PM5112 | Research Methods | Individual Assignment | A0069192X | AY (2010-2011)

Proposal of suitable solid waste management method for a town in Philippines

Submitted by:
RAMASAMY KARUPPUSAMY Arun Balaji, A0069192X, MSc (PM); Semester 1 (AY2010-2011)
__________________________________________________________________________________________
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Research Problem
The river R that flows through town T, Philippines is largely polluted because of garbage dumped into its
canals. The municipality wants to reduce the garbage dumped on the river.

The purpose of this study is to analysis the various methods of solid waste management and to suggest
the best suitable method of solid waste disposal to the municipality. A pilot study needs to be undertaken to test
the effectiveness of the proposed method.

1.2 Scope
The scope of this study is restricted to residents in town T (population 100,000 households).

1.3 Objectives
The objectives of this study are:

• to study the pros and cons of all available method of solid waste management and determine the best
economical method among them; and
• to propose a method that should be environmental friendly and should help reducing the garbage
generated in the town T.

2.0 Literature Study:

The disposal of garbage in the world is a problem that continues to grow with the development of
industrialized nations and the growth of population. Since the beginning of time people have needed to find a
way of disposing of their trash. Municipality Solid Waste (MSW) disposal is a complex and multidisciplinary
problem that should be considered from environmental, social, and technical as well as economic aspects.
(Kahraman, 2008).

2.1 Purpose of Waste Management:

Most systems for managing Municipality Solid Waste (MSW) have three basic components: collection
and transport, processing, and disposal. The purpose of collection and transport is to gather and remove MSW
from its point of generation to safeguard public health, limit congestion, and preclude unpleasant odors and
aesthetically offensive sights. The purpose of processing is to transform the physical characteristics of MSW by
recycling, composting, burning, or compacting in order to reduce the threat it poses to human health and
ecosystems, improve its disposability, and possibly capture value from the waste. The purpose of disposal is to
isolate and contain the residual waste that is left after processing. (Cointreau et al., 1994)

2.2 Types of Waste

Waste can be divided into many different types. The most common methods of classification is by their
physical, chemical and biological characteristics. One important classification is by their consistency. Solid
wastes are waste materials that contain less than 70% water. This class includes such materials as household
garbage, some industrial wastes, some mining wastes, and oilfield wastes such as drill cuttings.

2.3 Wet & dry garbage

Dry Garbage: Plastics, Metal, Thermocol, Foam, Glass, Rexine, Battery cells, Paper, Cloth, Bulbs, Tubes,
Rubber, Plastic laminated paper, Leather item like belts, shoes, Used diapers, sanitary towels etc.,

Wet Garbage: Vegetable waste, Food waste, Garden waste, Coconut shell, Small pieces of wood, Egg shells,
Meat Bones / residual, Used cotton, paper, etc., (Judd, H.A., 1993)

2.4 Waste handling and transport

Domestic waste collection services are often to be provided by local government authorities, or by
private companies in the industry. Examples of waste handling systems include:

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• In Australia, curbside collection is the method of disposal of waste. Every urban domestic household is
provided with three bins: one for recyclables, another for general waste and another for garden
materials.
• In Europe and a few other places around the world, a few communities use a proprietary collection
system known as Envac, which conveys refuse via underground conduits using a vacuum system.
Other vacuum-based solutions include the MetroTaifun single-line and ring-line systems.
• In Canadian urban centre’s curbside collection is the most common method of disposal, whereby the city
collects waste and/or recyclables and/or organics on a scheduled basis.
• In Taipei, the city government charges its households and industries for the volume of rubbish they
produce. Waste will only be collected by the city council if waste is disposed in government issued
rubbish bags.
• In Israel, the Arrow Ecology company has developed the ArrowBio system, which takes trash directly
from collection trucks and separates organic and inorganic materials through gravitational settling,
screening, and hydro-mechanical shredding. The system is capable of sorting huge volumes of solid
waste, salvaging recyclables, and turning the rest into biogas and rich agricultural compost. (Beede et
al., 1995)

2.5 Methods of disposal

2.5.1 Landfill
Disposing of waste in a landfill involves burying the waste, and this remains a common practice in most
countries. Landfill incorporates an engineered method of disposal of solid waste on land in a manner that
minimizes environmental hazards by spreading the solid waste in thin layers, to compact the solid waste to the
smallest practical volume and applying a cover at the end of the operating day

Older, poorly designed or poorly managed landfills can create a number of adverse environmental
impacts such as wind-blown litter, attraction of vermin, and generation of liquid leachate. Another common
byproduct of landfills is gas (mostly composed of methane and carbon dioxide), which is produced as organic
waste breaks down anaerobically. This gas can create odour problems, kill surface vegetation, and is a
greenhouse gas.

