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Transformer Condition Monitoring

TRANSFORMER CONDITION MONITORING

Sethuraman Muthukaruppan
Senior Engineer (Condition Monitoring)
Asset Maintenance
TNB Transmission

ABSTRACT

One of the major problems facing the power system managers is the ability to determine the
expected life of the power transformer. Due to the complexity of the power transformer design,
operational and maintenance policies, it is impossible to accurately predict the expected life of a
transformer. Consequently, power system operators have to depend on various condition
monitoring and condition assessment techniques available to determine plant condition and
remnant life.

This paper describes the various condition monitoring and condition assessment methods available
to provide plant managers with the information necessary to make decisions on the future of the
power transformers. Effective transformer condition monitoring and condition assessment
programs allow us to accurately plan and adopt strategies for refurbishment or replacement of
power transformers.

KEYWORDS

Power Transformer, Condition Monitoring, High Voltage, Electrical Testing, On-site Testing,
Insulating Oil Analysis, Insulation System

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The life of a power transformer is primarily governed by the life of the insulation system. The
insulation system is required to provide electrical insulation between the various current carrying
components of the transformer and to provide mechanical support to the windings. The insulation
system consists of the paper insulation and insulating oil. This paper will describe the various tests
performed on transformers by the condition monitoring unit. These tests can be divided into two
main sections which are: electrical tests and insulating oil analysis.

2.0 ELECTRICAL TESTS

Preventive maintenance testing of in-service transformers has the primary objective of monitoring
conditions in the insulation and evaluating the useful life still available in the transformer tested.

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Transformer Condition Monitoring

2.1 Winding Resistance

The winding resistance is measured in the field to identify shorted turns (although this is better identified in the ratio
test), poor joints, high resistance connections or contacts and open circuits. The resistance is measured on all taps of a
tapped winding to ensure that the OLTC dose not open circuit during the tap changing operation.

2.2 Insulation Resistance and Polarisation Index

The perfect dielectric can be represented, at power frequencies, as a lumped prefect capacitance. The application of a
direct electric field to this capacitance will results in a charging current flowing for a short time giving the capacitor
sufficient charge to support a voltage of V= Q/C. The time taken for the capacitance to achieve this equilibrium will
be determined by the supply source resistance.

In practical dielectrics the charging current does not cease after this short period but decreases gradually to a minimum
value. The taken for this minimum value to be reached depends upon the dielectric and can range from seconds to days.
The insulation resistance is defined from Ohm’s Law as the ratio of the applied voltage to this residual current.

In practical applications the charging current can consist of volume and surface currents. Therefore the insulation
resistance measurement of plant will be affected by the condition of the insulation itself and the cleanliness of the
insulation surfaces. This effect can be allowed for in some plant types by the use of guarding electrodes.

The time dependency of the insulation resistance can result from electronic and ionic conductivity, dipole orientation
(dielectric absorption), and space charge polarisation. As the charging current time constants are affected by the
presence of impurities, the time taken for the leakage current to settle down can be used as an insulation condition
indicator. The ratio of the insulation resistance value take ten minutes after application of the measurement voltage to
that taken one minute after voltage application is known as the Polarisation Index. Generally insulation in good (dry)
condition has a PI greater than 1.2.

2.3 Winding and Bushing Power Factor

One of the major tests performed in the field is the measurement of the winding and bushing capacitance and power
factor.

Capacitance measurements of each of the windings to ground and between windings is performed to provide an
indication of the condition of the winding insulation and some indication of the structural integrity of the windings.
Similar measurements are performed on the bushings to provide an indication of the condition of the insulation in the
condenser bushing and of the power factor test points.

As described above, the perfect dielectric can be represented as a lumped perfect capacitance. The charging current
flowing in the capacitance when an AC filed is applied should lead the applied voltage by 90°. In practical insulating
systems losses (caused by conduction and polarisation currents) cause the current to lead the voltage by less than 90°.
The complement of the angel between the voltage and current vectors is called the dielectric loss of the angle δ or
DLA. The tangent of this angle, tan δ, provides an indication of the losses in the insulation and is known as the
POWER FACTOR or DIELECTRIC DISSIPATION FACTOR (DDF).

The power factor of the windings and the bushings is usually measured in the field as a condition assessment tool. The
power factor can give an indication of the moisture content of the paper and oil in the transformer and the bushings.
Major deterioration of the insulation will also be detected.

