission area: The United Nations (UNSECCORD),
in combination with UN agencies and NGOs, has made a number of recommendations
including: improved training and information on safety and security; assessment of
security conditions; local arrangements with warring parties; protection provided by
peacekeeping forces; procedures for emergency evacuation; etc. The FO should adhere to
established procedures and exercise common sense in case of an emergency.
Although these basic rules are commonly recognized and accepted, they are not always
acknowledged particularly in an emergency area with a great number of governmental, non-
governmental, and other organizations. For various reasons, some organizations do not accept
to be under the UN umbrella, which may cause a danger situation in times of emergency.
Such situations may be further aggravated when entities have not announced their presence to
the UN Security Coordinator in the field. Although done with the best of intentions, their
unknown presence causes considerable problems and may jeopardize any ordered emergency
evacuations.
FOs are to be cognizant of their responsibilities in respect to personal security. The

nature of duties indicates a necessity for greater security awareness than would be the case in
most FOs’ country of origin. There are many reasons why an individual FO could be the
target of a violent action, crime, or even a simple robbery: nationality, the nature of duties,
appearance, fancy luggage, gender (especially if a woman), colour, race, or simply if you
happen to be, at that particular moment, the most suitable target. Therefore, the FO should
always be aware and suspicious, calm, and always know what they are doing and where they
are going. Be confident, but if you feel uncomfortable at a location, just leave. The following
serves as guidance indicating chronologically the various precautions to be taken before
departure in the mission area and what actions may be necessary when something unexpected
occurs.
Before Departure to the Mission

Preparation before departure must never be overlooked. Timely and relevant
information will enable FOs to better cope with actual issues involving their new assignment
and particularly during the very first weeks. Meticulous preparation may save your life.
Preparation should also include your family and loved ones. By informing family members of
what can be expected (duties, living conditions, length of your absence, and channels open for
communication), the emotional stress will be reduced before the FO’s departure as well as
during the first weeks in the mission.
Preparations may include the following:

• Make sure you are in good physical and mental condition.
• Never leave your home or loved ones with personal or socio-economic problems
unsolved.
• Prepare yourself by studying the country and particularly the cultural aspects of the
country/area in which you are going to work.
• Study and familiarize yourself with the mission in which you will operate. (The mandate
and operational tasks).
• Make sure you understand what is expected of you as a professional.
• Be prepared for your living conditions in poor areas.
• Make sure that you have proper insurance if an accident occurs and that you know your
blood type.
• Make sure you have appropriate clothing, other necessities, such as a battery-powered
flashlight or torch, pocket-knife, pocket dictionary and a small supply of medical or
prescription drugs for emergencies (headache, upset stomach, antiseptics for scratches,
etc.).
Preparation immediately before departure:

• Before departure let someone know your travel itinerary and where you can be reached.
• Ensure that addresses and phone numbers of the mission (organization) are correct and
can be easily attained.
• Make sure you are met on arrival.
• Make sure that you have a small amount of local currency but never carry large amounts
of money.
• Check visas (if required) and other travel documents.
Upon arrival:
• Stay alert. Watch luggage and briefcases and keep your travel documents and
money/traveller’s cheques safe.
• Make sure that the person designated to meet you has proper identification.
• If no one is there to pick you up, you may be forced to take a taxi. Ask the information
desk at the airport about reasonable taxi fare to your final destination (hotel, etc.). Check
the fare with the driver before entering the cab and make sure the cab is an authorized
taxi. As a woman, particularly if you arrive late in the evening, it might be better to use
one of the hotel shuttles and, when arriving to the hotel, make further arrangements.
Your accommodations:
• If you have to make your own arrangements concerning hotels, it is always recommended
to use a reputable hotel. In general, these hotels have proper security and will save you
from unexpected surprises when it comes to food, drinking water, ice, etc. If you are
going to stay in an apartment, small house, etc., you should ensure that it is located in an
area that has been declared safe. To return home in broad daylight is one thing, but to do
the same in late evenings and alone is another thing.
Wherever you stay check the following:

• That windows and doors can be properly locked with a key or by other means (i.e., a
chair).
• If possible, never be accommodated on the ground floor, which provides easy entrance
from outside.
• Make sure you are familiar with the escape route in case of fire or other incidents.
• Ensure the telephone is working and communicate immediately to persons concerned.
• If someone knocks at your door, do not open it before the person is identified.
The environment:
It is necessary and an important safety measure that you become aquatinted with your
neighbourhood.
• Check where to find the nearest shops, police station, and hospitals.
• Check to see where the embassy of your nation is located, or if you are staying in a remote
area far from the capital, get appropriate addresses and phone numbers.
• Check and be acquainted with the nearest route to friends or others you trust or to a
recognized safe area (e.g., a UN compound, site, or headquarters).
As a Resident
At home:
If you are supposed to stay for a longer period, you must ensure that (visiting) members of
your family are well aware of the various security precautions. Also, servants (temporary as
well) must be instructed on some of these issues. You must always be on your guard and
make sure that all precautions are part of your daily routine. Ensure that you feel comfortable
in your residence and its close surroundings.
• Doors and windows and locks must be solid. Doors and windows on the ground floor
should have outside bars.
• Safety chains, peephole, intercom to the main entrance and outside lightning are also
important considerations.
• Make sure there is restricted access to keys and that your doors are always locked, even
when you are at home. If you lose a key, make sure that all locks are replaced.
• Use blinders or curtains at night.
• Install telephones or have access to mobile phones.
• Always keep a short list of emergency telephone numbers close to your telephone (which
should be known to the servants as well).
• Servants must be vetted.
Perpetrators may first call you by phone or try to enter through the door. Therefore, you
should be very strict in giving out your number and pay extra attention to knocks at your door.
Never tell a stranger that you are alone and never open the door without identifying the
visitor. Always be cautious if giving out business cards with your resident address and phone
numbers.
Walking, using public transportation or taxis:

When walking or using public transportation, you should not run the risk of being a target
by wearing expensive clothing or jewellery. Remember that when walking to and from
official business meetings, smart suits and nice briefcases will catch the immediate attention
of unwanted elements, particularly in areas with poor policing and/or known as unsafe. Avoid
any unnecessary robbery by using authorized taxis or private cars.
• Always be aware of pickpockets. They exist all over the world and appear particularly
in crowds. Keep your wallet or money/credit cards, etc., under clothing and never in
your briefcase.
• Avoid walking alone at night and never enter isolated areas by yourself.
• Always be alert and watch your surroundings, especially when you get off a bus or
leave a subway station. If followed across the street or when entering a shop and
worse comes to worse, draw attention to yourself.
• If dropped off at home, ask the driver to wait until you have opened your front door.
• Cash machines are rather common, and their locations are considered to be high-risk
areas. Be extremely cautious when using your bank or credit card. If possible, use
bank cashiers or cash machines inside the bank.
• Never accept a ride from a stranger.
• When in a taxi, keep the doors locked and widows rolled up all the way. Do not drive
alone.
• Be extra cautious if the taxi is stopped, never open the door or roll down the windows,
wait until you know for sure the purpose of the interruption.
In general, always stay a step ahead by considering what might happen and how should you
react.
At Work
The United Nations has a well-functioning security system. The United Nations Security
Coordinator (UNSECCORD) in New York performs system-wide coordination. The Agency
Headquarters (in Geneva, Rome, and Vienna) coordinates the activities within their respective
organizations and the Country Designated Official has responsibility pertaining to the country
where the FO operates. Field Security officers or area Coordinators are available and
responsible in the field. The last level is you, the FO. Unfortunately, experience indicates
that the last link in the chain can sometimes be the weakest.
• You must always adhere to the safety and security instructions given by the designated
security focal point and you must always ensure you have the latest information.
• Familiarize yourself with the daily routines of your duty station (office, location).
• As for your responsibility as a resident, you should check doors, widows, escape routes
and take note of standard security procedures and participate in basic fire drills and
security and first-aid training.
• Documents used in your daily work and of a sensitive nature must be locked away when
not in use.
• Check the availability and location of fire fighting equipment and medical or first-aid kits.
• Always be aware of the risks associated with sabotage and bomb threats and always ask
the designated focal point for information and advice.
• Be aware that radios and telephones are not secure means of communication, and, thus,
exercise extra precaution. As a general rule, sensitive information should be coded for
transmission.
• Take notes of evacuation plans.
When moving outside your duty station (location), there are some rules you should follow. In
general the rules always apply to wherever you are.
• Always inform whom-it-may-concern when and where you are going.

• Always remain on guard against extremists and always exercise caution when in
unfamiliar surroundings.
• Never pretend to be any kind of expert who could be useful for extreme political factions.
• Each FO will receive a specific Identification Card (ID) to ensure verifiable and accurate
identification as a member of the relevant UN organization. The ID must always be
carried and be presented whenever demanded.
• Photography is a point of concern, so taking pictures of military installations, equipment,
personnel, or any other sensitive area or object is not recommended.
• Avoid any political behaviour and speech that would draw unfavourable attention to the
mission, or to the UN as a whole.
7.3 Travel
The FOs may do some travelling but they should be aware that fifty percent of all
security incidents occur during travels. Therefore, the FO should avoid any unnecessary
travelling and always make sure that the travel is permitted and along routes that have been
declared safe. Although the following rules are for travel taking place over longer distances,
the FO should also adopt the below indicated rules for shorter travel when appropriate.
General Rules
• Assure yourself that the car is adequately equipped with a jack, spare tire, extra jerry can
for gasoline, water, and a first-aid kit.
• Check the security conditions of the route before travelling.
• Carry maps and a compass if the area is unfamiliar.
• Inform concerned offices about your itinerary.
• If you have access to a radio, stay in regular radio contact. If radio (mobile telephones) are
not available, establish some sort of communication plan such as points of communication
or just simply a plan to report when you have arrived.
• Avoid travelling alone and in the dark.
• Never resist if the car is stopped.
• Always park the vehicle in a secure area and in a way so you can easily escape.
• Never carry unauthorized passengers.
• Keep a proper speed.
Driving
The need to drive a car either as part of official duties or for other reasons might be
hazardous. Therefore, bear in mind that a large number of casualties in field operations are
caused by traffic accidents or driving under off-road conditions. The traffic pattern, the roads,
and the terrain are often very different conditions than FOs are accustomed to. This calls for
extra caution particularly since most accidents are due to high speed and unskilled drivers.
Be extra cautious when driving through populated areas. Children might be out playing
and are unpredictable in their movements. Slow down and give them enough room to move
out of the way. On the road, speed is a crucial factor in difficult weather conditions and
should always be lower than that of regular weather conditions. In winter conditions, always
keep a safe distance behind other vehicles and keep a closer watch than usual on other cars,
motorcyclists, and bicyclists. Bear in mind the particular characteristics of different weather
conditions. On icy roads, it is essential to do everything more carefully than normal. Slow
down as soon as you are aware of ice, steer gently to avoid harsh turns, keep in the highest
gear you can, and, if you have to brake, use short, even applications on the brake pedal, not
heavy sustained pressure.
Rain, at any time during the year, makes roads perilous. However, in winter conditions
the effects of rain on visibility are much worse, especially when there is heavy spray from
other vehicles. Thus, switch on dipped headlights (not high beams) to see and be seen. Slow
down and watch for large pools of water in heavy storms. Hitting these at high speed can
cause even the most experienced drivers to loose control of the vehicle, either by swerving as
only one front wheel is impacted by the water, or by hydroplaning as multiple wheels skim on
the water and momentarily loose contact with the road surface. At night, rain worsens the
glare from headlights, so it is vital to reduce speed in such conditions. Stopping distances are
much greater on wet roads so allow plenty of room between you and the vehicle in front of
you.
Figure 1: Slow but safe. Finnish UN Peacekeepers in Cyprus.
Driving in the desert requires a competent driver able to read the terrain and find the
most appropriate ways of getting from one destination to another, thus avoiding loose sand
and invisible sand dunes. Knowledge about the area is a necessity and the use of a guide is
strongly recommended. To get lost in the desert is a dangerous adventure. Vehicles should
be equipped with extra water bottles, jerry cans for gasoline, and shovels. Long-bodied
vehicles are preferred compared to short-bodied ones, as they have a tendency to get stuck in
the sand. If you do get stuck in the sand, try to get out using the same tracks.
In general, the following may apply:

• Adjust your speed to the prevailing conditions.
• Drive near the center of the road.
• Wear seat belts.
• Make sure you can operate the all features of the car (switching from two to four wheel
drive, anti spin control, use of winch, etc.).
• Be familiar with the routes and if your safety is in danger, vary the route.
• Memorize safe locations in case of emergencies.
• Report departure and arrival.
• If you have a vehicle breakdown, report it to offices concerned, and evaluate the security
situation. In non-secure areas with checkpoints and similar stops, drive very slowly on
approach, stop if requested and show ID card, do not resist vehicle search but protest.
• If you encounter a hold-up or hijacking situation stop the vehicle and remain calm.
Always cooperate and be compliant to the demand. (Also see below)
• If you are followed drive to a busy street or to a police station or another recognized safe
place.
7.4 Special Security Precautions
Highjacking of a UN Vehicle
The highjacking of a vehicle can take place anywhere in the world, especially in areas
where law enforcement is ineffective. Events have demonstrated that UN personnel (or others
as well) are potential targets of vehicle highjacking. The guidelines shown below have been
developed over the years as the most effective ways to deal with vehicle highjacking and to
save the life of the highjacked individual by not seeking a confrontation.
• If involved in a hijacking situation, stay calm, do not provoke or antagonize the abductors,
try to negotiate, do whatever you are forced to do. Watch your body language, move
slowly, and try to defuse the situation. Appear to be innocent; do not try to save anything
but your life. Never try to hide anything or to throw away vehicle keys or obliterate any
property.
• Cooperate with hijackers and make no attempt to flee. Hijackers should be told that they
have taken an FO who is in their country in the service of the United Nations and who has
no malice towards them.
• If the hijackers insist on stealing the vehicle, you may request to remove all personal
belongings from the vehicle. If two vehicles are involved, the rear vehicle should not
attempt to render assistance but should, if possible, retire to a safe distance, inform the
office (HQ) of the situation, and be prepared to render assistance when the hijackers have
left.
It is imperative that the FO be familiar with the security arrangements of the working place
(duty station) or the mission area. Such arrangements include standard procedures in case of
highjacking, as mentioned above. In a UN mission the reaction can only be efficient if it is
initiated by a timely and accurate message, if possible passed by the potential victim if the
situation allows, or by a witness to the incident. This will be given absolute priority by any
mission office or headquarters.
If the FO is detained, there is no reason to conceal anything from the abductors; make it
clear that you are a member of the UN, a peaceful organization and explain the mandate of the
mission. Do not fear any later disapproval or punishment because of saying something you
were forced to. Under these circumstances, your first task is to survive and come out of the
situation with as little difficulty as possible.
• Keep calm, obey orders and never argue.

• Try to rest and keep yourself physically and mentally active.
• Be aware that everything will be done to save your life. Trust in the efforts of UN and all
other nations involved to achieve your release.
• Never do anything that could undermine the fact that you are a UN-member.
• Avoid any resistance that could be misinterpreted by your detainees.
Mine Awareness
An FO frequently works in a
conflict area or in the vicinity of
former battlefields. A profound
knowledge of the “mine situation”
and other types of battlefield debris
is a necessity before entering such
areas. Situations may also occur
where some elements of the
conflicting parties are engaged in
operations using not only mines but
also other explosive devices
directed against each other or UN
personnel. Avoid these areas. If off-
route movements are inevitable,
walk or drive on stony ground,
where mines or munitions would be
hard to conceal. Recognition of
devices/mines in use and where
such threat exists is a must for all Figure 2: A landmine.
UN personnel and others concerned.
The following can serve as general guidance:
Where to expect mines:

• In exits from roads and in damaged roads (placed to delay repair).
• Bottlenecks, edges, and forks in roads and tracks.
• Anywhere in unpaved tracks.
• Around abandoned houses and equipment.
• As booby traps in houses or buildings: doors, drawers, toilets.
• In diversions around obstacles.
• Near springs, drinking places, shade, or anywhere people are likely to be attracted.
Movement in mined areas:

• Be alert in looking for signs of mines (objects which can be natural or artificial and look
out of place in surrounds).
• Be wary of moving over obvious and easy ground and do not walk on road verges.
• If caught in a mined or trapped area on foot, make for the nearest safe area (hard road or
recent vehicle tracks).
• If in a vehicle which is halted in a minefield, withdraw by using the preceding vehicle
tracks until clear.
• Mark and report findings.
Precautions for Drivers:

• Vary routes in and out to avoid roadside bombs.
• Drive in the center of the road, clear of verges and avoid turns on roads.
• Avoid excessive speed.
• Stay on the road at halts.
Snipers
In battle zones or other areas with a high level of violence, snipers are a genuine threat. If
possible, avoid these areas. If not, pay attention to all unexpected movements and use
common sense.
In buildings:
As a general rule, personnel should not stand by open windows and never leave the
curtains/blinds open at night when lights are on in occupied rooms. However, should the FOs
be subjected to sniper fire, they are to take cover immediately. If near a window, they should
move to a position where they have a substantial wall between themselves and the direction
from which the gunfire was heard.
When in vehicles:
Personnel should not remain stationary for longer than necessary when travelling.
Should personnel be subjected to sniper fire while stationary, they should exit the area
immediately. If the sniper fire prevents the personnel from escape using the vehicle, they
should exit the vehicle and take cover. If possible, they should call (radio/mobile) for
assistance.
Should personnel receive sniper fire while moving in a vehicle, they should speed up to
the safest possible speed and exit the area immediately.
7.5 First-Aid
The FOs find themselves far from medical facilities in time of need. Thus, everyone must
be prepared to handle minor medical emergencies and know the steps to be taken at any
location in order to obtain additional medical support. The FOs should ensure that they are
familiar with the instructions of Emergency First-Aid and how to act in case of an emergency
before any assignment to the field. Therefore, this part of Lesson 7 will only briefly deal with
this very important matter.
Accidents
In case of an accident, bring the patient to a safe place. Be aware that the accident may
have caused a major injury, such as a broken neck. Stay calm, and act decisively with care.
Ask, look, listen, think, and assess carefully:
• Is he/she breathing and is the air passage clear? Assure respiration by tilting the head and
lifting the chin.
• Check the condition. How does he/she react? (conscious and alert, drowsy, unconscious)
In case of suffocation, give mouth-to-mouth resuscitation.
• How is the pulse?
• Is the victim bleeding? Give first-aid treatment if needed.
• Check for any immobilized limbs.
• Treat for shock. If the patient is pale, cold, and/or weak, let him/her rest, have fluids, and
be covered by blankets.
• Move out of danger and then call for assistance (medics).
Gently assess the nature of the injuries/illness and administer the necessary care. Position
the patient appropriately and reassure the patient. Never leave an unconscious or severely
injured patient unattended. Call for help or get somebody to call an ambulance, an appropriate
medical clinic, or the office of the mission. Take whatever steps are necessary and in
accordance with the Emergency First-Aid instructions. If possible, organize and manage the
site until help arrives.
Weather Conditions
If you encounter heat exhaustion, you may recognize the symptoms, such as exhaustion,
headache, pains in the back or limbs, mental confusion, and fainting. Cramps, abdominal
pains, vomiting, collapse, and deep unconsciousness are indicators of severe exhaustion. Treat
the patient for shock.
• Relieve hotness and sweating by any means.
• Long cold drinks with one teaspoon of salt or sugar per liter.
Cold wind and wet clothing may lead to a lowering of the body temperature and the
dangerous state of hypothermia. In this case, the patient may move into lethargy, stumble, fall
and later experience uncontrollable shivering and failure of vision
• Prevent further loss of body heat and move to shelter.
• Provide hot drinks and sugar.
Burns
For minor burns, wash the area and apply a clean sterile bandage. For severe burns, cover
the burned area and never pull away sticking clothing, cover burned faces, or use ointments. If
possible, cool the burned area and treat the patient for shock.
7.6 Health Precautions
General Rules
Maintaining good personal hygiene is easy under normal conditions. It may be more
problematic under stress or when extreme weather conditions reduce the working capacity.
Bad hygiene may further aggravate an already severe situation. Most FOs are aware of these
facts but should anyhow pay attention to the realities and take necessary precautions.
Consumption of food, liquor, and soft drinks is a common problem, and temporary sickness is
frequent. The following may serve as a general guide:
• Avoid local liquors and excessive consumption of alcohol.

• If you are not accustomed to spicy and highly seasoned foods, you should only eat
them in moderation.
• Raw vegetables, salads, cold sauces (gravies), and dairy products should be avoided
unless their source or origin can be verified.
• You should avoid fruits unless the outer skin is unbroken and can be removed prior to
consumption.
• Use only canned or boiled milk, and, similarly, ensure water purification tablets are
used, or that water is boiled prior to consumption. Water should be kept at the boiling
temperature for at least ten minutes.
• Well-cooked foods are normally safe to eat, but let your common sense be the guide.
• Be aware that a vast majority of people who have the Human Immunodeficiency
Virus (HIV) contracted it by having sexual intercourse with someone who was already
infected. But HIV can also be transmitted by infected blood or blood products (as in
blood transfusions), the use of drugs through contaminated needles, or any needles
used for tattooing.
• Treat minor injuries or scratches immediately.
• Sometimes you may have headaches. Remember that headaches in hot climates may
be caused by the lack of salt. Ensure that you have a normal salt intake either through
the food provided or through salt tablets.
• Be aware of snakes and other unwelcome inhabitants.
Field operators are sometimes confronted with an inordinate amount of stressful

situations that are potentially harmful if not managed properly. Knowing what can be
expected, such as the nature of the task and mission, duration of the assignment, living and
working conditions, and means for communication with loved ones can greatly reduce the
physical and emotional demands that contribute to stress. FOs exposed to a traumatic
experience should seek professional treatment as soon as possible. Unfortunately, accidents
occur, and everyone who has witnessed or experienced an accident is always affected. The
immediate and most effective treatment is based on communication on an emotional level.
Talks and discussions can be part of such treatment and should focus on the present and be
confidential, supportive, and educational. Nevertheless, professional assistance should always
be considered.
Learning Questions
Knowledge
What kinds of preparations are necessary before departure to the mission area?
What, in your opinion, are the most important security precautions when you are at home
(as a resident in the mission area)?
What are the rules you have to follow when moving outside your office (duty station,
location)?
What are the basic rules if you become involved in a hijack situation?
What are the basic rules if you are detained?
What is “mine-awareness” and where can you expect to find mines?
How do you protect yourself when travelling in a car and exposed to sniper fire?
What are the seven points in emergency first-aid?
What are the symptoms of heat exhaustion?
Awareness
What are the reasons why you may be a target of a violent action, crime, or robbery?
Why do you have to report your departure and arrival when travelling?
Why should doors be kept locked and windows rolled up when you travel by car?
Why should you be restrictive in giving out your phone number?
Why is the United Nations so concerned about safety and security?
Applications
You have just arrived at your new duty station (location) and have the first informal
discussion with your partners from another UN agency. The issue of security is discussed,
and it seems that your partners are not particularly concerned. When you stress the importance
of safety and security and the necessity to read the security instructions, they answer, “Don’t
worry! But, just give us five reasons why we need to read it!” How would you answer?
LESSON 7
END-OF-LESSON QUIZ
1. Around 50 percent of all security accidents occur during travels.

a. True
b. False
2. Which one of the four principles listed below do you judge, upon arrival to a new locale,
as the most important one?
a. Impartiality;
b. Confidence building;
c. Security consent;
d. Adherence to security measures in the mission area.
3. “Make sure that you understand what is expected of you as a professional” applies to
safety precautions:
a. Upon arrival;
b. At the office;
c. Before departure to the Mission;
d. At work.
4. Staying at a reputable hotel is recommended because:

a. They normally have proper security;
b. The food and drinking water is supposed to be safe;
c. It is more safe in terms of transport and communication;
d. It is more comfortable.
5. To avoid unnecessary robbery or pick pocketing:

a. Never wear expensive clothing;
b. Always keep your wallet in the briefcase;
c. Always use the first available taxi;
d. When in the taxi keep the doors locked and windows rolled up all the way.
6. When travelling make sure that (chose the most important one):
a. Your family is informed about your itinerary;
b. Your office is informed about your itinerary;
c. Concerned offices are informed about your itinerary;
d. You report to your office when you have arrived.
7. If you, when travelling by car, encounter a hold-up or hijacking situation:

a. Speed up and drive through as fast as possible;
b. Turn around and go back;
c. Stop the car and roll up the windows;
d. Stop the car and cooperate.
8. Where might you expect to find mines?