Design characteristics of a modern landfill include methods to contain leachate such as clay or plastic
lining material. Deposited waste is normally compacted to increase its density and stability, and covered to
prevent attracting vermin (such as mice or rats). Many landfills also have landfill gas extraction systems
installed to extract the landfill gas. Gas is pumped out of the landfill using perforated pipes and flared off or
burnt in a gas engine to generate electricity. (Sumathi et al., 2008)

2.5.2 Plasma gasification

Plasma is a highly ionized or electrically charged gas. An example in nature is lightning, capable of
producing temperatures exceeding 12,600 °F (6,980 °C). A gasifier vessel utilizes proprietary plasma torches
operating at +10,000 °F (5,540 °C) (the surface temperature of the Sun) in order to create a gasification zone of
up to 3,000 °F (1,650 °C) to convert solid or liquid wastes into a syngas. When municipal solid waste is
subjected to this intense heat within the vessel, the waste’s molecular bonds break down into elemental
components. The process results in elemental destruction of waste and hazardous materials. (Beede et al., 1995)

2.5.3 Incineration

Incineration is a disposal method that involves combustion of waste material. Incineration and other high
temperature waste treatment systems are sometimes described as "thermal treatment". Incinerators convert waste
materials into heat, gas, steam and ash.

Incineration is carried out both on a small scale by individuals and on a large scale by industry. It is used
to dispose of solid, liquid and gaseous waste. It is recognized as a practical method of disposing of certain
hazardous waste materials (such as biological medical waste). Incineration is a controversial method of waste
disposal, due to issues such as emission of gaseous pollutants.

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Waste-to-energy (WtE) or energy-from-waste (EfW) is broad terms for facilities that burn waste in a
furnace or boiler to generate heat, steam and/or electricity. Combustion in an incinerator is not always perfect
and there have been concerns about micro-pollutants in gaseous emissions from incinerator stacks. Particular
concern has focused on some very persistent organics such as dioxins, furans, PAHs, which may be created
within the incinerator and afterwards in the incinerator plume which may have serious environmental
consequences in the area immediately around the incinerator. (Ekmekçioglu et al., 2000)

2.5.4 Recycling

The popular meaning of ‘recycling’ in most developed countries refers to the widespread collection and
reuse of everyday waste materials such as empty beverage containers. These are collected and sorted into
common types so that the raw materials from which the items are made can be reprocessed into new products.
Material for recycling may be collected separately from general waste using dedicated bins and collection
vehicles, or sorted directly from mixed waste streams. (Judd, H.A., 1993)

The most common consumer products recycled include aluminum beverage cans, steel food and aerosol
cans, HDPE and PET bottles, glass bottles and jars, paperboard cartons, newspapers, magazines, and corrugated
fiberboard boxes.

2.5.5 Composting / Biological reprocessing

Waste materials that are organic in nature, such as plant material, food scraps, and paper products, can be
recycled using biological composting and digestion processes to decompose the organic matter. The resulting
organic material is then recycled as mulch or compost for agricultural or landscaping purposes. In addition,
waste gas from the process (such as methane) can be captured and used for generating electricity and heat
(CHP/cogeneration) maximizing efficiencies. The intention of biological processing in waste management is to
control and accelerate the natural process of decomposition of organic matter. This method is called
composting.

Composting is a great way to recycle yard and kitchen wastes and reduce the volume of garbage waste
sent to landfills or incinerators for disposal.