2.4 Low Voltage Excitation Current Test

The low voltage excitation test is performed to identify shorted turns or severe core damage. This method is a natural
extension of the power factor test and makes use of the same equipment. The test results of a three-phase core form
transformer will give a pattern of two similar currents and one lower current. This is usually the H2 phase of the

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transformer as the magnetic reluctance of this phase is lower than the other two phases resulting in a lower excitation
current value.

2.5 Transformer Turns Ratio

The ratio of the transformer is normally measured at commissioning or after major refurbishment. The test is also
performed to identify incipient faults or after a transformer fault trip to identify shorted turns. A turns ratio
measurement can show that a fault exists but does not determine the exact location of the fault.

2.6 Tap Changer Dynamic Resistance Measurement

The dynamic resistance measurement detects carbonized spots and weak contacts in the mechanism of a tap changer.
The advantage of this diagnostics is that not only end positions of the tap changer contacts can be checked but the
complete stroke of contact movement while changing between taps. This also allows one to diagnose the diverter
switch in the tap changer mechanism.

2.7 New Condition Monitoring Tools

Moisture, in conjunction with the other factors, acts on the paper insulation reducing the paper’s strength and volume.
This reduces the paper’s, and the transformer’s, ability to perform its function. Therefore two news tests have been
introduced to determine the moisture content in the cellulose accurately and movement of the winding structure
respectively.

2.7.1 Recovery Voltage Measurement (RVM)

One of the critical measures of transformer condition is the moisture content of the paper insulation. It is well known
that an increase in the paper moisture content will result in a corresponding increase in the transformer ageing rate.

One method of determining the moisture content of paper is to use equilibrium diagrams that relate oil/water content,
sample temperature and paper moisture content. However, as transformers in the field are rarely in equilibrium, this
method has varying degrees of accuracy.
A second method of determining the paper moisture content is to drain oil and take an a paper sample from the
insulation. This method is more accurate, but costly and exposes the transformer to the atmosphere and the possibility
of moisture ingress. RVM provides an indication of the paper moisture content without the drawbacks of the above two
methods. RVM is non-intrusive and has proven to be accurate when compared to known paper moisture contents in oil
test cells.
Moisture and the decay products from insulation degradation are polar in nature. When an electric field is applied to a
dielectric containing polar contaminants, the polar products become aligned with the electric field. If the levels of these
contaminants increase, the time required for the dipoles to align with the applied field is reduced. This is equivalent to
a reduction in the system time constant. The RVM determines the equivalent paper moisture content by measuring the
time constant of the insulation system. Instrumentation software calculates the equivalent paper moisture content from
the system time constant and temperature.

2.7.2 Frequency Response Analysis (FRA)

The conventional techniques of ratio, resistance, DDF and even HV testing are often unable to detect winding
deformation, except in the most serious of cases. Any changes in the spatial position of the winding structrue will result
in relative changes to the internal inductive and capacitive network of the winding structure which produce changes in
the frequency response of the transformer.

FRA measures the frequency response of the transformer windings up to 10 MHz. This method involves injecting a
low voltage signal of varying frequency into each end of the winding and measuring the response at the other end of
the winding.

The transformer under test is always disconnected from adjacent equipment. This is done to eliminate the effect of
connecting equipment although it is reported that short lengths of busbar are not usually a problem. Winding
movement is more likely to occur in older, aged transformers that have reduced winding clamping pressure. This is
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particularly true when the transformer is placed under a high mechanical load such as experienced during fault
conditions.

The advantage of obtaining a baseline signature of the transformer is that future tests will be able to determine the
extent of any winding distortion that occurs after the measurement has been taken. This test is particularly valuable as a
baseline reference for a new transformer prior to placing in service as well as for older transformer after re-
refurbishment.

A spectrum analyzer is used to excite, monitor and record the response from the transformer. A software program
downloads the recorded data to a PC for analysis. Results for each phase are then plotted against frequency. Each
winding is tested separately. To ensure repeatable measurements, all other windings in the transformer are left floating.
The test tap position selected to ensure that the maximum amount of winding is included in each measurement.

3.0 INSULATING OIL ANALYSIS

A regular program of oil testing is recommended to monitor for changes in oil quality. Specialized
tests are also performed that identify specific compounds in the oil and helps determine whether
fault conditions exist inside the unit. The recommended battery of tests include the following:

- Liquid power factor at 25o and 100o C


- Dielectric breakdown strength
- Moisture
- Neutralization number(Acidity)
- Interfacial tension
- Color/Visual Examination
- Sludge/Sediment
- Inhibitor
- Dissolved gas analysis
- Dissolved metal analysis
- Furanic compounds
3.1 Liquid Power Factor

The IEC standard method for this test is IEC 247. This involves measuring the power loss through a thin film of the
liquid being testing.