a. In paved tracks;
b. Around houses and equipment;
c. Bottlenecks, edges and forks in roads and tracks;
d. Both b. and c.
9. Exhaustion, headache, and pains in the back or limbs may be symptoms of:
a. Heat exhaustion;
b. Shock caused by injures;
c. Lack of salt;
d. Excessive consumption of alcohol.
10. HIV may be contracted through:

a. Sexual intercourse;
b. Blood products;
c. Contaminated needles;
LESSON 7
ANSWER KEY
1. a. True
2. d. Adherence to security measures in the mission area
3. c. Before departure to the Mission
4. a. They normally have proper security
5. d. When in the taxi keep the doors locked and windows rolled up all
the way
6. c. Concerned offices are informed about your itinerary
7. d. Stop the car and cooperate
8. d. Both b. and c.
9. a. Heat exhaustion

LESSON 8
THE AVAILABLE TOOLS
Learning Objectives 8.6 Mediation

• Key Questions • Preparation and Conduct
• Use of Interpreters
Introduction
8.7 Written Communications and
8.1 Participatory Methods Reports
• Types of Written Communication
8.2 Projects and Project Control • Examples of Letters
• Project Development • E-mail
• Management
8.3 Monitoring • General Advice
• International Humanitarian Law (IHL) • Rules in Dealing with the Media
and Human Rights (HR)
• Humanitarian Assistance Learning Questions
• Election • Knowledge
• Confidence Building • Awareness
• Applications
8.4 Liaison and Information • End-of-Lesson Quiz
8.5 Negotiation
• Purpose
• Preparation
• Conduct
Lesson 8 / The Available Tools 124
LESSON 8
Learning Objectives
Previous lessons have given the student an awareness and certain knowledge of United
Nations guiding principles seen from both the institutional and operational perspectives.
Other lessons have focused on the working environment and where the student should have
been familiarized with the problems and practicalities he/she may face in the field.
Subsequently, the following lessons deal with how and in what way the field operator can
utilize the various available mechanisms and entities that have proven useful in the
accomplishment of the work. While the next lesson provides information of other
organizations usually present in the field, this lesson discuss some of the most promoting
tools which have proven to be essential for a professional fulfilment of a task. Even if the
student obtains any knowledge, it should be emphasized that the necessary skills can only be
achieved through personal and practical experiences.
What is the purpose of participatory methods?
What is the purpose of the liaison system?
What is the purpose of information?
What are the major differences between negotiation and mediation?
What is the purpose of preparation before negotiation?
Which are the six phases in developing a project?
What should be considered in the evaluation of a project?
What is to be included in all written communication?
In what way can the media be used as a promotional factor in an emergency operation?

Introduction
Most of the United Nations’ missions have a humanitarian and/or political dimension
where human interaction and contacts are the principal instruments. Success will be hard to
achieve without an effective and practical use of these communicative mechanisms. Thus, the
basic elements of interpersonal communications are: making contacts, talking to people, and
being concerned, human behaviours normally exercised at home. These same activities
provide a favourable atmosphere in the field. If these conditions prevail, they will greatly
facilitate the FO’s work, regardless whether it concerns reaching a cease-fire agreement or
implementing a project. However, getting there requires a certain technique that depends on
the task and the available resources. There are several (working) tools or methods that are at
the FO’s disposal, although not all of them are mentioned below. Generally, they may be
defined as the promoting mechanisms between a given task, available resources, and the
accomplishment.
8.1 Participatory Methods
The motivation and inducement of other people is a functional strategy in programme

development. The Participatory Development Programme (PDP), as developed by the UN
Development Programme (UNDP), is a powerful and useful tool. Although, there is no
specific formulation of the programme objectives, they aim at better efficiency/effectiveness,
and they encourage and empower the local population in assuming responsibility for various
projects.
The basic principle is to get local people involved in a project to such an extent that
they, for obvious reasons, will take over the responsibilities of the project. Over time,
experience indicates that the local involvement, compared with the “top-down” strategy, is
even more effective, as it gives confidence in local societies and an increasing contribution to
their own standard of living. The purpose and practical adherence to these people-centered
activities are expressed in United Nations Volunteer Handbook, 2000. Briefly they state:
“The primacy of people: whatever the purpose or ultimate goal of the project or programme,
people’s interests, their needs and their wishes must be allowed to underpin the key decisions and
actions relating to the project.
People’s contribution: people’s knowledge and skills must be seen as a potentially positive
contribution to the project - a project which does not seek to make use of local knowledge and
skills may not only be less effective but will also be squandering a useful resource.
People’s participation must empower women: participatory development should seek to improve
gender inequalities through providing a means by which women can take part in decision-making.
Autonomy as opposed to control: as far as it is realistic to do so, seek to invest as much
responsibility as possible for the project with the local people and, thus, avoid having absolute
control in the hands of project staff.
Local actions as opposed to local responses: encouraging local people to make decisions and to
take action within the broad parameters of the project, as opposed to merely responding passively
to initiatives proposed by others.
Allow for some flexibility in project direction: promoting people’s participation will mean that, as
far as it is reasonably possible, the project should be allowed to develop in accordance with the
abilities of local people to play an increasing role and to begin to assume some responsibility.”
UNDP and other organizations have developed a range of similar methods all under
Participatory Development Programme (PDP). Some of the most commonly used methods
include: Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA); Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA); Stakeholder
Analysis; Gender Analysis; Participatory Action Research (PAR); and Objective Oriented
Project Planning (ZOPP). Depending on the circumstances, the actual project and its
contextual involvement in the principal development programme, these methods are useful
tools in the practical implementation of projects.
8.2 Projects and Project Control
Several thousands of field workers worldwide (operators) are involved in the technical
implementation of projects
that are frequently associated
with a national development
programme. Those
international and/or national
FOs who work under such
conditions will probably face a
wide range of tasks that entail
everything from planning to
evaluating. Depending on the
FO’s level of professionalism
and experience, he/she may be
responsible for certain parts of
the project or even have to
assume the full responsibility.
Whatever, management and
management control are Figure 1: An infant being weighed at a UNICEF-supported
important tools. clinic. Jilib, Somalia - April 1993, UN 159828 M. Grant.
Project management is usually divided in different phases, sometimes overlapping but

with their own distinctive objectives. The following is not comprehensive but provides an
overview of the various steps that may be used in the field.
Project Development
Usually a project encompasses six phases: project identification, project justification,
project description, implementation of the project, follow-up, and evaluation. The
justification is probably the most important of the six phases since it provides the background
and motivation for further actions. It should refer to a feasibility study – the project
identification. Including the project justification, the phases are:
• Project identification is the very first phase of a project. It might be an incident, a point
made in a discussion, or any other events that foster the first embryo of a future project.
The idea is only valid when it has been put into a context and identified either as a need
or as a solution to a problem. Thereafter, the idea must be refined and clearly described.
• Project justification, which is the next step, must answer the most fundamental questions
about the aim and purpose of the project: (i) Who is affected? (ii) What is the problem?
(iii) How can it be solved? (iv) What are reasonable resources to be used? The questions
must be carefully analyzed and should result in a project description, which should be
brief, well structured, and succinct. Completed analysis should be summarized and
technical information attached as appendixes. The project justification is the first formal
step and, if approved, will authorize the development of the detailed description of the
project.
• The project description should give the necessary (i) background to why the project is
needed, previous experiences in this field, and a clear account of its objectives and
affected target group(s). (ii) Is the project technically feasible and what kind of resources
are available or must be procured? (iii) Organization of the project and its future
integration in the community or in the country must be defined and projected. (iv)
Estimated costs covering both up-front investments and on-going operational costs must
be identified and financial resources explained – from where and how. Financial
requirements must match expected effectiveness and eventual profitability. (v) Timetable
and a plan for implementation must be included. An approved project description is a
necessity for requested financial resources.
• A formal agreement must precede the implementation phase. The implementation plan
should include a course of action, periodic budgets, budget allocation, time for reports on
the status of the project, and a statement of accounts, obligations (of the parties) and an
evaluation plan. References should be made on specific collaboration and coordination
with others.
• The follow-up process should be comprised of not only the control of the economic
activities such as disbursements and the use of available assets, but also control of the
physical activities. Physical activity follow-up is preferably fulfilled through visits to the
actual site(s), comparisons between the implementation plan and the actual status of the
project, comparison between orders, and deliveries, as well as through frequent follow-up
meetings.
• The project evaluation assesses whether the achievements match the objectives as stated
in the project description and justify the resources used. The analysis should be based on
either an appraisal of the quantitative or qualitative accomplishments or as a combination
of both.
Management
It is recommended that a flow chart be developed to follow a project and ensure
effective management. The chart will provide the project manager with an overview of the
project and will facilitate the control of the various phases of the project, use of resources, etc.
Such a chart should be developed at the very beginning of the project or whenever necessary.
Almost all organizations have their own guidelines for projects and project management. FOs
who are likely to be involved in project activities must be sure to acquire relevant information
in situ.
The identification and acquisition of funding can often be as difficult as the planning
and management of a project. A project may be financed though domestic financial resources
or through international resources such as trade, foreign direct investment, and other private
flows. Support can also be provided by international financial cooperation for development,
including official development assistance. Wherever the funding comes from, it is of utmost
importance to ensure that a written commitment exists and that the money flows to the project
in accordance with standard and accepted procedures.
8.3 Monitoring
FOs may be involved in monitoring political tasks such as cease-fire agreements,

election monitoring, or humanitarian assistance. Careful but not abusive supervision,
observation, information-gathering and reporting are the most important tools but may also
include more complex activities, such as the inspection and verification of troop withdrawal.
For the purpose of this section, they are all titled monitoring. Depending on her/his previous
experiences, the FO will work in different areas and must accordingly ensure that he/she
knows and understands the mandate of the mission and the nature of the assigned tasks. The
FOs should aim to preserve and demonstrate objectiveness wherever possible and not display
any signs of favouritism. The monitoring duties may encompass a wide range of tasks of
which the following may serve as examples:
International Humanitarian Law (IHL) and Human Rights (HR)

IHL deals with the protection of soldiers, sailors, civilians, POWs, and cultural heritage
during times of armed conflict. Human Rights are more general and not limited to times of
armed conflict. The level of the FO’s involvement will depend on previous experience.
He/she may operate/monitor independently or assist others in the field or in an administrative
entity. Irrespective of level and responsibility, all investigations to verify alleged violence
against human rights is meticulous work and must be carried out with great sensitiveness.
Humanitarian Assistance
In the field of humanitarian work, the FOs may
cooperate with the humanitarian organizations
already working in the area. The work varies
greatly. It might be monitoring the delivery of
commodities, food distribution, health programmes,
educational tasks, or administrative work or
assessment of a certain situation. The FO may also
monitor the evacuation of refugees and the
wounded from the disaster zones. By working in the
humanitarian field, the FO must ensure that the
humanitarian imperatives are fully considered.
Election
If the FO has election-related experience,
he/she may be involved in four major areas:
registration; election campaigning; voting
procedures; and counting. In monitoring an
election, the FO should always keep a low profile in
order not to jeopardize their positions of
impartiality. They must be familiar with the specific
Figure 2: Somalis walking towards duties and follow the guidelines for the rules of
a UN-supported feeding center
conduct of an electoral monitor and never interfere
operated by the International
Association Against Hunger, an if they are assigned to monitor the voting process.
Italian non-governmental
organization. Badera, Somalia -
April 1993. UN 159849 M. Grant.
Figure 3: An electoral worker explains voting procedures to a voter

at the mobile polling station in the Ovitoto Reserve, Okahanja,
Namibia, UN 157116 M. Grant - November 1989.
Confidence Building
It is a demanding task to monitor and report the situation of an economy, social life, and
infrastructure and try to develop ideas for reconstruction. Project development and project
management can be part of confidence building activities. Accordingly, the FO will help
parties to become more ready and able to deal with each other productively, helping them to
evaluate their alternatives to cooperation, understand interests, develop creative options, and
build working relationships.
8.4 Liaison and Information
To liaise means to communicate. To work as a liaison officer means that the FO serves
as a communicator between various actors. Thus, liaison is an inter-communicative means
with the purpose to promote transparency between local/national authorities, parties (to a
conflict) and other organizations concerned. FOs should consider liaison as a structural link
between their own organization and others through which discussions of mutual problems can
take place – a kind of a working relationship that provides good information about actual
problems. The liaison system in a multi-dimensional operation is crucial since it provides
timely passage of information between all factions concerned, such as the civil population;
humanitarian actors; concerned authorities; and militia. The requirement for liaison will
increase in proportion to the complexity of the political environment. Information passed
through the liaison system is essential since it produces and disseminates updated assessments
of the progress of the work/mission and other notable events. In a non-secure environment,
the information and liaison system can also serve as a means to provide timely information
about the prevailing security condition in the mission area. The liaison system is accessible
since it systematically channels information that helps the FO in his/her daily work.
In the past, information-gathering has been almost avoided in the UN system. There is a
simple reason for this reluctance: information was apprehended as a type of intelligence and
linked to the military system, where intelligence activities have another purpose with its own
distinction and interpretation of the word intelligence. Information-gathering under the
conditions the civilian FO is working is different. It means that the field operator in an
emergency area, which is affected, for example, by a severe drought, must ensure that the
planned delivery of correctly composed food commodities reach the most affected people at
an appropriate place and time. In order to ensure these requirements, the FO should gather
information as a means to make the correct decision. However, information could also be
interpreted as essential knowledge in order to make correct assessments of the local
conditions, resources, etc., prior to decisions about a project. Such information-gathering
might be more complicated since questions will be raised concerning local infrastructures,
political elements, composition of the local societies, and more. Nevertheless, all information
gathering requires the FO to deal with responsible people, officials, and other authorities. In
doing so, he/she should have an open mind, honesty, and absolute trust.
The following points, although sourced from a military authority, provide an excellent
example of the most important questions the FO may use when involved in circumstances
such as those previously described. Doing this within an established liaison system is of great
advantage, particularly as a means to get an overall picture of the prevailing situation.
Examples of questions to be answered (Applied to a refugee situation):

