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158
25A-2 Spectroscopic Sources
generate a beam of radiation with sufficient and
stable power
(1) continuous sources: emit radiation that changes
in intensity only slowly as a function of
wavelength
(2) line sources: emit a limited number of bands of
radiation, each of which spans a very
limited range of wavelength.
Fig. 25-3 Spectral source types. The spectrum of a continuum source
(a) is much broader than that of a line source (b).
Table 25-1 Continuous Sources for Optical Spectroscopy
Source Wavelength Region, nm Type of Spectroscopy
Xenon arc lamp 250-600 Molecular fluorescence
H2 and D2 lamps 160-380 UV molecular absorption
Tungsten/halogen lamp 240-2500 UV/vis/near-IR molecular
absorption
Tungsten lamp 350-2200 Vis/near-IR molecular absorption
Nernst glower 400-20,000 IR molecular absorption
Nichrome wire 750-20,000 IR molecular absorption
Globar 1200-40,000 IR molecular absorption
Continuous Sources in the UV/Visible Region
provides radiation of all wavelength within a Fig. 25-4 (a) A tungsten lamp of
particular spectral region. the type used in spectroscopy and
(b) its spectrum. Intensity of the
tungsten source is usually quite
low at wavelengths shorter than
about 350 nm. Note that the
intensity reaches a maximum in
the near-IR region of the spectrum
(a) (b) (~1200 nm in this case).
Deuterium (hydrogen) lamps: 160 - 380 nm (Fig. 25-4)
A cylindrical tube (contains deuterium at a low pressure) with a quartz window
(the radiation exits)
Fig. 25-5 (a) A deuterium lamp of the type
used in spectrophotometers and (b) its
spectrum. Note that the maximum
intensity occurs at ~ 225 nm. Typically
instruments switch from deuterium to
tungsten at ~350 nm.
(a) (b)
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Continuous Sources in the IR Region
Globar source: 1 - 40 μm (Globar heated to about 1500℃)
5- by 50-mm silicon carbide rod.
Nernst glower: a cylinder of zirconium and yttrium oxides.
Nichrome wire
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The Echellette Grating
Concave Grating
Holographic Grating
3. Radiation Filters
advantage: simplicity, ruggedness and cheapness
interference filter: effective bandwidths of 5 to 20 nm
Dielectric material: CaF2 of MgF2
absorption filter: effective bandwidths of 50 to 250 nm
Photon Detectors
(1) Phototubes
*a semicylindrical photocathode: supports a
layer of photoemissive material, such as
alkali metal or metal oxide; emitted
photoelectrons, producing a current
(photocurrent)
Fig 25-12 A phototube and accompanying
*a wire anode
circuit.
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(2) Photomultiplier Tubes (PMT) (Fig 25-13) more sensitive
cathode: emitted electrons are accelerated toward a dynode
dynode: at 90 V more positive than cathode.
Fig. 25-13 Diagram of a photomultiplier tube: (a) cross-sectional view,
(b) electrical diagram illustrating dynode polarization and
photocurrent measurement.
pn junction or pn diode
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25B UV/Visible Photometers and Spectrophotometers
spctrophotometers: employ a grating or a prism monochromator to provide a narrow
band of radiation for measurements that the wavelength used can be varied
continuously, thus making it possible to record entire absorption spectra.
photometers: use an absorption filter or an interference filter.
advantages: simplicity, ruggedness and low cost.
(b)
Fig. 25-19 The Spectronic 20 spectrophotometer. A photography of the instrument is shown
in (a), while the optical diagram is seen in (b).
25B-2 Double-Beam Instruments (Fig. 25-20 b,c)
(a) A aingle-beam instrument, radiation from the filter or monochromator passes through
either the reference or the sample cells before striking the photodetector.
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Fig. 25-20 (b) A double-beam-in-space
instrument
(b) A double-beam-in-space instrument, radiation from the filter or monochromator is split
into two beams that simultaneously pass through the reference and sample cells before
striking two matched photodetectors.
A double-beam-in-time
instrument
Fig. 25-20 (c)
(c) A double-beam-in-time instrument, the beam is alternately sent through reference and
sample cells before striking a single photodetector. Only a matter of millisecons
separates the beams as they pass through the two cells.
25B-3 Multichannel Instruments
possible to record an entire ultraviolet or
visible spectrum
Chips length: 1-6 cm
individual diodes widths: 0.015-0.050 mm
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25C Infrared Spectrophotometers
25C-1 Dispersive IR Instruments
cell compartment is located between the source and the monochromator
→ any scattered radiation generated in the cell compartment is largely removed by
the monochromator.
IR sources: heated solids
IR gratings: much coarser than those required for UV/visible
IR detectors: respond to heat rather than photons
optical components of IR: polished salts such as NaCl or KBr.
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