Water, contamination, and the decay products of oil oxidation tend to increase the power factor of the oil. New oil has
very low power factor values – much less than 0.1% at 25o C and 1.0% at 90o C. As the oil ages and moisture
accumulates, or if the unit is contaminated, the liquid power factor tends to increase. This increase in liquid power
factor is a direct indication that materials harmful to the paper and to the continued operation of the transformer are
building up.

Many transformer owners make the mistake of having this test run at only one temperature. While the 90o C test is
more sensitive, both temperatures need to be used. The relationship between the 25o and 90o values can help in making
a diagnosis as to whether the problem is moisture, oxidation, or contamination.

3.2 Dielectric Breakdown Strength

The dielectric breakdown voltage is a measure of the ability of oil to withstand electric stress. Dry and clean oil exhibit
an inherently high breakdown voltage. Free water and solid particles, the latter particularly in combination with high
levels of dissolved water, tend to migrate to regions of high electric stress and reduce the breakdown voltage
dramatically. The measurement of breakdown voltage, therefore, serves primarily to indicate the presence of
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contaminants such as water or conducting particles. A low breakdown voltage value can indicate that one or more of
these are present. However, a high breakdown voltage does not necessarily indicate the absence of all contaminants.
This test is performed in accordance with IEC 156.

3.3 Moisture

The purpose for which the dielectric tests were invented – monitoring moisture content – can be done directly. IEC
733 is well established and can measure moisture down to low parts per million levels.

While acceptable values have been established by voltage class for moisture (less than or equal to 30 ppm for voltages
up to 145 kV, 20 ppm for voltages above 145 kV as used by TNBT), these are somewhat misleading. A truer picture
of moisture in the transformer must take the sampling temperature into account so that % saturation of the oil by
moisture and % moisture by dry weight of the solid insulation can be calculated. A transformer at 20o C that has 20
ppm moisture in the oil is considerably wetter than a similar unit, with a similar 20 ppm moisture, but that is operating
at 40o C. A new transformer should be less than 0.5% moisture by dry weight. Anything over 3.0% (or 30%
saturation) is considered extremely wet. Most owners dehydrate transformers when the moisture level exceeds 1.5 to
2.0% moisture by dry weight.

3.4 Neutralization Number (Acidity)

This value, measured by IEC standard method IEC 1125A reported as mg KOH/g sample, reports the relative amount
of a number of oil oxidation products, primarily acids, alcohols and soaps. As the oil continues to oxidize, acid
number increases gradually, generally over a period of years. Running the acid number regularly provides guidance as
to how far oxidation of the oil has proceeded. Th acceptable limit is test is usually used as a general guide for
determining when an oil should be replaced or reclaimed.

Acceptable values for acid number are 0.20 and lower. Unacceptable values are over 0.20. These are the values used
by TNBT. However, there are countries that use values that are even as low as 0.05. The are reasons why. First of all,
if one examines paper from a 0.05 acid number transformer, it is readily apparent that even at this low acid number
value that decay products are depositing in and damaging the paper fibers. Once the damage starts, the life of the
insulation is compromised. Second, between 0.05 and 0.10, visible sludge will start to form in operating transformers.

The short answer is that the questionable range of 0.05 to 0.10 is where the oil starts to lose its effectiveness with
respect to one or more of the functions that it is supposed to fulfill. Studies have been performed that indicate that the
paper will lose 75-80% of its strength (and therefore be at the end of it’s effective life) before the acid number reaches
0.40 mg KOH/ g sample – a value that some still consider to be below the value where the oil needs to be serviced.

3.5 Interfacial Tension

The test method for interfacial tension (IFT), IEC 6295, measures the strength in mN/m of an interface that will form
between service aged oil and distilled water. Because decay products of oil oxidation are both oil and water soluble,
their presence will tend to weaken the interface and depress the interfacial tension value. Brand new oil is frequently
40-50 mN/m. An acceptable value for in-service oil is greater than 25 mN/m or greater; unacceptable results are below
28 mN/m.