• Where are the refugees originally from? What is the size of the original population? What is
the size of the area and population that the village services in the surrounding countryside?
• What is the size of the refugee population? Why did they come here? What is the relationship
of the village with the surrounding villages? Are they related? Do they support each other?
Are they hostile toward each other? Is any portion of the village population discriminated
against?
• What is the food and water status of the village? Where do they get their food? What other
means of subsistence is available? Are the villagers farmers or herders? What is the status of
their crops/herds? What is the quality of the water source?
• What is the medical status of the village? What services are available in the village? What is
the location of the nearest medical facility? Is there evidence of illness and/or starvation?
What portion of the population is affected? What is the death rate? What diseases are
reported in the village?
• What civilian organizations exist in the village? Who are their leaders?
• What civil/military organizations exist in the village? Who are their leaders?
• What organization/leadership element does the general population seem to support or trust
the most?
• Which organization seems to have the most control in the village?
• What UN relief agencies operate in the village? Who are their representatives? What services
do they provide? What portion of the population do they service? Do they have an outreach
programme for the surrounding countryside?
• What is the security situation in the village? What element(s) is the source of the problems?
What types and quantities of weapons are in the village? What are the locations of the
minefields?
• What commercial or business activities are present in the village? What services or products
do they produce?
• What are the groups in the village that are in the most need? What are their numbers? Where
did they come from? How long have they been there? What are their specific needs?
• What civic employment projects would the village leaders like to see started?
• Determine the number of families in the village. What are their names (family)? How many in
each family?
• What food items are available in the local market? What is the cost of these items? Are relief
supplies being sold in the market? If so, what items, what is their source, and what is the
price?
• What skilled labor or services are available in the village (non-HRA)?
• What is the size of any transient population in the village? Where did they come from and how
long have they been there?
(Source: US Army Center for Lessons Learned Sample Peacekeeping Operations Intelligence Checklist)
The new information technology has brought another dimension to the management of
the United Nations field missions. The new technology offers opportunities for a better
interoperability as it provides an effective sharing of information among the various elements
in a field mission. The possibilities to monitor operationally-sensitive areas is explored and
will probably be of great advantage in order to enhance the capacity of the peacekeeping
operations. However, while the technique is new, the methods are the same. In the aftermath
of the war between Egypt and Israel (1972), the Sinai Field Mission (SFM) was given the task
to monitor the sensitive Mittla Pass in the Sinai desert. By using highly sensitive sensors, a
small civilian contingent was engaged in a early warning system which worked satisfactory
for six years until 1979. Aerial surveillance was used over the Golan Heights (Israel/Syria) in
the 1970s, and “classical” intelligence activities were carried out during the United Nations
operation in Congo (ONUC) in the 1960s.
8.5 Negotiation
Purpose
Negotiation is the most common procedure within a mission in order to settle a dispute
or reach an agreement. Negotiation refers to a direct dialogue with one or more counterparts
or parties. Negotiation can take place as a means to increase the number of workers or to
secure the safe passage of a relief convoy, for example. Mediation is similar to negotiation but
in mediation there is a go-between responsibility for facilitating communications between the
parties. The ultimate aim of negotiation and mediation is to reach an agreement to which all
concerned have freely concurred. In negotiations particularly, the role of the negotiator can be
very decisive. While he/she has no authority to “enforce” a solution, he/she can and should
use persuasion in assisting the disputing parties to arrive at a negotiated settlement. Careful
planning and preparation will help the FO to accomplish this task.
It is beyond the scope of this lesson to deal with all aspects of negotiation. However, in
negotiation processes, whether conducted at a working or policy level, a successful outcome
is dependent on the chemistry between the negotiators. Their expected professional and
positive performance should aim at the establishment of mutual trust and confidence. The
following general advice is useful in the art of negotiation.
• Your own party should consist of at least two people and never outnumber the opposing
group.
• Maintain dignity and politeness during dealings with other people.
• Remain respectful towards all with whom you are dealing.
• Remember to pay social compliments to hosts and representatives involved in the

negotiations.
• Always arrange prior to the next meeting: the location, time, attendees, content/subject
matter to be discussed; the nature of documentation (i.e., agenda and "minutes" to record
what was discussed and, hopefully, agreed).
Preparation
Since the basic purpose of negotiation is to achieve something or to resolve a dispute, the
negotiation has to be well prepared. The definition and identification of the problem is part of
the preparation.
• What is the problem/task? Has it been discussed before? Why should it be discussed at
this time? What is the background/history? What is the current situation?
• Obtain all possible information about the issue and outline the options for a settlement.
Read previous reports on the matter.
• What was the conclusion and how does it relate to previous or future arrangements? Who
were the persons involved: name, rank, personality, authority, and attitudes?
• What are your options, limitations, frame, mandate, etc.?
• When and where will the negotiation take place? Establish an agenda for the meeting.
When the problem has been properly identified, the practicalities have to be discussed. If
there will be a delegation, who is the head? Who will do the talking? Who will take notes?
Decide on the role of the interpreter. How many of you will attend the meeting and, thus,
avoiding any overrepresentation? When all preparations and practical arrangements are
completed, ensure that your party arrives in due time.
Conduct
Be aware that the parties concerned have a stake and share in the settlement of the
dispute, and that a positive or negative outcome may not by itself represent the end. The
opening talks should include an introduction of the (your) team and the presentation of the
agenda (if not submitted in advance). Some introductory small talk may be useful and polite
and gives all an opportunity to assess the atmosphere and the mood of the attendants.
• If possible, let the counterpart start, listen, and do not interrupt; be patient and start to
agree on the agenda subjects.
• If incorrect information is given, settle the facts (supported by evidence) but do not argue.
It is essential to state your opinion (facts only). If differences occur, note the opinion of
your counterpart and highlight the most essential point.
• In some cases the task may include conveying complaints. Ensure that the complaint is
clear in all its details, and preferably confirmed in writing. If necessary, declare that the
issue will be reconsidered after due investigation.
• Make no promises or admissions, unless the situation or your mandate clearly permits you
to do so. Do not reveal anything about one party that could be exploited by the other party.
To be impartial and correct is always an advantage.
• Be restrained if one of the parties makes negative comments about the organization you
represent. Try to make everybody accept the mandate and the solution it promotes by
making careful reminders about agreements, actual arrangements, and past practices.
• Complete the negotiation by repeating what has been agreed upon, if possible have it
confirmed in writing. Agree upon a time and place for further negotiations and conclude
the discussion with some final and polite phrases, etc.
The report of the meeting and the follow up are important. Prepare a short verbal briefing
for your superior/headquarters, and write a detailed report containing, facts, conclusions,
recommendations and further arrangements.
8.6 Mediation
Mediation is a more complex and comprehensive activity. As a mediator, you carry more
responsibility since you, as a neutral third party, have to serve as facilitator to encourage
communication and seek agreement (go-between for the parties). This requires meticulous
preparations, particularly concerning the agenda and pre-accepted subjects for the meeting.
Although mediation includes the same pattern and formalities as for negotiation, the following
points should be considered.
Preparation and Conduct

• Meet the parties separately before the meeting and identify the problem areas.
• Coordinate with the parties and make an approved agenda and distribute it before the
meeting.
• Discuss the “hard” subjects with those concerned and consider possible solutions to the
main issue.
• Propose and decide a meeting place.
• Discuss and establish the conditions for the meeting, for example, number of participants,
use of interpreters, communications, seating, separate rooms for informal settings, etc.
When the UN is involved in mediation, the parties may sometimes require the UN to chair
the meeting. A chairperson may conduct the meeting as follows:
• Start the meeting by reading the agreed agenda.

• If there has been a previous meeting, give the status of what has been implemented.
• Present possible options which have previously been separately discussed with the parties
and make every effort to find a common ground for solutions.
• Appear neutral and observe objectivity.
• Try to balance the outcome (“one for you and one for you”).
• The conclusion must be agreed upon and clearly documented.
• If nothing has been agreed upon, ensure that the parties can meet again – never close the
door.
Use of Interpreters
In mediations (as for negotiations) interpreters are frequently needed. They are often
recruited from the local population and paid a salary in accordance with a (UN) contract. A
good interpreter is an asset in all negotiations/mediations – not only that he or she will know
the local language but also they will know the customs and habits of the country as well.
However, one has to be careful not to discuss sensitive matters directly with interpreters,
which may have an impact on the situation per se, considering their loyalty, which not always
rests with the employing organization. An interpreter should be required to interpret with the
greatest of accuracy, not add anything or try to explain a subject and never participate in the
discussions. He/she must have a non-visible attitude and be as impartial as possible. In an
interpreted discussion, the principals should speak directly to their counterparts and not to the
interpreter.
8.7 Written Communications and Reports
Types of Written Communication

FOs working in larger operations or missions will sooner or later face the demands of
written communication, particularly if the FO is involved in any kind of administrative work.
Types of communications are official communications such as formal or informal letters
(coded cables), memoranda, and facsimile (fax). Non-official communications usually take
the form of a note or a transmittal form. Memos, draft reports, or official letters have to be
understandable, accessible, and readable and simplicity in language and structure is a
principal rule.
Written communication includes formalities such as addressee, sender, date, file
reference, and, if required, a security classification. The distribution list should be carefully
considered. Who really needs the document? The subject must be clearly defined and the
purpose of the message easy to identify. If an answer is required, it should be indicated either
in the beginning or at the end of the message. An official report, for example, from a project
or travel, is required to be well structured. An executive summary at the beginning, including
background and a summary of the recommendations, is highly recommended since such a
summary provides the reader with the first insights into the subject. The terms of reference,
and purpose of the study or visit must be mentioned. The document should end with a
conclusion, which may partly be used in the executive summary.
Examples of Letters
Official Letters and what is called an Inter Office Memos are the two most common
types of letters. (Examples are at the end of this lesson)
E-mail
Electronic mail, or e-mail, is by far the fastest and most accessible way to communicate.
The FO should, however, be aware of the system’s limitations. Since the normal
administrative filter is deleted and messages not distributed in accordance with established
staff procedures, frequent users of e-mail cannot expect the same accuracy in handling and
response as for formal “hard copies.” E-mail messages should, therefore, be considered more
or less as an informal telephone messages to a mailbox (voice mail).
General Advice
Media is always a reality, although not always physically present. When spectacular
and/or dramatic events occur, the media cover is intensive, and if not properly handled, may
cause embarrassment and even jeopardize the work of the mission. Correct information
without any political statements but with indisputable facts is usually beneficial to all
missions/operations. As a matter of fact, missions frequently utilize the media as a means to
inform the public about current activities or about the mission itself. For example, the
Namibia operation (UNTAG) used the media in order to inform the local populations about
the purpose of the mission, the operational activities, and what could be expected in the near
future. In general, the media should be considered as an asset, but the FOs should recognize
the sensitiveness of dealing with them and should be well aquatinted with the mission’s media
policy.
Rules in Dealing with the Media

FOs should be aware that the media seldom consider you as (UN) representative,
sometimes with the prefix “senior” regardless of your position. Therefore, the FO should:
• Never give formal interviews without prior approval from a superior or the spokesman of
the mission.
• Always note and report the presence of the news media even if “media representatives”
present themselves as “accredited” in order to validate their own presence.
• Discuss only factual matters that are relevant to your work, and refer all other questions to
the mission-designated spokesman.
• Never mislead, take sides, or speculate, and do not provide personal opinions. A helpful,
honest, and positive performance is an asset.
Example 1.
An Official Letter is normally used between two organizations.