All garbage waste composting requires three basic ingredients: browns (including materials such as dead
leaves, branches, twigs, wood chips or cardboard); greens (materials such as grass clippings, vegetable waste,
fruit scraps and coffee grounds) and water. Mature compost contains “humus,” a dark brown or black substance
with a soil-like, earthy smell. It is created by combining “greens” with “browns” in the proper ratio with water
to accelerate the breakdown of organic materials, and then allowing the finished compost material to fully
stabilize and mature. (Harold, B.G., 1956)

There are large varieties of composting and digestion methods and technologies varying in complexity
from simple home compost heaps, to small town scale batch digesters, industrial-scale enclosed-vessel digestion
of mixed domestic waste

Methods of biological decomposition are differentiated as being aerobic or anaerobic methods,

though hybrids of the two methods also exist.

Aerobic composting: A method of composting organic wastes using bacteria and other organisms that need
oxygen. It requires that oxygen be diffused throughout the organic material, either by mixing the material to
expose it to air or by forcing air through perforated pipes that pass through the material.

Anaerobic composting: A relatively slow method of composting organic wastes using bacteria that cannot
function in the presence of oxygen. (Taricska et al., 2007)

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Figure 1: General anaerobic biological reactions

Energy recovery: The energy content of waste products can be harnessed directly by using them as a direct
combustion fuel, or indirectly by processing them into another type of fuel. Recycling through thermal treatment
ranges from using waste as a fuel source for cooking or heating, to anaerobic digestion and the use of the gas
fuel, to fuel for boilers to generate steam and electricity in a turbine. Pyrolysis and gasification are two related
forms of thermal treatment where waste materials are heated to high temperatures with limited oxygen
availability. The process usually occurs in a sealed vessel under high pressure. Pyrolysis of solid waste converts
the material into solid, liquid and gas products. The liquid and gas can be burnt to produce energy or refined into
other chemical products (chemical refinery). The solid residue (char) can be further refined into products such
as activated carbon. (Carlton et al., 1972)

2.5.6 Vermicomposting

Vermiculture means artificial rearing or cultivation of earthworms. Vermicompost is the excreta of

earthworm. Earthworms eat Garbage, cow dung or farm yard material and pass it through their body and in the
process convert it into vermicompost. Earthworms by consuming garbage converts it into valuable manure but
keep the environment healthy. Conversion of garbage by earthworms into compost and the multiplication of
earthworms are simple process and can be easily handle by anybody. It is a process of converting organic waste
into stabilized organic matter using the Earth worm. It is best suited to housing Societies where they have some
space to deposit garbage for long period and some distance required in case if it smells due to overfeeding. This
is an easy way to recycle your organic kitchen wastes. Vermicomposting requires very little work, produces no
offensive odors, and helps plants thrive. In the contrary, it cannot be a better solution for industrial wastes
(Wang et al., 2007).

2.5.7 Avoidance and reduction methods

An important method of waste management is the prevention of waste material being created, also
known as waste reduction. Methods of avoidance include reuse of second-hand products, repairing broken items
instead of buying new, designing products to be refillable or reusable (such as cotton instead of plastic shopping
bags), encouraging consumers to avoid using disposable products (such as disposable cutlery), removing any
food/liquid remains from cans, packaging, ... and designing products that use less material to achieve the same
purpose (for example, light weighting of beverage cans). But this cannot be a universal solution to reduce
MSW (Beede et al., 1995).

2.6 Cost-Benefit Considerations in Managing MSW

Ideally, cost-benefit comparisons will guide choices among the range of options available for each
component of MSW management. The valuation is relatively clear cut for some costs and benefits of
management options, such as out-of-pocket collection and transport expenses and revenues from the sale of
recyclable materials, compost, and energy. Other, less obvious, costs and benefits must also be accounted for,
however, such as the opportunity costs of land (for transfer stations, processing facilities, or landfills) and
household labor (especially if households are expected to sort their waste or transport it to a central collection
point) and savings from disposal costs avoided by new technologies. (Beede et al., 1995)

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Relative Costs of Labor and Other Production Factors Compared with industrial countries, in developing
countries unskilled labor is abundant, skilled labor and physical capital are scarce, and infrastructure is often
limited. As a consequence, the cost of unskilled labor relative to skilled labor, land, and capital is generally
lower. Although capital-intensive waste-management techniques, which are typically intensive in human capital
and infrastructure as well, may be economically efficient in industrial countries, they are not likely to be so in
developing countries. (Cointreau et al., 1984).