3.6 Color/Visual

Field examination of insulating liquids (IEC 296) includes examination for presence of cloudiness or sediment and
general appearance as well as a color examination. As oil ages, it will darken gradually. Very dark oils or oils that
change drastically over a short period of time may indicate problems. Any cloudiness or sediment indicates the
presence of free water or particles that may be detrimental to continued operation of the equipment. Taken alone,
without consideration of past history or other test parameters, color is not very important for diagnosing transformer
problems. If the oil has an acrid or unusual odour, consideration should be given to carrying out further tests.

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3.7 Sludge/Sediment

The test in IEC 296 distinguishes between sediment and sludge. Sediment is insoluble material present in the oil.
Sediment may consist of insoluble oxidation or degradation products of solid or liquid materials, solid products such as
carbon or metallic oxides and fibres or other foreign matter.

Sludge is polymerized oxidation products of solid and liquid insulating material. Sludge is soluble in oil up to a certain
limit. At sludge levels above this, the sludge comes out of the solution contributing an additional component to the
sediment. The presence of sludge and sediment may change the electrical properties of the oil and hinder heat
exchange, thus encouraging deterioration of the insulating materials.

3.8 Inhibitor Content

Inhibited oil deteriorates more slowly than uninhibited oil so long as active oxidation inhibitor is present. However,
once the oxidation inhibitors are consumed, the oil may oxidise at a greater rate. The determination of residual
oxidation inhibitor in in-service transformer oil is carried as per IEC 666.

3.9 Dissolved Gas Analysis

Unlike the tests and methods discussed to this point, dissolved gas analysis (DGA) does not measure gradual changes
in oil quality. DGA has a very limited utility in determining the continued suitability of the transformer oil. The
purpose and function of DGA are to provide an indication as to whether there may be an active or incipient transformer
fault affecting the operation and continued health of the equipment. DGA is used to detect and quantify nine dissolved
gases:

- Hydrogen
- Oxygen
- Nitrogen
- Methane
- Carbon monoxide
- Carbon dioxide
- Ethane
- Ethylene
- Acetylene

While oxygen, nitrogen, and (to a lesser degree) carbon dioxide are atmospheric gases and reflect only upon the
effectiveness of the transformer insulation and the integrity of the atmospheric seal of the unit, the other gases (all of
them combustible) are typically present in significant quantities only as the result of a transformer fault – overheating
of the oil or cellulose, partial discharge (corona), or sparking/arcing electrical discharges.

A laboratory can measure the dissolved gas content of an oil sample using gas chromatography and provide an analysis
of the operating condition of the transformer using a number of qualitative and quantitative means including:

- Key gas analysis


- IEEE gas guide tables
- Roger’s ratio method
- Dornenberg ratio method
- Duval’s triangle
- IEC Method

An active transformer fault, particularly an energetic fault like an arc or severe hot spot overheating involving the solid
insulation, may mean that the transformer is in danger of failure. Identification of these faults by DGA prevents an
unplanned outage and allows for remedial action to be taken to correct the fault before it can destroy the equipment.

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3.10 Dissolved Metals Analysis

Dissolved metals analysis (in particular, for three metals: iron, copper, and aluminum) can be of use in further
identifying the location of transformer faults discovered by dissolved gas analysis. For example, dissolved metals
analysis indicating the presences of conductor metals may indicate a fault is occurring in the winding or at a connection
while the presence of iron indicates involvement of the core steel.

3.11 Furanic Compounds

When paper breaks down, the cellulose chains are broken and glucose molecules (which serve as the “building blocks”
of the cellulose) are chemically changed. Each of the glucose monomer molecules that are removed from the polymer
chain becomes one of a series of related compounds called “furans” or “furanic compounds”. Because these furanic
compounds are partially soluble in oil, they are present in both the oil and the paper. Measuring the concentration in
the oil can tell us quite a bit about the condition of the paper.

The standard method typically tests for five compounds that are normally only present in the oil as a result of the paper
breaking down. Those five compounds, and their probable causes, are:

- 5-hydroxymethyl-2-furaldehyde (5H2F), typically formed by oxidation of paper.


- 2-furyl alcohol (2FOL), typically formed in connection with a high moisture content.
- 2-furaldehyde (2FAL), very common, formed by all overheating and aging conditions.
- 2-acetyl furan (2ACF), very rare, may be related to electrical stress.
- 5-methyl-2furaldehyde (5M2F), typically formed as a result of overheating.

These are typically present in very low concentrations, microg/kg or parts per billion, requiring detailed extraction
methods and analysis using a very sophisticated instrument: a high performance liquid chromatograph. Typically, we
find that total furan concentrations relate well to the following conditions:
i) 25 parts per billion (ppb) is a new transformer with only “background” presence of furans.
ii) Up to 100 ppb is an in service transformer that has aged normally (Acceptable level).
iii) 100 to 1000 ppb is a unit that may have accelerated ageing (Questionable level).
iv) Over 1000 ppb has significantly aged and should be investigated (Unacceptable level).