Ref.: UN Editorial Manual, ST/DCS/2.
SECURITY CLASSIFICATION
Copy _____ of _____Copies
Address of Sender ________________________________________________
Reference ___________
Addressees
SUBJECT _____________________________________________
References A................................................................
B................................................................
1................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................
2.......................................................................................
a..............................................................................................
b........................................................................................
(1)..............................................
(a).......................................
i.....................................
ii................................
SIGNATURE BLOCK
Annexes
Enclosures
Copies
SECURITY CLASSIFICATION
Example 2.
Inter Office Memo is used for internal correspondence within a mission or a HQ. It
is designed to save time and may be handwritten.
Ref.: UN Editorial Manual ST/DCS/2.
Letterhead of the Mission or Office
TO: .............................................. DATE: __________________

THROUGH: ..................................... REF: __________________
FROM: .............................................
SUBJECT _____________________________________________
1.....................................................................................................
..............................................................
2......................................................................................
......................................................................................
a.
b.
3.....................................................................................................
Copy to:.................................
.................................
NOTE:
(a) The interoffice memo will normally be written on the headed
notepaper of the particular mission involved.
(b) Unlike the other formats, these headings will be part of the notepaper.
(c) Normal paragraphing.
(d) No signature block. Normally the sender will sign after his/her typed name.
Learning Questions
Knowledge
What are the participatory methods?
Which points have to be included in a justification of a project?
What is an evaluation?
What is a liaison?
Why is information so necessary in an emergency operation?
What is the purpose of negotiation?
What is mediation?
Awareness
How would you describe a flow chart?
Why is it so important to make careful preparations before a negotiation?
You will serve as a third party in a mediation process. What does this mean?
Why can’t an interpreter participate in discussions?
What are the main points you have to consider in dealing with the media?
Applications
You have been in the mission area for several months and consider yourself a veteran
with lots of experience. Your chief is very appreciative and you are given more
responsibilities. One day he enters your office and asks you to prepare a negotiation
concerning the water purification project your office is developing. “Hi, we need to go ahead
with this water stuff and particularly to discuss the location of the plant. You know that the
locals are rather hesitant to the site we have proposed. Prepare a memo with some points
discussing how we can identify the problem and get the local people involved. Later we can
put in the hard stuff (facts). Send the memo to my office by this afternoon at the latest!”
How would you proceed, and what will be in the memo?
LESSON 8
END-OF-LESSON QUIZ
1. The overall reasons for participatory development are:

a. To make the implementation of programmes/projects more effective;
b. As a means of empowering people;
c. As a promotion of people’s participation;
d. Both a. and b.
2. Project justification:
a. Is when the project described in some brief but substantial terms and then
conceptualised;
b. Is the first formal step;
c. Is necessary for requested financial resources;
d. Includes a course of action.
3. Monitoring encompasses:
a. Observation, information-gathering, and reporting;
b. Assistance and advising;
c. Observation and supervision;
d. Supervision, information-gathering, and reporting.
4. Liaison means:
a. To serve as a communicator between various actors;
b. The structural link between other organizations;
c. To provide timely passage of information between conflicting parties;
5. Information should be obtained through the liaison system. The purpose of information
gathering is:
a. To ensure the timely delivery of food in terms of areas affected by drought;
b. To facilitate correct decision-making;
c. To understand the security environment;
6. Negotiation is:
a. A direct dialog with one or more counterparts;
b. Facilitating the dialog between other parties;
c. Neither a. nor b.
d. Both a. and b.
7. When the ultimate aim is to reach an agreement in which all concerned parties have freely
concurred, this is called:
a. Negotiation;
b. Mediation;
c. Persuasion;
d. Both a. and b.
8. In the preparation before a negotiation:

a. Read all the reports and obtain other useful information concerning the
matters;
b. Only view some of the most important reports in order to retain an open mind
and attitude;
c. Never set up limitations and options since you act as a third party;
d. In order to save time, go straight to the points after the meeting is declared
opened.
9. As a mediator, it is necessary to:

a. To serve as a communicator;
b. To serve as an interpreter;
c. To serve as a facilitator;
10. In discussions with media representatives:

a. Discuss only facts and make all efforts to be as correct as possible;
b. Discuss only facts that are of your own responsibility and refer other questions
to persons you may find appropriate;
c. Discuss only factual matters and refer other questions to a designated
spokesman;
d. Refer all questions to a designated spokesman.
LESSON 8
ANSWER KEY
2. b. Is the first formal step
3. a. Observation, information-gathering, and reporting
4. a. To serve as a communicator between various actors
6. a. A direct dialog with one or more counterparts
8. a. Read all the reports and obtain other useful

information concerning the matters
9. c. To serve as a facilitator
10. c. Discuss only factual matters and refer other questions to a

designated spokesman
LESSON 9
THE PARTNERS
Learning Objectives
• Key Questions
Introduction
Learning Questions
• Knowledge
• Awareness
• Applications
Lesson 9 / The Partners 142
LESSON 9
Learning Objectives
A large number of organizations are participating in an emergency operation. Those

organizations represent the international community either as part of the UN system, as
governmental, or as non-governmental organizations. Some of them may be small in size and
with limited mandates, while others are large and with a substantial impact on an operation.
On the grounds of practical reasons, it is not possible to list all organizations that may
participate in United Nations field activities; therefore, the compilation below can only
represent a small portion of all organizations that might be present in the field. The selection
is based on the author’s own experience. Except for two organizations, which deal with
training within the UN system, all others are frequently involved in UN field activities. The
objective of Lesson 9 is to acquaint the FO with some of the organizations that he/she will
most likely encounter while on a field assignment.
What is the definition of a non-governmental organization?
What is the coordinating body of humanitarian emergencies within the UN system?
What is the overall objective of UNICEF?
Which organization is the UN’s main coordinator in terms of development?
What is OHCHR?
What is UNHCR?
In what way does UNESCO contribute to the universal respect for justice of others and
human rights?
What are the overriding objectives of the WTO?
What is the main objective of ICRC?
In what way are non-governmental organizations linked to the UN system?

Introduction
The number of organizations involved in UN operations has dramatically increased. For

instance, in 1997 (two years after the signing of the Peace Accord), Guatemala hosted
approximately 700 different “aid” organizations working in the country. The experiences are
the same where similar conditions prevail. The difficulties to identify and “put a label” on
most of these entities are obvious although there are some prevalent definitions.
The term “International Organizations” may be interpreted as organizations and

procedures that require a framework of cooperation between states. Non-governmental
organizations (also referred to as non-government organizations) are organizations founded
and governed by citizens without any formal governmental representation. Although these
two definitions seem to be rather straight forward, there are some objections to such
definitions as to limits concerning governmental vis-à-vis non-governmental organizations.
The picture may be further confused with the use of the terms “international governmental
organizations” and “non-governmental international organizations.” The United Nations has
an official classification, which lists organizations as either part of the UN system or as those
outside of the system, where distinctions are made between different types of organizations.
It is beyond the scope and purpose of this lesson to strictly define and follow the official
classification system. There are too many contradictions and the definitions are not always
clear why it is not possible to strictly adhere to the system’s nomenclature. Instead, and at the
author’s own discretion, the lesson will provide a compilation of organizations that are useful
to be aware of.
To work with internal and external partners at all levels requires not only a basic
knowledge of involved organizations, but also an awareness of their respective tasks and
mandates in their work in a specific mission. In most missions, the central leadership is
assumed by the concerned government (or sometimes by the United Nations). The role of the
governments (or the United Nations) has to be clearly understood, since future coordination
depends on their expressed policy and assumed leadership. Besides the governments, there are
other major actors, which may have overriding responsibilities in certain fields. In large-scale
operations, it is essential to identify those that have the overall responsibilities or would like
to assume such a leading role. For instance, the UNDP Representative has frequently been
given the overall coordinating development responsibility, while UNHCR takes the lead
concerning refugees and WHO what concerns immunization programmes. As for the major
agencies and organizations, it is necessary to know the mandates of the various NGOs. In
general, their activities encompass programs in democratisation, food support, health,
rebuilding the infrastructure, and education. Some of the major NGOs may also have been
given a leading role in one of the humanitarian assistance programs. The FO should always
try to identify the various organizations’ responsibilities, capacity, and ability.
Informal and formal coordination is a key mechanism in order to follow up the

(security) situation, measure expected achievements, or to adjust plans in accordance with
new directives and conditions. Although informal contacts provide useful information, it is
obvious that without a formal coordination mechanism very little will be achieved. Formal
coordination is set up in different levels. In the central level, the government (or United
Nations) normally establishes one single coordination authority, which may be mandated as a
commission, committee, or as an operation center, at which all the major actors of the mission
are represented. This central authority should also be represented at the site level where
similar coordination mechanism should be organized. The CIMIC concept, as previously
described, is an example on a site level placed coordination mechanism. In addition, other
informal or formal coordination entities, on a lower level, may also be set up. As a rule,
coordination takes place at formal regular meetings where the progress of the operation is
reviewed, giving the opportunity to identify incoming organizations in order to facilitate their
integration and adoption of the mission’s objectives and standards.
The FO must obtain information about newly arrived organizations and, in particular, if
cooperation and/or coordination is required. What is their mandate, do they have sufficient
capacity, the level of professional standard, how do they coordinate their activities with other
organizations, and how can the FO assist and/or make best use of their ability in order to
achieve the mission’s overall objectives, are some of the questions to be asked.
The following information is either quoted from the described organizations’ web sites
or from the United Nations Handbook of 2002. Sources are clearly indicated for each
organization with the web address at the end of each organization’s description.
(Extracts from United Nations Handbook of 2002: the author has rephrased some of the extracts)
The Secretariat, as part of the United Nations Headquarters, has several departments and
offices directly involved in field activities, including the entities concerned with humanitarian
operations and development:
The Department of Peacekeeping Operations − DPKO

DPKO is part of the Secretariat. In coordination with other substantial departments, it is
responsible for planning, preparation and direction of the United Nations field operations. As
such, it provides the overall guidance in terms of coordination and policy. It also assists in the
provision of substantive services to the Security Council and the General Assembly.
Office of the Coordinator of Humanitarian Assistance − OCHA

OCHA is also part of the Secretariat. The Office’s functions are focused on three core areas:
(a) policy development and coordination functions in support of the Secretary-General,
ensuring that all humanitarian issues, including those which fall between gaps in existing
mandates of agencies, such as protection and assistance for internally displaced persons, are
addressed; (b) advocacy of humanitarian issues with political organs, notably the Security
Council; and (c) coordination of humanitarian emergency response, by ensuring that an
appropriate response mechanism is established, through Inter-Agency Standing Committee
(IASC) consultations on the ground. OCHA discharges its coordination function primarily
through the IASC, which is chaired by the Emergency Relief Coordinator (ERC), with the
participation of all humanitarian partners, including the Red Cross Movement and NGOs.
IASC ensures inter-agency decision-making in response to complex emergencies, including
needs assessments, consolidated appeals, field coordination arrangements and the
development of humanitarian policies. The Headquarters staff is located in New York and
Geneva.
Internet: www.reliefweb.int/ocha
The United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination − UNDAC

“UNDAC team is a stand-by team of disaster management professionals who are nominated
and funded by member governments, OCHA, UNDP, and operational humanitarian United
Nations Agencies such as WFP, UNICEF, and WHO. Upon request of a disaster-stricken
country, the UNDAC team can be deployed within hours to carry out rapid assessment of
priority needs and to support national Authorities and the United Nations Resident
Coordinator to coordinate international relief on-site. Members of the UNDAC team are
permanently on stand-by to deploy to relief missions following disasters and humanitarian
emergencies anywhere in the world. The UNDAC team is responsible for providing first-hand
information on the disaster situation and priority needs of the victims to the international
community through OCHA.”
Internet: www.reliefweb.int/undac
United Nations Office for Project Service − UNOPS