3.0 Hypothesis:
From the literature review, it can be hypothesized that present method of garbage disposal like Landfills,
Incineration and Plasma Gasification has disadvantages like
1. Unhygienic
2. Rise in Pollution
3. Wastage of recyclable material
4. Spoils the beauty of the city
5. Limited space for land fills
6. Tremendous burden on landmass
7. High capital costs, Etc.
Composting is the best management option from both economic and environmental perspectives (Clarissa M.,
2008).

3.1 Composting – Proven Economical way

It has been proven by the following theory.

3.1.1 The Morris Factor:

Dr. Jeffrey Morris of Sound Resource Management, based in Washington State, has developed an Excel-
based model called “Environmental Value of Recycling and Composting.” The MEBCalc applies the inputs (in
tons) to the LCA data from the USEPA and Carnegie Mellon University. The resulting pollution estimates are
then standardized into one measurement: Currency, or more specifically, U.S. dollars. This holistic approach to
fully understanding the implications of waste management on both human health and the environment, and the
cost of those implications, will fundamentally shift the way that waste management methods are viewed in the
future. (Clarissa M., 2008).

3.1.2 Benefits of waste composting

There are a number of environmental benefits to composting garbage waste:

• Composting organic matter rather than disposing in landfills reduces the emission of greenhouse gases
like methane;
• Using compost as fertilizer reduces the need for chemical fertilizers, and promotes higher crop yields;
• Compost can regenerate poor soils, and can be used to cleanup (or remediate) contaminated soil by
absorbing odors and treating chemicals. Compost has also been shown to bind to heavy metals and
prevent them from migrating into groundwater or plants;
• Other benefits like, it can generate business and employment for unskilled labor in developing
countries;
• Using compost in landscaped parts of roads, bicycle paths and parks reduces irrigation requirements;
retains water and reduces leaching loss for plants; reduces soil erosion and runoff; suppresses weeds; and
reduces herbicide requirements (NSW, 2005);
• Further, using compost as top dressing on playing field surfaces requires less water; maintains good
turf growth under stressful conditions; improves soil structure, water infiltration and water holding
capacity of the soil; slowly releases essential macro and micronutrients to turf growth, reducing the need
for mineral fertilizers and making these fertilizers more effective;
• Supplies nitrogen and iron for long-term greening; and can suppress grass diseases and reduce the
need for regular pesticides application (NSW, 2005);

While these qualitative benefits are difficult to quantify, the MEBCalc attempts to monetize the value of
using the finished compost. Based on peer-reviewed research published in The International Journal of Life
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Cycle Assessment (Morris and Bagby, 2008), Morris conservatively estimates that compost use on lawns and
gardens is associated with a 50 percent reduction in pesticide and synthetic fertilizer use. The final calculation to
assess the economic value of the environmental cost or benefit of composting organics is obtained by
subtracting the avoided environmental cost/benefit of diversion from the default disposal method - landfill or
energy-from-waste (EFW) - and adding on the benefits shown above, derived from using finished compost as a
replacement for 50 percent of pesticides and synthetic fertilizers.

3.1.3 The Final Step:

In an effort to incorporate the actual operational costs of each option, the final step of this full-cost
accounting exercise is to subtract the environmental benefit from the per ton cost of composting, landfill or
EFW. This is expressed as:

$ True Cost = $ Net Cost of operations - $ Monetized environmental cost benefit

Last fall the Region of Niagara (population about 450,000) in Ontario, Canada commissioned a study to
undertake a full cost accounting review of region-wide composting of food waste, and leaf and yard waste,
versus other waste management options like landfill and EFW. Unlike calculating the net benefit of EFW and
landfilling, the composting net benefit requires subtracting the landfill benefit (as composting is replacing the
landfill option in Niagara) and further adding the benefit of compost use.

In the case of Niagara region, there were three estimates for EFW based on a variety of different
assumptions, for a low, high and best-case scenario cost per ton. The resulting “true cost” - represented by the
operational cost minus the environmental benefit - applied to the case of the Niagara Region shows that
composting leaf, yard and brush waste actually has a “negative” cost per ton ($30.69 - environmental benefit of
$44.22 = -$13.53); food waste composting is $29.96/ton; and combined organics costs $18.60/ton. These costs
are lower than the alternatives of landfill with gas recovery at $45.09/ton and best case scenario for EFW at
$57.29/ton.