Very high levels, 1000 ppb and above starts to enter the “danger zone”. Transformers with total furans 1000 ppb and
above have a much higher failure rate because they are starting to reach their end of life or because small areas of the
paper have been destroyed by localized overheating.

3.12 Interpretation of Test Results

Typically, the justification for running transformer oil tests is to provide the maintenance program with information to
allow the efficient and safe continued use of the equipment. In this context, transformer oil tests listed in the table
above (except for DGA, furans, metals, and PCBs) are run on a regular basis – usually annually or every six months.
Trends of the oil quality are monitored so that when the oxidation inhibitor nears depletion and/or when one or more of
the other test parameters enter the “questionable” range, the oil can be serviced to restore it to new oil quality before
any lasting damage to the insulation system is done.

Oil servicing includes reclamation by processing the oil through filtering (to remove solid materials), through heat and
vacuum to remove moisture and dissolved gases, and through a chemical adsorbent such as fullers earth to remove
acids, sludges, and decay products. Oil can generally be reclaimed, however far the oxidation process has proceeded,
and it can generally be reclaimed any number of times to like new oil quality. Oil that has aged in a transformer,
however, has caused degradation products to build up inside the transformer, particular on and inside the structure of
the solid insulation. Removing and replacing the oil – regardless as to whether the replacement oil is new or reclaimed
– has little effect with regard to cleaning up the inside of the transformer. Reclamation of the transformer oil in the
transformer, frequently referred to as hot oil cleaning, cycles the oil from the transformer through a processing rig
where the oil is cleaned up. Because the oil passing over the internal structures of the transformer has been heated, it
redissolves the acids and sludges, even those that are inside the solid insulation. Depending on how far oxidation of
the oil has been allowed to proceed, a reclaiming project may require a volume of oil passing through the transformer
that is anywhere from 4 to 20 times the liquid volume capacity of the transformer. If done properly, reclaiming can
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frequently be done without deenergizing the transformer. Energized reclaiming saves on equipment downtime, and
the loading and vibration of the energized equipment actually makes the cleaning of the internal structures proceed
more effectively. Limiting factors on whether reclamation can proceed on an energized basis include the moisture
content, voltage class of the equipment, volume and access to the oil, and presence of incipient fault conditions.
Faults identified and diagnosed by DGA, furans, and/or metals analysis must be corrected to ensure that the unit can
continue to operate safely. These faults typically require an outage to repair as they are related to electrical or
mechanical problems with the internal components. Since it is not always practical to immediately schedule an outage
(and if the fault is not immediately destructive of the equipment), the monitoring interval between DGA tests or furan
analyses may be decreased – normal intervals for DGA may be 3 months to one year – sometimes to daily retests
where problems are particularly severe. Except for highly critical units, furans and metals are run only when they will
be useful to help diagnose fault conditions.

The key issue behind testing is to use the information to improve operations. Too frequently, limited funds are spent
on testing units where no remedial action will ever be taken. It would be much more cost effective to reallocate those
funds to more critical units – perhaps shortening testing intervals – where testing results are a determinant in the
continuing maintenance of that equipment.

4.0 Conclusion

The transformer just like human beings needs a physical check-up, for a clean bill of health. No
single test procedure is adequate to supply all the necessary information needed to properly
evaluate a transformer, resulting in the various test performed by the condition monitoring unit.

The frequency of the tests will be determined by many factors such as the age, loading and history
of operation. These tests may fulfill three distinct but general functions:
i) Prove the integrity of a piece of equipment at the time of acceptance.
ii) Verify the continued integrity of the unit at periodic intervals of time.
iii) Determine the nature of the extent of the damage when a unit has failed.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

(1) “A Guide To Transformer Maintenance”, J.J.Kelly, S.D. Myers & R.H.Parrish, 1988. ISBN
0-939320-00-2.
(2) Barry F Finlay, “The Ageing Power Transformer Population Condition And Life
Management Options”, ESAA Short Course Electrical Plant Life Assessment and
Condition Monitoring, Feb 2000.
(3) Randy D. Stebbins, “Testing Transformers and Transformer Oil”, The Association OF
Illinois Electric Cooperatives Engineering Conference, Springfield, Feb 2-4, 2000.

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