“UNOPS provides services for the management of multidisciplinary programmes that do not
fall within the purview of any UN specialized agency. In the area of democratisation and
governance, UNOPS is providing services valued at more than US$100 million for over 300
projects and programmes funded by UNDP, UN system agencies, and other multilateral and
bilateral partners.” “UNOPS offers the international community a broad range of services,
from overall project management to the provision of single inputs. In responding flexibly to
its clients' demands, UNOPS tailors its services to their particular needs, applies methods for
attaining cost-effective results, and mobilizes diverse implementing partners.” Headquarters
are located in New York, as well as other offices located in Abidjan, Kuala Lumpur, San
Salvador, Copenhagen, Geneva, Nairobi, Rome and Tokyo.
Internet: www.unops.org
United Nations Children’s Fund − UNICEF

Established to provide emergency assistance to children in war-ravaged countries. UNICEF
is also in charge of aiding the developing countries and the development of permanent child
health and welfare services. The organization is also mandated to advocate for the protection
of children’s right to help meet their basic needs and to expand their opportunities to reach
their full potential. UNICEF reports to the general assembly through the ECOSOC. The
resources come from voluntary contribution and were $968 million as of 1999. The
Headquarters is located in New York.
Internet: www.unicef.org
United Nations Development Programme − UNDP

UNDP administers and coordinates most of the technical assistance provided through the UN
system. The mission is to help countries in their effort to achieve sustainable human
development by assisting them to build their capacity to design and carry out development
programmes in poverty eradication, employment creation and sustainable livelihoods, the
empowerment of women and the protection and generation of the environment, giving first
priority to poverty eradication. Special attention is paid to the needs of the least developed
countries.
The resources come primarily from voluntary contribution. In 1998, UNDP established an
annual target of $1.1 billion in core resources through co-financing arrangements, including
cost-sharing and trust fund contributions that for 1998 were actually $1.5 billion. The
Headquarters is located in New York.
Internet: www.undp.org
United Nations Environment Programme − UNEP

The mission of UNEP is to provide leadership and encourage partnership in caring for the
environment by inspiring, informing, and enabling nations and people to improve their quality
of life without compromising that of future generations. The UNEP shall also be the leading
global environmental authority that sets the global environmental agenda, promotes the
coherent implementation of the environmental dimension of sustainable development within
the UN system, and serves as an authoritative advocate for the global environment. The
governing Council reports to the General assembly through ECOSOC. The Headquarters is in
Nairobi.
Internet: www.unep.org
United Nations International Drug Control Programme − UNDCP

UNDCP serves as the worldwide center of expertise and information on international drug
control and as the focal point of promoting the observance of the United Nations Decade
against Drug Abuse. UNDCP is an integral part of the Office for Drug Control and Crime
Prevention together with the Center for International Crime Prevention. Their Headquarters is
in Vienna.
Internet: www.undcp.org
United Nations Population Fund − UNFPA

UNFPA provides assistance in the field of populations of developing countries, countries with
economies in transition and other countries, at their request, to help them address reproductive
health and population issues, as well as raise awareness of these issues in all countries. The
three main areas are: to help ensure universal access to reproductive health, including family
planning and sexual health; to support population and development strategies that enable
capacity-building in population programming; and to promote awareness of population and
development issues. The UNFPA Headquarters is in New York.
Internet: www.unfpa.org
World Food Programme − WFP

WFP is the food aid organization of the UN system. The WFP not only provides food aid
primarily to low income, food-deficit countries, but also assists in the implementation of
economic and social development projects and meet the relief needs of victims of natural and
other disasters. The programme also administers the International emergency food reserve
with a minimum target of 500,000 tons of cereals. The Board reports to ECOSOC and the
FAO Council. All contributions are on voluntary basis. The WFP Headquarters is in Rome.
Internet: www.wfp.org
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights − OHCHR
The Office is to promote and protect the effective enjoyment by all of all civil, cultural,
economic, political, and social rights, including the right to development. The High
Commissioner also functions as the UN official with responsibility for UN human rights
activities. He or she acts under the direction of the Secretary-General and within the
framework of the overall competence, authority and decisions of the general assembly,
ECOSOC and the Commission of Human Rights. Their Office is in Geneva.
Internet: www.unhchr.org
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees − UNHCR

The work of the UNHCR is humanitarian and non-political. Its principal functions are to
provide international protection to refugees, seek durable solutions to their plight, and furnish
them with material assistance. Protection involves preventing refoulement and forcibly
seeking durable solutions to refugees’ problems. UNHCR attempts to help those who wish to
go home and tries to assist them to reintegrate into their home communities. Where this is not
feasible, it works to help them in countries of asylum or, failing that, to resettle them in other
countries. Material assistance is provided in the form of food, shelter, medical aid, education,
and other social services. UNHCR reports to the General Assembly through ECOSOC. Their
Headquarters is in Geneva.
Internet: www.unhcr.org
United Nations Institute for Training and Research − UNITAR

The major objective of UNITAR is to enhance the effectiveness of the United Nations in
achieving its major objectives, in particular the maintenance of international peace and
security and the promotion of economic and social development. The institute is to provide
training to persons, particularly from developing countries, for assignments with UN or
specialized agencies and for assignments in their national services that are connected with the
work of UN Headquarters in Geneva. The course you are reading is produced by the United
Nations Institute for Training and Research Programme of Correspondence Instruction
(UNITAR POCI).
Internet: www.unitar.org and www.unitarpoci.org
Military, Civil Defence and Logistics Section − MCDLS

MCDLS has two components: the Military and Civil Defence Unit (MCDU) and the Logistics
Support Unit (LSU). MCDU was established by a decision of the IASC in 1995 to ensure the
most efficient use of military and civil defence assets in support of humanitarian operations.
The MCDU serves as the UN focal point for governments, international organizations, and
military and civil defence establishments for the employment of these assets in humanitarian
situations and coordinates their mobilization when needed. MCDU conducts the UN's Civil-
Military Coordination (UN-CMCoord) courses, and coordinates UN agency participation in
major exercises with humanitarian scenarios. The unit also maintains the UN's Central
Register − a database of non-commercial governmental and other resources which may be
available for humanitarian use. These resources include a wide range of equipment and
supplies (food/shelter/water capabilities, transportation assets, medical care), expert teams,
and disaster response contacts.
LSU is responsible for the management of OCHA's stockpile of emergency relief items stored
at the UN Humanitarian Response Depot (UNHRD) in Brindisi, Italy. These goods are basic
non-food, non-medical disaster relief and survival items, donated by various governments,
which can be immediately dispatched to affected areas. The OCHA stockpile includes such
items as tents, blankets, water supply and purification equipment, and electricity-generating
equipment.
Internet: www.reliefweb.int/mcdls/index.html
The United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East −
UNRWA
The organization provides education, health, relief, and social services to 3.7 million
registered Palestine refugees in Jordan, Lebanon, the Syrian Arab Republic, the West Bank,
and the Gaza Strip. Since its establishment, the Agency has delivered its services both in
times of relative calmness and open conflict. It has fed, housed, and clothed tens of thousands
of fleeing refugees and at the same time educated and given health care to hundreds of
thousands of young refugees.
Internet: www.un.org/unrwa
United Nations Staff College − UNSC

UNSC is “the pre-eminent training and learning arm of the UN system of organizations which
serves the system by being a leading catalyst for sharing knowledge and practice world-
wide.” The objectives are “to promote high standards of leadership and management for the
UN of the 21st century. The goal is to foster, through shared learning and developing key
competencies, a cohesive and effective management system across the United Nations. All
UN personnel are eligible to participate in Staff College training and learning programmes.”
Internet: www.itcilo.it/unscp.
International Labor Organization − ILO

ILO seeks to improve working and living conditions through the adoption of international
labor conventions and recommendations setting minimum standards in such fields as wages,
hours of work, conditions of employment, and social security. It also conducts research and
technical cooperation activities, including vocational training and management development,
with an aim to promote democracy and human rights, alleviate unemployment and poverty
and protect working people. The ILO Headquarters is in Geneva.
Internet: www.ilo.org
Food and Agriculture Organization − FAO

The organization is established for the purpose of raising levels of nutrition and standards of
living of the people under their respective jurisdictions; securing improvements in the
efficiency of the production and distribution of all food and agriculture products; bettering the
conditions of rural populations; and thus, contributing toward an expanding world economy
and ensuring humanity’s freedom from hunger. The Headquarters is in Rome.
Internet: www.fao.org
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization − UNESCO

The purpose of UNESCO is to contribute to peace and security by promoting collaboration
among the nations through education, science, and culture in order to further universal respect
for justice, the rule of law, and for the human rights and fundamental freedom which are
affirmed for the people of the world, without distinction of race, sex, language, or religion.
The Headquarters is in Paris.
Internet: www.unesco.org
World Health Organization − WHO

The main objective is the attainment by all people of the highest possible level of health as
defined in the WHO Constitution as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being
and not merely the absence of diseases or infirmity. WHO also promotes conventions,
agreements, regulations, and makes recommendations about international nomenclature of
diseases, causes of death, and public health practices. It develops and promotes international
standards concerning food and biological, pharmaceutical, and similar substances. The
Headquarters is located in Geneva.
Internet: www.who.ch
European Union − EU
“The European Union is built on an institutional system which is the only one of its kind in
the world. The Member States delegate sovereignty for certain matters to independent
institutions, which represent the interests of the Union as a whole, its member countries, and
its citizens. The Commission traditionally upholds the interests of the Union as a whole, while
each national government is represented within the Council, and the European Parliament is
directly elected by citizens. Democracy and the rule of law are, therefore, the cornerstones of
the structure. This ‘institutional triangle’ is flanked by two other institutions: the Court of
Justice and the Court of Auditors. A further five bodies make the system complete.”
Internet: www.europa.eu.int
The Directorate General for Development/EU − DG Development

“The directorate contributes to the formulation, by the Commissioner for Development and
Humanitarian Aid, of the Community’s development cooperation policy for all developing
countries and Overseas Countries and Territories (OCTs). In addition, DG Development
directly manages and coordinates Community relations with the 71 African, Caribbean and
Pacific states (ACP) and the 20 OCTs. In pursuing its mission, DG Development is closely
co-operating with other Commission services, in particular the Humanitarian Aid Office
(ECHO), the External Relations DG, and the Common Service for External Relations (SCR).
The objective of Community development cooperation policy is to foster sustainable
development designed to eradicate poverty in developing countries and to integrate them into
the world economy. This can only be achieved by pursuing policies that promote the
consolidation of democracy, the rule of law, good governance, and the respect for human
rights. Putting equity at the center of its policies, the Directorate General for Development
gives priority to defending the interests of the most disadvantaged developing countries and
the poorest sections of the population in economically more advanced developing countries.”
Internet: www.europa.eu.int/comm/dgs/development/index_sv.htm
Humanitarian Aid Office – ECHO/EU

The European Union’s mandate to the European Union Humanitarian Office (ECHO) is to
provide emergency assistance and relief to the victims of natural disasters or armed conflict
outside the European Union. The aid is intended to go directly to those in distress, irrespective
of race, religion, or political convictions. ECHO’s task is to ensure goods and services get to
crisis zones fast. Goods may include essential supplies, specific foodstuffs, medical
equipment, medicines, and fuel. Services may include medical teams, water purification
teams, and logistical support. Goods and services reach disaster areas via ECHO partners.
Internet: www.europa.eu.int/comm/dgs/humanitarian_aid/index_en.htm
Organisation for European Cooperation and Development − OECD

“The OECD groups 29 member countries in an organisation that, most importantly, provides
governments a setting in which to discuss, develop and perfect economic and social policy.
They compare experiences; seek answers to common problems; and work to co-ordinate
domestic and international policies that increasingly, in today's globalised world, must form a
web of even practice across nations. Their exchanges may lead to agreements to act in a
formal way - for example, by establishing legally-binding codes for free-flow of capital and
services, agreements to crack down on bribery or to end subsidies for shipbuilding. But more
often, their discussion makes for better-informed work within their own governments on the
spectrum of public policy and clarifies the impact of national policies on the international
community. And it offers a chance to reflect and exchange perspectives with other countries
similar to their own.”
Internet: www.oecd.org
Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe − OSCE

“The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe is a regional security organization
whose 55 participating States are from Europe, Central Asia, and North America. The OSCE
has been established as a primary instrument for early warning, conflict prevention, crisis
management, and post-conflict rehabilitation under Chapter VIII of the Charter of the United
Nations.
The OSCE approach to security is comprehensive and co-operative. It addresses a wide range
of security-related issues, including arms control, preventive diplomacy, confidence and
security-building measures, human rights, election monitoring, and economic and
environmental security. All OSCE participating States have equal status, and decisions are
based on consensus.”
Internet: www.osce.org
The International Organization for Migration − IOM