These findings set an important new precedent for waste management accounting. So large is the cost
differential between composting and other disposal options that the debate around the economic merit of
composting is over. Truly, composting is the best economical and environmental friendly for MSW disposal
(Clarissa M., 2008).

3.2 Integrated waste management with compost disposal:

Integrated waste management using LCA (life cycle analysis) attempts to offer the most benign options
for waste management. For mixed MSW (Municipal Solid Waste) a number of broad studies have indicated that
waste administration, then source separation and collection followed by reuse and recycling of the non-organic
fraction and energy and compost/fertilizer production of the organic waste fraction via anaerobic digestion to be
the favored path.

3.3 Volumetric and flat tariffs.

Government can undertake one or more of the tasks of MSW collection, transport, processing, and
disposal, charging either a volumetric tariff (a curbside charge per unit volume of waste handled) or a benefit
tax (a flat amount per household). A volumetric tariff gives households and firms an incentive to reduce residual
waste either by changing the way they produce and consume, by recycling, or by illicitly dumping or burning
waste.

In an analysis of per unit charges for curbside collection of MSW, estimated that environmental damage
and the amount of waste households set out for collection would be substantially reduced by charging
households a fee that fully reflected the costs of collection and disposal. The results suggest that a $1.50 charge
per 32-gallon container (which typically holds about 9.5 kilograms) induced households to cut the waste they
put out for collection by an average of 18 percent per capita (0.2 kilograms per capita per day). When the fees
were combined with a program for collecting recyclable materials from households, the average reduction
increased to more than 30 percent.

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Municipalities to offer curbside collection for yard waste in the same way recyclables are collected. The
waste is then taken to a centralized location where it is turned into compost that may be sold, given away or
used in public works projects. (Beede et al., 1995)

4.0 Composting Process

Composting is an aerobic biological process, in which microbial activity breaks down organic matter and
inactivating pathogens. Once the composting and curing process has been completed, the compost is stabilized
organic material with little odour and pathogens meeting land spreading guidelines.

When the composting process is operated correctly, the organic material self heats to a temperature of
55°C or greater. When a temperature of 55°C is held for a minimum of 15 days, pathogens are generally
inactivated to levels acceptable for land disposal of the finished compost material. The USEPA guidelines for
biosolids composting are as follows:

Class A Product Aerated Pile, or In vessel system 55 0C for at least 3 days, windrow 55 0C for a minimum
of 15 days with 5 complete turns.
Class B Product 40 0C or higher for 5 days in which the temperature must exceed 55 0C for at least 4 hours

Microbial action in the composting process includes both mesophilic and thermophilc bacteria,
actinomycetes and fungi.

The two main process control parameters in composting are the carbon to nitrogen ratio and the moisture
content. A carbon to nitrogen ratio of 30:1 to required ensuring that the composting process will operate
effectively and reach and maintain the required temperatures to inactivate the pathogens

The moisture content of the feed stocks and the mixed compost must be such that there is sufficient
moisture available for biological activity, while allowing enough porosity within the compost to ensure that the
compost is effectively aerated during the composting process. Typically the moisture must be within 50 to 55
percent. Compost can be effectively produced with a porosity of 40 to 60 percent. In order to achieve the correct
porosity and carbon to nitrogen ration, woodchips, or sawdust is mixed with the compost feed stock as a bulking
agent.

As the composting process proceeds, operational monitoring includes measurement of temperature and
moisture levels. Moisture can be added to maintain the optimal water content of the compost.

When biosolids or paper sludges are used as a feedstock in the composting process, they must be
dewatered to approximately 25 percent solids or greater to ensure that this feedstock can be effectively handled,
mixed and to allow for air to pass through the compost during the composting process (Michael, G. et al., 2007).

The process generally includes:

• Mixing of the feed stocks with the bulking agents

• Filling the composting vessels, or windrowing the compost and bulking agent
• Aeration or mixing of the composting material during the composting process
• Curing of the finished compost to allow for further stabilization of the material, and
• Screening of the compost prior to final use.

4.1 Composting Methods

There are several methods for producing finished compost from biosolids and paper sludges. These
composting methods include both reactor and non-reactor technologies. The reactor technologies include
enclosed vessels in which the compost is placed, with air forced through the compost material.

The non-reactor technologies include placing the compost in open windrows. These windrows are then
aerated by either turning or mixing the compost on occasion or through air forced through the pile using a series
of air headers and blowers. Another non-reactor composting technology is the static pile process. In the static
pile process, compost is placed in a pile and air allowed to migrate naturally through the pile through thermal
action within the compost.

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The following Table 1 summarizes the benefits and disadvantages of each of the major composting
technologies.

TABLE 1
COMPARISON OF COMPOSTING TECHNOLOGIES
PROCESS ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Reactor Processes
In-Vessel •Composting process is more easily • High capital cost.
controlled. • High operating cost.
• Air supply to the compost process can • Potential for corrosion of the reactor.
be controlled to optimal levels. • Possibly more difficult for compost
• Heat retention in the compost material handling.
is more readily maintained.
• Moisture retention in the compost is
more readily retained.
Non-Reactor Technologies
Static Pile • Low cost. • Difficult to control air flow.
• Difficult to control temperature.
• Difficult to control moisture.
Windrows • Low cost. • High labour cost for turning compost.
• Difficult to control temperature.
• Difficult to control moisture loss.
Aerated Windrows • Air supply can be controlled. • Difficult to control moisture.
• Labour costs are reduced. • Difficult to control heat retention.
• Relatively low capital cost.
Source: (Michael, G. et al., 2007).

Some of the reactor technologies include:

• digesters;
• in-vessel building;
• Ag-Bag system; and
• Aerated containers.

In the digester process, compost is ground and placed in an anaerobic digester which is mixed and
operated similar to an anaerobic sludge digester. The advantage with the digester is that the composting process
can operate with compost at higher moisture content than some of the other aerobic composting processes.

The enclosed building in-vessel composting process involves placing the compost feedstock in a building
with a slotted floor which allows for air flow through the compost. Air is either forced upwards through the
compost pile or drawn through the pile for aeration. During this process, the compost is turned mechanically
with a mixer on a periodic basis to homogenize the material and ensure effective aeration throughout.

Other in-vessel composting systems have also been developed using roll-off containers with porous
floors. Aeration headers are connected to these roll-off containers and air is forced through the material. The
roll-off containers have advantages in that they are fully enclosed, the air supply can be controlled and any foul
air generated collected for treatment. The roll-off containers can also be moved around the composting site as
need to facilitate composting operations.

Another in-vessel composting technology is the Ag-Bag system. In the Ag-Bag system, a plastic bag is
filled with the feedstock. Air is then supplied to the material being composted and vents installed at various
locations to permit the aeration process to proceed. Once the composting process has been completed, the bag is
removed and disposed of.

Other in-vessel composting techniques include installing breathable covers composed of synthetic
materials such as Tyvek which allow air to move through the material being composted and trap any moisture.

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The in-vessel composting systems can be fitted with temperature and moisture probes for effective
monitoring of the composting process and ensure that the required temperatures are met for the required periods
of time to certify pathogen destruction (Michael, G. et al., 2007).

4.2 Selection of Composting Method:

The selection of a method for composting village or small town wastes is dependent on the character of
the wastes, the features of the compost site, and the climate and on whether the finished compost is to be used in
market gardens, nurseries, lawns, or farms. The most important aspects in the selection and use of a particular
method are sanitary and nuisance control, and costs. (Harold B.G., 1956)

5.0 Pilot Study:

To test co-composting disposal method of biosolids with source separated organic wastes and paper sludges.

5.1 Co-composting Pilot Study for Town T

The town T currently dumb garbage on river R. A biosolids composting pilot study needs to be
undertaken to determine if co-composting of biosolids and source separated organics could be an effective
method of reducing the amount of biosolids dumped on river. Various mixtures of biosolids and source
separated organic wastes needs to be tested with various composting technologies, including:

• Ag-Bag system;
• rotating drum digester;
• static pile; and
• windrowing.

In this study, various trial mixes has been prepared including varying amounts of woodchips, biosolids
and source separated organics. In all, 25 different mixes has been tested, with varying percentages of biosolids,
woodchips and source separated organics. During the composting process, the temperature and moisture
content of the compost mixes has been measured. The criteria for determining successful compost mix and
technology is that the compost needs to obtain a minimum temperature of 55°C for a minimum of 15 days.
Once the composting procedure was completed, the finished compost needs to be tested for metal concentrations
to determine if the finished product can be used as a soil amendment.

The pilot test has been undertaken in the ambient air temperatures range from -23°C to 9°C. The absence
of salmonella, faecal and e-coli within compost has been found through bacteriological testing of all the mixes.
This digester shall be located outdoor then later in indoors to provide the required ambient temperature to
operate. Similarly same steps have been followed for windrows method also.

5.2 Analysis of the Study Results:

Biosolids mixed with woodchips and food/yard wastes composted in static piles as well as the Ag Bag
system were able to meet the temperature requirements for pathogen elimination. The ambient temperature
affected the process with composting stopped during the winter period. When the temperature increased in the
spring, the composting process re-started.

During the pilot testing, odours and vector attraction was not a problem. The following Table 2
summarizes the metals concentrations in the various trial mixes that met the pathogen destruction requirements.
In Ontario the compost standards regulate metals concentrations in both the feed stock and the finished compost
and the metals concentrations in the biosolids did not meet the Ontario Compost Standards for feed stocks.
However, the finished compost when mixed with yard/food waste did meet the Ontario regulations.

The finished compost with Biosolids and woodchips did however meet the Canadian Council of
Ministers of the Environment (CCME) metal concentration requirements.

TABLE 2
COMPOST MIXES METALS RESULTS
Ontario 1 CCME “A” 2 Mix 2 Mix 5 Mix 6 Mix 8 Mix 9 Static
Pile
Arsenic (As) 10 13 1.1 1.6 1.3 4.9 2.5 0.8

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Cadmium (Cd) 3 3 <0.5 0.7 0.9 <0.5 0.7 0.6

Cobalt (Co) 25 34 4 4 3 4 <2 -5
Chromium (Cr) 50 210 95 115 90 24 13 71
Copper (Cu) 60 100 26 90 155 40 30 39
Mercury (Hg) 0.15 0.8 0.06 0.31 0.37 0.19 0.09 0.11
Molybdenum (Mo) 2 5 <3 3 4 <3 <3 <3
Nickel (Ni) 60 62 45 52 40 10 10 37
Lead (Pb) 150 150 9 13 13 34 34 7
Selenium (Se) 2 2 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.3 0.3
Zinc (Zn) 500 500 92 248 292 178 178 104

1 Ontario MOE 1991 Interim Standards

2 Canadian Council Ministers of the Environment Class A Compost

All units are mg/kg dry weight.

Bold exceeds MOE.

Mix 2 - 4.6 kitchen/yard: 12.4 woodchips: 1 biosolids

Mix 5 - 2 woodchips: 1 biosolids

Mix 6 - 3 woodchips: 1 biosolids

Mix 8 - 5 woodchips: 1 biosolids

Mix 9 - 8 woodchips: 1 biosolids

Static Pile - 4.6 kitchen/yard waste: 14 woodchips: 1 biosolids

5.3 Conclusion: Uses of Finished Compost

In Ontario, the compost regulations do not allow for unrestricted use of compost as an unrestricted soil
amendment due to metals concentrations in the feedstock and in the finished compost. However, based on
Canadian Council of Minsters of the Environment (CCME) and Quebec regulations, compost produced with
biosolids could possibly be used as an unrestricted soil amendment. Compost can be used as daily landfill cover,
increasing landfill space. Studies have shown that using compost as a landfill cover will effectively reduce
methane emissions from the landfills. Some studies have shown that the use of compost as a daily cover is more
effective in reducing methane emissions than a land fill gas collection and treatment system.

Finished compost can be used on the owner’s site for site restoration, as well as potentially for
remediation of disturbed areas such as gravel pits and quarries. Composting – the best suitable economical and
environmental friendly method of garbage disposal for town T, Philippines.

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