“IOM is committed to the principle that humane and orderly migration benefits migrants and
society. As an intergovernmental body, IOM acts with its partners in the international
community to assist in meeting the operational challenges of migration, to advance
understanding of migration issues, encourage social and economic development through
migration and uphold the human dignity and well-being of migrants. IOM helps States and
individuals to solve migration problems through three types of programmes:
The Humanitarian Migration Programme provides migration assistance to persons fleeing

conflict situations, to refugees being resettled in third countries or repatriated, to stranded
individuals and unsuccessful asylum seekers returning home, to internally and externally
displaced persons, to other persons compelled to leave their homelands, to individuals seeking
to reunite with their families and to migrants involved in regular migration.
The Migration for Development Programme provides skilled manpower to States, taking into
account national development priorities as well as the needs and concerns of receiving
communities, and fostering a reverse “brain drain.”
The Technical Cooperation Programme offers advisory services on migration to

governments, intergovernmental agencies, non-governmental organizations and others.”
Internet: www.iom.int
World Trade Organization (WTO)

“The World Trade Organization (WTO) is the only global international organization dealing
with the rules of trade between nations. At its heart are the WTO agreements, negotiated and
signed by the bulk of the world’s trading nations and ratified in their parliaments. The goal is
to help producers of goods and services, exporters, and importers conduct their business. The
WTO’s overriding objective is to help trade flow smoothly, freely, fairly, and predictably.”
“It does this by: administering trade agreements; acting as a forum for trade negotiations;
settling trade disputes; reviewing national trade policies; assisting developing countries in
trade policy issues, through technical assistance and training programmes; and cooperating
with other international organizations.”
“The WTO has more than 130 members, accounting for over 90% of world trade. Over 30
others are negotiating membership. Decisions are made by the entire membership. This is
typically by consensus.”
Internet: www.wto.org
Amnesty International
“Amnesty International is a worldwide campaigning movement that works to promote all the
human rights enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and other international
standards. In particular, Amnesty International campaigns to free all prisoners of conscience;
ensure fair and prompt trials for political prisoners; abolish the death penalty, torture and
other cruel treatment of prisoners; end political killings and ‘disappearances’; and oppose
human rights abuses by opposition groups.
Amnesty International has around a million members and supporters in 162 countries and
territories. Activities range from public demonstrations to letter-writing, from human rights
education to fundraising concerts, from individual appeals on a particular case, to global
campaigns on a particular issue. Amnesty International is impartial and independent of any
government, political persuasion or religious creed. Amnesty International is financed largely
by subscriptions and donations from its worldwide membership.” Its headquarters is located
in London.
Internet: www.amnesty.org
The International Committee of the Red Cross – ICRC

“The ICRC's mission: The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) is an impartial,
neutral, and independent organization whose exclusively humanitarian mission is to protect
the lives and dignity of victims of war and internal violence and to provide them with
assistance. It directs and coordinates the international relief activities conducted by the
Movement in situations of conflict. It also endeavours to prevent suffering by promoting and
strengthening humanitarian law and universal humanitarian principles. Established in 1863,
the ICRC is at the origin of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement.”
“The ICRC is a product of private initiative. Through the many tasks assigned to it by the
Geneva Conventions and the Additional Protocols, however, it has acquired international
stature. The tasks in question concern the protection of war victims. Its mandate enables it to
take up issues with States and parties to conflict by opening delegations and dispatching
delegates. The dialogue that the ICRC maintains with authorities exercising control over war
victims in no way affects the status of those authorities and cannot be interpreted as a form of
recognition.”
“The international dimension of the ICRC is confirmed by the headquarters agreements it has
concluded with more than 50 States. These agreements, which are subject to international law,
specify the ICRC's legal status on the territory of States in which it exercises its humanitarian
activities. They recognize it as an international legal entity and grant it the privileges and
immunities normally enjoyed by intergovernmental organizations. These include immunity
from legal process, which protects it from administrative and judicial proceedings, and
inviolability of its premises, archives and other documents. ICRC delegates enjoy a status
similar to that of officials of intergovernmental organizations.”
“Such privileges and immunities are indispensable for the ICRC because they guarantee two
conditions essential to its action, namely neutrality and independence. Being non-
governmental by nature and membership, it stands apart from both the United Nations system
and other non-governmental humanitarian organizations (NGOs).”
“On 19 March 1993 the ICRC signed a headquarters agreement with Switzerland which
recognizes the institution's international legal personality and confirms its independence vis-à-
vis the Swiss authorities.”
Internet: www.icrc.org
The International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies − IFRC
“IFRC is an international humanitarian organization with a unique worldwide network. The
IFRC exists to improve the situation of the world's most vulnerable people. It provides
assistance without discrimination as to nationality, race, religious beliefs, class, or political
opinions.
The IFRC, founded in 1919, has a presence in almost every country in the world today
through its national Red Cross and Red Crescent societies. The Federation provides
humanitarian relief to people affected by disasters or other emergencies and development
assistance to empower vulnerable people to become more self-sufficient. The IFRC's strength
lies in the global network of National Societies with its delegations strategically located to
support Red Cross and Red Crescent activities in various regions.”
Internet: www.ifcr.org
Several countries have international development agencies, which promote development and
provide assistance to developing countries. Most often the areas of the agencies committed to
internationally agreed objectives such as e.g. reduce the proportion of people living in
extreme poverty and/or ensuring health care and/or access primary education. The agencies
work in cooperation with other governments and multilateral institutions with similar
objectives, with the civil societies, academic communities and with appropriate non-
governmental organizations. There are a number of these agencies around the globe
representing many different nations. While not all of the IGOs will be discussed in detail here,
one can serve as a typical example of those generally found in the developed countries.
International IDEA
“Created in 1995, the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (IDEA)
is an intergovernmental organization that seeks to nurture and support sustainable democracy
world-wide. Global in membership and independent of specific national interests, IDEA
works with both new and long-established democracies, helping to develop the institutions
and culture of democracy. It operates at international, regional and national level, working in
partnership with a range of institutions.”
Internet: www.idea.int
Swiss Humanitarian Aid Unit − SHA

SHA (former Swiss Disaster Relief Unit) “is a militia corps with a pool of at least 700 people
ready for duty and who are divided up into professional groups according to their knowledge
and abilities. The SHA is one of the Swiss government' s humanitarian aid instruments which
is available for direct actions and supports international organizations with its specialists
("secondment").”
Internet: www.unige.ch/hazards/sdru/welcome.html
US AID
“US AID is the principal U.S. agency to extend assistance to countries recovering from
disaster, trying to escape poverty, and engaging in democratic reforms. It is an independent
federal government agency that receives overall foreign policy guidance from the Secretary of
State. The agency works in six principal areas crucial to achieving both sustainable
development and advancing U.S. foreign policy objectives: economic growth and agricultural
development; population, health and nutrition; environment; democracy and governance;
education and training; and humanitarian assistance.”
US AID provides “assistance in four regions of the world: Sub-Saharan Africa; Asia and the
Near East; Latin America and the Caribbean; and Europe and Eurasia. With headquarters in
Washington, D.C., US AID' s strength is its field offices around the world.” They work “in
close partnership with private voluntary organizations, indigenous organizations, universities,
American businesses, international agencies, other governments, and other U.S. Government
agencies. US AID has working relationships with more that 3,500 American companies and
over 300 U.S.-based private voluntary organizations.”
Internet: www.usaid.gov
Other organizations with similar structures and objectives are:

Australia (AUSAID): www.ausaid.gov.au
Canada (CIDA/ACDI): www.acdi-cida.gc.ca/index.htm
Caribbean (CDERA): www.cdera.org
Denmark (DANIDA): www.um.dk/danida
Finland (Finnida): http://global.finland.fi
France (AfD): www.afd.fr
Germany (GTZ): www.gtz.de
Iceland: http://brunnur.stjr.is/interpro/utanr/thssi.nsf/pages/iceida
Japan (JICA): www.jica.go.jp
Nederländerna (DGIS): www.minbuza.nl
Norway (NORAD): www.norad.no
Sweden (Sida): www.sida.org
Switzerland (CDC): www.deza.ch
United Kingdom (DFID): www.dfid.gov.uk
More than 1,500 non-governmental organizations have consultative status with the United
Nations (ECOSOC).
Save the Children Fund (Extracts from Homepage)

Save the Children was founded on 19th May 1919. Working in over 100 countries across the
globe and comprising 29 organizations, Save the Children is the largest independent
movement for children. Save the Children' s programmes bring relief to millions of children
and deliver immediate but sustainable results. They are enormously well respected and are
often followed as examples by other development organizations.
Internet: www.savethechildren.net
Lutheran World Federation – LWF

“The Lutheran World Federation (LWF) is a global communion of Christian churches in the
Lutheran tradition. Founded in 1947, the LWF now has 131 member churches in 72 countries
representing 59.5 million of the world' s 63 million Lutherans. The location of the LWF
secretariat in the Ecumenical Center in Geneva, Switzerland, facilitates close cooperation with
the World Council of Churches, other Christian World Communions as well as international
secular organizations. The LWF acts on behalf of its member churches in areas of
common interest such as ecumenical relations, theology, humanitarian assistance, human
rights, communication, and the various aspects of mission and development work.”
Internet: www.lutheranworld.org
Catholic Relief Service − CRS (Extracts from Homepage)

The Catholic Bishops of the United States, in order to assist the poor and disadvantaged
outside the country founded Catholic Relief Services in 1943. Catholic Relief Services gives
assistance based on need, regardless of creed, race, or nationality to people in more than 80
countries around the world. The core of their work is to honour the dignity of the human
person, and to work for a world in which all flourish in accordance with that dignity. The
headquarters is located in Baltimore.
Internet: www.catholicrelief.org
Médecins Sans Frontières – MSF

“Doctors Without Borders, also known as Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF), is the world' s
largest independent international medical relief agency aiding victims of armed conflict,
epidemics, and natural and man-made disasters, and others who lack health care due to
geographic remoteness or ethnic marginalization. The organization operates independently of
all governments, institutions, political, economic, or religious influences. It depends on
volunteer health professionals in fulfilling its mission. Largely supported by private donors,
the organization is able to maintain great flexibility and total independence in its choice of
operations.
Doctors Without Borders was established in 1971 by a group of physicians determined to

offer emergency assistance wherever wars and man-made disasters occur. Its guiding
principles are laid down in a charter to which all members of the organization subscribe. In
accordance with universal medical ethics and the right to humanitarian assistance, Doctors
Without Borders observes strict impartiality and demands full and unhindered freedom in
performing its functions.
Doctors Without Borders has a wide range of expertise and proven techniques and strategies
of intervention. The organization is able to effectively pool the logistics and human resources
necessary to provide rapid and efficient aid. When medical assistance is not enough to save
lives, Doctors Without Borders will speak out against human rights abuses and violations of
humanitarian law that its teams witness in the course of providing medical relief.
Doctors Without Borders is an international organization, with offices in 18 countries. It sends

more than 2,000 volunteers, of more than 45 nationalities, to some 80 countries annually.”
Internet: www.doctorswithoutborders.org
Cooperative for Assistanse and Relief Everywhere − CARE (Extracts from the Homepage)
CARE is one of the world' s largest private non-profit international relief and development
organizations. Founded in the aftermath of World War II, CARE has become a leader in
sustainable development and emergency aid, reaching tens of millions of people each year in
more than 60 countries in Africa, Asia, Europe, and Latin America. CARE reaches out to
people whose lives are devastated by humanitarian emergencies, or who are struggling each
day in poor communities to survive and improve their lives. The organization focuses its
approach on the family and community levels. This means that every family should have:
food; health care; a place to live; education; a safe and healthy environment; and the ability to
participate in decisions affecting their family, community and country. CARE' s programmes
seek to help poor families obtain this security.
The CARE International Secretariat, located in Brussels, Belgium, is the central hub of the
CARE family. The Secretariat coordinates the efforts of 10 national members in North
America, Europe, Japan and Australia.
Internet: www.care.org
Oxfam (Extracts from Oxfam Homepage)

Oxfam International, founded in 1995, is an international group of 11 autonomous non-
government organizations. Member organizations are of diverse cultures, history, and
language, but share the commitment of working for an end to the waste and injustice of
poverty, both in longer-term development work and in times of urgent humanitarian need.
The individual Oxfams work in different ways but have a common purpose: addressing the
structural causes of poverty and related injustices. The Oxfams work primarily through local
organizations in more than 100 countries.
The Oxfam International Secretariat is a small team of staff, which coordinates

communication and cooperation between 11 members from its base in Oxford, UK. The
Washington Advocacy Office, set up in 1995 with a staff of four, lobbies the World Bank, the
International Monetary Fund, and the United Nations on issues agreed on by the 11 members.
Internet: www.oxfam.org
Caritas (Extracts From Caritas’ Homepage)

Caritas Internationalis is an international confederation of Catholic organizations, mandated
by their respective Episcopal conferences. All Member Organizations seek to contribute to the
socio-pastoral mission of the Church through the spreading of solidarity and social justice.
This is done without regard to creed, race, gender, or ethnicity. Within this context, Caritas
Internationalis commits itself to:
• Provide a forum for dialogue and exchange among member organizations to share ideas,
learn from each other and support each other’s efforts;
• Help member organizations build their own capacity in order to serve the poor and
marginalized more effectively;
• Act as a voice or advocate for the cause of the poor and enabling the poor to be their own
advocates;
• Facilitate cooperation within and beyond the Caritas Confederation.
Internet: www.caritas.org
InterAction
“InterAction, a membership association of US private voluntary organizations, exists to
enhance the effectiveness and professional capacities of its members engaged in international
humanitarian efforts. Further, InterAction exists to foster partnership, collaboration,
leadership and the power of this community to speak as one voice as it strives to achieve a
world of self-reliance, justice and peace.
To realize this mission, InterAction works to enhance the identity, autonomy, credibility and
diverse perspectives of each member agency, provides a broad based, participatory forum for
professional consultation, coordination and concerted action and fosters the effectiveness and
recognition of the community both, professionally and publicly. In addition, it sets a standard
of the highest ethics in carrying out the mission.
InterAction is committed to advocating and fostering human dignity and development. It

strives for world justice through programmes of economic and social development, relief and
reconstruction and tries to ameliorate the plight of refugees and migrants through relief,
protection, settlement in place, voluntary repatriation or settlement in a third country. Its final
aim is to help people to help themselves.”
Internet: www.interaction.org
Learning Questions
Knowledge
What is the role of OCHA?
What is the role of UNDP?
Which two organizations are assumed to have the major responsibilities for children?
Which organization has the major responsibility in providing international protection to

refugees?
Which organization is mainly dealing with international humanitarian law?
Who is the UN official with responsibility for human rights?
What is the WTO and what is the main purpose of the organization?
What have CARE, Oxfam and Caritas in common?
Awareness
What is your opinion on the relationship between IFRC and ICRC?
What are the distinctions between the two major organizations dealing with children?
What, in your opinion, are the interests in common for the non-governmental organizations
mentioned in this lesson?
How do you identify an international organization?
How do you identify any non-governmental organizations?
Applications
You are asked to make a presentation on the ICRC. Although you are well aware of the
mandates and structures of the organization, you would like to be more specific concerning
the organization’s unique position in the international community. What are the points you
would like to emphasize?
LESSON 9
END-OF-LESSON QUIZ
1. The term “International Organizations” as commonly defined and accepted refers to:
a. Organizations founded by other international organizations;
b. Organizations which are part of the international system;
c. Organizations that require a framework of cooperation and where these
organizations are the foundation of the international system;
d. Organizations founded by citizens.
2. Which one of the following provides services for the management of multidisciplinary
programmes that do not fall within the purview of any UN specialized agency?
a. UNDP;
b. UNEP;
c. UNOPS;
d. UNDCP.
3. UNFPA provides:
a. Leadership in the field of populations of developing counties;
b. Assistance in the field of food and agriculture of developing countries;
c. Assistance in the field of populations of the developing countries;
d. Service as an authority on the global population agenda.
4. The task of UNDP is to:

a. Help countries in their effort to achieve sustainable human development;
b. Assist in the implementation of economic and social development;
c. Provide governments a setting in which to discuss, develop, and perfect
economic and social policy;
5. The pre-eminent learning arm of the UN system of organizations is:

a. UNSC;
b. UNITAR;
c. ILO;
d. UNESCO.
6. The leading agency/organization concerning refugees is:

a. UNHCR;
b. ICRC;
c. UNICEF;
d. OHCHR.
7. UNICEF stands for:

a. United Nations Children’s Fund;
b. United Nations International Children’s Funds;
c. United Nations Children’s Emergency Funds;
d. United Nations Children’s International Fund.
8. Which statement applies to the role of the WTO?

a. Acting as one of the forums for trade organizations;
b. WTO has more than 90 members accounting for over 30 % of world trade;
c. WTO is the only international organization dealing with the rules of trade
between nations;
9. Which of the following is a non-governmental organization?

a. UNICEF;
b. Save the Children Fund;
c. US AID;
d. ICRC.
10. Which organization stands apart from both the UN system and other non-governmental
humanitarian organizations?
a. MSF;
b. CRS;
c. ICRC;
d. WHO.
LESSON 9
ANSWER KEY
1. c. Organizations that require a framework of cooperation and where

these organizations are the foundation of the international system
2. c. UNOPS
3. c. Assistance in the field of populations of the developing countries
4. a. Help countries in their effort to achieve sustainable human development
5. a. UNSC
6. a. UNHCR
7. a. United Nations Children’s Fund
8. c. WTO is the only international organization dealing with the

rules of trade between nations
9. b. Save the Children Fund
10. c. ICRC

End-of-Course Examination 162
End-of-Course
Examination
The End-of-Course Examination is provided as

a separate component of this course.
The examination questions cover the material in

all the lessons of this UNITAR course.
Read each question carefully

and
Follow the provided instructions to submit your exam for scoring.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR FILLING OUT THE ANSWER SHEET
The End-of-Course Examination Answer Sheet is designed to:
1. Formally record your answers to the questions of the Final Examination; and
2. Provide instructions for answer submission.
Format of Questions
There are 50 questions. The answer sheet has numbered blocks, and each block
corresponds to a similarly numbered question on the End-of-Course Examination. First, read
a question through carefully. Then, mark your answer on the answer sheet with the number
corresponding to the number of each question. Throughout the examination, check that the
question number and answer sheet number is the same.
Exam questions generally give you a choice of answers, marked as A, B, C, or D.

Choose only one response and mark only one choice on your answer sheet. If you mark more
than one answer for a question, it will be graded as incorrect.
Use a Dark Pencil

Mark your response on the Answer Sheet using a dark lead pencil.
Time Limit to Complete the End-of-Course Examination

Because your enrolment in the course is valid for one year only, the examination must
be submitted before your enrolment expires.
Passing Grade
A score of 75% is the minimum score required for a passing grade. If you pass, you
will receive a letter indicating your score along with your signed Certificate-of-Completion.
If your score is less than 75%, you will be sent a letter indicating that you have received a
failing grade. At that time, you will be provided with an alternate version of the End-of-
Course Examination, which you may complete when you feel you are ready. If you pass the
second version of the examination, a grade report and a Certificate-of-Completion will be
awarded to you. If you fail the second time, you will be informed and dis-enrolled from the
course.
AFTER COMPLETING THE EXAMINATION,

PLEASE IMMEDIATELY SUBMIT
YOUR ANSWER SHEET.

ABOUT THE COURSE AUTHOR
CHRISTIAN HÅRLEMAN
Mr. Christian Hårleman (Lieutenant Colonel, Rtd.) serves as an international

consultant in the fields of peace, security and development in Latin America, Central Europe
and Africa in general. He has served as an Adviser to the Guatemalan Ministry of Foreign
Affairs in the development of the Guatemalan Institute for Peace and Development (GIPD)
and in 1996-97 he served in similar capacity to the Ethiopian Ministry of Foreign Affairs in the
establishment of the Ethiopian International Institute for Peace and Development (EIIPD). In
the same capacity he has worked (1996) in the Caribbean and in El Salvador. He is
currently involved in projects concerning the establishment of a Peace Monitoring system in
Central America and in the development of a research programme regarding Early Warning
for Southern Africa. On behalf of the United Nations Institute for Training and Research
Programme of Correspondence Instruction (UNITAR POCI), Hårleman has recently written a
course about the United Nations System.
Mr. Hårleman is a Senior Special Fellow at the United Nations Institute for Training
and Research, Geneva; Senior Fellow of the Pearson Peacekeeping Centre, Nova Scotia;
Board Member of the Transnational Foundation for Peace and Future Research, Sweden;
and Senior Associate to Instituto de Relaciones Internacionales y de Investigaciones para la
Paz, Guatemala City and to the Institute of World Affairs, Washington, DC. Hårleman is one
of the Founding Members (Asamblea de Fundadores) of GIPD and Member of the Board
(Consejo de Dirección). Since 2000 Hårleman is a working Board Member of JOSAB
International AB, Sweden.
Hårleman was commissioned in 1963 as an officer at the Royal Life Guard in Sweden
and left the Army in 1989. He graduated from the Swedish Military Staff College, holds
degrees in International Relations and in International Humanitarian Law from Stockholm
University and in Emergency Management from the University of Wisconsin (US).
-------------------------------------------
For three years, from July 1992 to July 1995, he was Senior Training Adviser and
later the Chief of the Training Unit in the Department of Peacekeeping Operations, United
Nations, New York, the first such programme in the United Nations. During this period he
developed and implemented the United Nations training policy, including global training
programmes, international seminars and workshops, a core group of international peace-
keeping trainers (United Nations Training Assistance Teams – UNTAT) et al. From 1989 to
July 1992 Hårleman served in New York, first in his capacity of Director of Peace-keeping
Programmes at the International Peace Academy; subsequently, he established and
organized the Training Programmes for Peacekeeping and Election Assistance for the United
Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR/NY). During that time he also
developed a series of six videos and “guides” for UNITAR dealing with conflicts,
peacekeeping in general, training for peacekeeping and election in particular.
Hårleman has participated in a large number of field operations in the areas of

peacekeeping, election monitoring and disaster relief in Africa, Europe, Asia, the Middle East
and South America. He has published several articles on the subjects related to
peacekeeping and peacemaking.
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An Introduction to the UN System:

Orientation for Serving on a UN Field Mission

© Copyright 2003, UNITAR POCI

UNITAR Training Programme Programme UNITAR de Formation

© Copyright 2003, UNITAR POCI

Address all correspondence to:

UNITAR Training Programme

Section I: The Overall Framework

Lesson 1: The Task and the Task Organization................................ 1

Lesson 2: The Principal Organs of the United Nations ..................17

Lesson 3: The United Nations’ Role in Maintaining

Lesson 4: The Roles of the United Nations in the

Section III: The Working Concept

Lesson 5: The Environments ............................................................73

Lesson 6: Principles, General Duties, and Responsibilities ...........89

Section IV: The Working Tools

Lesson 8: The Available Tools ........................................................123

Lesson 9: The Partners....................................................................141

End-of-Course Examination ............................................................162

United Nations field missions are a blend of peace support operations,

All UN field missions require staffing by personnel with extensive professional

Therefore, this self-paced correspondence course should be seen as part of

Audience and Dissemination

References and Sources

This course is designed for independent study

Course format and materials permit:

Please visit http://www.unitarpoci.org/courseactivity.php

The student is responsible for:

• Learning course material

• Completing the End-of-Course Examination

• Submitting the End-of-Course Examination

Please see the End-of-Course Examination Answer Sheet

The following are suggestions for how to proceed with a UNITAR

• The material should be logical and straightforward. Instead of memorizing

• Set up guidelines regarding how you want to schedule your time.

Learning Objectives 1.4 Financial Principles – Budget of the

Key questions to be considered by the student when studying Lesson 1:

What were the reasons for founding the United Nations?

What is the purpose of the United Nations?

What is the main principle of the United Nations?

What document is the constituting instrument of the United Nations?

What is the legal framework for a peace operation?

What are the principles for financing a peacekeeping operation?

What are the main bodies of the UN system?

Please visit http://www.unitarpoci.org/courseactivity.php

1.1 The Charter of the United Nations – An Introduction

The original Charter of the United Nations.

Contents of the Charter

1.2 Purposes and Principles of the United Nations

1.3 Legal Principles

National equal sovereignty, non-intervention in the internal affairs of a Member State,

The International Criminal Court (ICC) is an independent international organization

Legal Framework for Peacekeeping and Other Similar Operations

1.4 Financial Principles – Budget of the United Nations

Extra Ordinary Budget

1.5 The United Nations System

(ii) Specialized (Major) Agencies

(iii) Specialized (Technical) Agencies

Outside (but linked to) the System

An example of inter-governmental organizations is the International Atomic Energy

Sources: Renewing the United Nations System. Development Dialogue 94:1.

Chart of the United Nations: