Advancements in Pavement Technologies

Advancements in pavement technologies
1. INTRODUCTION
Many of the existing road networks all over the world are being widened and
strengthened. Also new highways and expressways are being constructed to handle the
demand of the rapidly increasing traffic volumes. With the increase in demand for efficient
road network, awareness to use efficient strategies and improved pavement performances are
being studied extensively by the transport officials all around the world. The ill treated
pavements along with poor maintenances have lead to increased discomfort and safety for the
potential road users. There has been an increasing demand for the road user safety as well as
the time savings in travel because, generally, travelling is considered as a disutility. This
demand is not constant over time. The reason can be simplified as the “insatiability of the
human needs”. This means the human needs can never be satisfied, as the olds say, it’s hard
to fill a cup with a hole in it.
Many such developments have been made in the field of pavement technology such as
drainable or permeable pavement system which are rapidly gaining popularity in Japan
because of the high level of precipitation and the growing need for measures against the
deteriorating road environment. In the field of interlocking block pavements, highly-porous
permeable systems are expected to be increasingly used for constructing walkways and other
facilities. In the case of crack treatments on pavements, there are two primary types of crack
treatment materials currently in use: hot pour and emulsified. Hot pour materials require
heating prior to application and cold pour materials generally pour at ambient temperature
because they have been emulsified with water and do not require heating prior to application.
Both materials are asphaltic in nature and may contain polymer, rubber, fibers as well as
other proprietary additives. Much such innumerable advancement has been made in this field
from researchers all over the world.
In our discussion, we shall mainly focus on the recent developments in the field of
pavement technology in the evaluation procedure based on the type of pavement failures, the
maintenance aspect of the pavements, and the recent advancements regarding the type of
pavement interface.
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2. PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
For many years, state highway agencies (SHA) have been trying to assess which
rehabilitation technology is best suited for their roadways. This research deals with the
evaluation of field performance of new flexible pavement technologies all over the world.
The alternatives considered by an agency for rehabilitation usually represent current practice.
However, they almost invariably continue to change as new technologies become available.
Very often, successful and cost-effective technologies seem to become part of the long-term
practice.
A pavement is a complex structure, which is subjected to many diverse combinations
of loading and environmental conditions. Adding to this complexity are; materials behaviour,
varying pavement performance and their interrelationships. Traffic loading and
environmental factors cause hot mixed asphalt (HMA) pavements to degrade and eventually
fail in various ways. The modes of failure are typically categorized as permanent
deformation, cracking, surface defects, and potholes, commonly referred to as pavement
distresses.
Mixture design methods, structural design procedures, and construction specifications
are designed to combat early failure of the HMA pavements. Fatigue cracking, rutting, and
edge cracking are load related distresses. Thermal cracking, block cracking, and reflection
cracking are caused principally by environmental factors and thus are considered non-load
related distresses. Bleeding, ravelling, and potholes are caused by a combination of
environmental factors and traffic loads. In any given situation, the feasible set of pavement
rehabilitation alternatives may be much smaller than the total available options because of
costs, physical constraints, or the condition of the existing pavement.
In this context, the performance evaluation is also done based on various other
parameters such as performance grade binder temperature range, traffic volume, highway
classification, maximum aggregate size and climate. We can also estimate the time of
application of these rehabilitation work on the pavements based on their performances, that
is, the expected life of the rehabilitation strategies utilized on the pavements may be shorter
than could be expected had rehabilitation been done before distress reached this high level.
Such considerations can also lead to an economic strategy for the rehabilitation work on
pavements.
2.1 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

The term flexible pavement composed of bituminous material and aggregate mixtures
or various combinations of layers of these mixtures on layers of aggregate base or sub base.
Although designs may vary in the combination of these materials, the flexible pavement
functions in a definite manner under traffic loads. The flexible pavements generally doesn’t
take up any load as such, instead they just transmit the load directly to the ground or
subgrade. This load transfer mechanism is assumed to be a grain to grain transfer mechanism
and it’s assumed to be trapezoidal variation from the point of application of load to the
subgrade soil. It is the intent of the design that deflection of the pavement in reaction to
wheel loads will not stress the materials to the point of fracture within a reasonable life
expectancy of the pavement.
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Various design procedures are adopted all over the method. Some of those methods
are empirical in nature and others are experimental determination of various properties such
as the subgrade soil strength properties etc. The methods that comes under experimental
determinations are California bearing ratio method (CBR), plate load test etc. Various
empirical methods also has been developed by the researchers all over the world such as the
US Corps of engineers have developed the Engineers formula for the design of the pavements
considering the wheel load expected over the life of the pavement. The Indian Road Congress
has also developed various empirical methods for the determination of the required thickness
of the pavement for supporting the subgrade soil from deterioration.
Figure 1
2.1.1 Polymer Coated Bitumen
In this section, we shall look upon the performance evaluation done in the case of
polymer coated bitumen build roads. Plastics waste constitutes a significant portion of the
total municipal solid waste (MSW) generated in India. It is estimated that approximately 10
thousand tons per day (TPD) of plastics waste is generated. Their visibility has been
perceived as a serious problem and made plastics a target in the management of solid waste.
Plastics are non-biodegradable. They also have very long lifetime and the burning of plastics
waste under uncontrolled conditions could also lead to generation of many hazardous air
pollutants (HAPs) depending upon the type of polymers and additives used. However, the
end-of-life plastics can be recycled into a second life application but after every thermal
treatment, degradation of plastics takes place to a certain extent.
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Plastics wastes consisting of mainly poly olefins from items such as carry bags, cups,
thermocoles and packaging films pose a major problem for their disposal. In this study, the
plastics wastes were shredded into small size, i.e. 2 mm to 4 mm, molten and thereafter
coated over hot aggregate at 1600C. Several roads have been built in this manner in the State
of Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, Maharashtra, Kerala and Andhra Pradesh using polymer-coated–
bitumen aggregate
2.1.1.1 Plastics As A Binder
Waste plastic is shredded into required size and mixed with hot stone (150 – 1700c)
with uniform mixing. When heated to around 1500c to 1700c, they melt and in their molten
state they spread over the stone as a thin liquid, which acts as a binder.
2.1.1.2 Precaution
The plastics cannot be melted separately to use for coating. The stone is heated to
0
170 c and the shredded plastic film is sprayed over the hot stone. On contact with the surface
of the hot stone the plastic gel softened and coated over the aggregate. It is important to note
that the size of the shredded plastic should be in the range of 4.2mm to 1.18mm. The
shredded plastics should be less than the surface area of the aggregate to get uniform coating.
Otherwise the binding will not be effective.
2.1.1.3 COATING OF PLASTIC OVER GRANITE STONE
The stones can also be made to bind with bitumen strongly resulting in better mix for
road construction likely;
(i) The coating of plastics over stone reduces the voids in the stone and helps to reduce
moisture absorption to a great extent.
(ii) Solid deposition on the pores of stone results in degradation of stones. This is also
prevented.
(iii) The spreading of bitumen is also made easy.
2.1.1.4 PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTION OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
Process: I
The roads were laid using both Mini Hot Mix Plant and central mixing plant. The aggregate
mix prepared as per IRC specification, was heated in the cylindrical drum to 170 deg. C. It
was then transferred to the puddling compartment where the plastics waste (size between
1.18mm and 4.36mm) was added. As the temperature of the aggregate was around 170 deg. C
and the softening temperature of plastics waste was around 135 deg. C the plastics waste got
softened and got coated over the aggregate within 30 to 45 seconds. Immediately the hot
bitumen 60/70 grade (≈ 160° C) was added and mixed in the puddling chamber. The bitumen
got coated over the aggregate. As the plastics and the bitumen were in the liquid state they
got mixed. The mixture was transferred to the road and it was spread and compacted using 8
Ton roller.
Process: II
For the construction of long distance roads it is very important that the plastics coated
aggregate should be tried with Central Mixing Plant. Using a mechanical device the plastics
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waste was mixed quantitatively with the aggregate at the cylindrical drum before the addition
of bitumen. The material collected at the tipper was uniform and had a temperature of 140
deg. C. This was transported to the spot and the road was laid using ‘paver’ and 8 Ton roller.
The spreading was good and the laying was easy. During the process the materials got mixed
at;
1. At the tipper
2. During the transfer from tipper to paver and
3. By the pavers during spreading for road laying. This ensures better distribution of plastics
and help better binding
ROUGHNESS SURVEY
The surface unevenness of highway pavements refers to the regularity of surface finish both
in longitudinal and transverse directions. Almost in all major highway works executed,
control of surface unevenness has been introduced as a mandatory requirement. The existing
standards and tolerances of surface unevenness are prescribed in IRC special publication 16-
2004.
Type of road surface Conditions of road surface

Good Average Poor
Surface dressing <3500 3500-4500 >4500
Open graded premix carpet <3000 3000-4000 >4000
Mix seal surfacing <3000 3000-4000 >4000
Semi dense bituminous concrete <2500 2500-3500 >3500
Bituminous concrete <2000 2000-3000 >3000
Cement concrete <220 2200-3000 >3000
Table 1
The field experiments have revealed that none of the values have exceeded the permissible
range specified by the Indian Road Congress.
SKID RESISTANCE TEST
The portable skid resistance tester was designed by R.R.L. U.K, to provide a simple and rapid
method for checking the skid resistance in local areas and entails measuring the frictional
resistance between a rubber slider (mounted on the end of a pendulum arm) and the wetted
road surface. In this case the loss in energy of the pendulum arm, after the slider has traversed
the surface, is equated to the work done during the sliding process. The instrument measures
directly the coefficient of friction on graduation scale. The measurements are recorded as 100
times the coefficient of friction. When the tester measures the polishing characteristics of
road aggregates, the measurement is called the polished stone value (PSV). The test has been
standardized in the UK under BS: 812-1967.
Guide to interpret Skid Resistance Values.

Road Research Laboratory, Great Britain
Type of site Min Value of Skid
Number (surface wet)
5
Difficult site such as: Round-abouts ,Bends with radius less 65 (A)
than 150 m on unrestricted roads, Gradients ,1in 20 or steeper,
of lengths greater than 100m, Approaches to traffic lights on
unrestricted roads
Motorways ,trunk roads, heavily trafficked roads in urban 55 (B)

areas (carrying more than 2000 vehicles per day)
All other sites (city roads with more traffic) 45 (C)
Table 2
The Skid resistance values obtained for the roads made up of the plastic tar road declares that
the roads are good in wet condition.
SAND PATCH TEST
The ability of bituminous surfacing to provide the required skid resistance is governed by its
micro texture and macro texture. The macro texture of the surfacing, as measured by its
texture depth, contributes particularly to wet skidding resistance at high speeds by providing
drainage routes for water between tyre and road surfaces. The surface condition should
include a qualitative assessment of texture in the wheel paths so that it can be used to trigger
quantitative testing if required. The sand patch test is described in detail in BS 598 Part 105.
Texture Depth in mm Surface characteristics of pavement

0-0.4 Smooth
0.4-0.6 Medium
>0.6 Rough
Table 3
BENKELMAN BEAM
Benkelman Beam is a device, which can be conveniently used to measure the rebound
deflection of a pavement due to a dual wheel load assembly or the design wheel load.
Rebound Deflection (mm) Strength of pavement

0.5-1 Reasonably strong
1-2 Moderate
2-3 Weak
>3 Very Weak (permanent Deformation)
Table 4
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The rebound deflection values of the plastic tar road are less than 1. This shows that these
stretches are reasonably strong.
FIELD DENSITY ANALYSIS
The field density is studied to find the compactness of the road. The field is an important test
to find the nature of the road and also the performance of the road after a prolonged period of
open to the atmosphere. The ageing of bitumen and the crushing of aggregates is mainly
responsible for the reduction in the field density.
SURFACE CONDITION SURVEY
Pavement condition surveys are generally conducted by any one of the following methods:
(i) Walk survey- associated with or without actual measurement
(ii) Drive survey
In a walk survey, a team of experienced highway engineers walks along the road and makes
visual observations. The actual measurements may also be carried out on a representative and
relatively shorter stretch. In a drive survey, the team travels along the road in a vehicle at a
slow speed (say 10 to 15 km/hr) and records the surface condition by visual observations. The
data is recorded at convenient interval (unit lengths of the stretch) say 200 m, by noting down
distress in each interval. In view of time constraints and large length involved, the visual
condition survey method was undertaken by driving in a slow vehicle moving slowly at a
speed of about 10-15 km/hour. During the survey, the following items of distress were
visually recorded for every 200m in terms of percentage of the pavement surface area.
CONCLUSIONS
Experiment tests were done for the roads constructed at various places in Cochin and
Tamilnadu, and the test results observed were completely satisfactory and all the values were
in the permissible range proposed by the IRC and UK standards.
2.1.2 REINFORCED STEEL FABRIC
A study on the reinforced steel fabric was done in Sweden where the design the road
structure with steel fabric reinforcement in the asphalt concrete. Three fullscale100-meter test
sections were built. Two test sections were reinforced with steel fabrics and one section was
left without reinforcement as a reference road section. These sections were instrumented with
strain gauges. The sections were tested by means of deflection measurements with Falling
Weight Deflectometer, strain measurements at the bottom surface of the overlays, strain on
the steel bars, unevenness and rut depth measurements, and manual distress surveys. The
objective is to evaluate the performance of rehabilitated road structure reinforced with steel
fabric. Strain measurements at the bottom surface of the asphalt layers show lower strains in
the reinforced test sections than in the reference section without reinforcement. A particular
road section was taken and the data was collected for the past 7 years of study on that
particular road till 2007.
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Figure 2
2.1.2.1 STRAIN MEASUREMENTS
Asphalt strain gauges are located on the milled surface just below the levelling layers.
After placement of the levelling, binder and surface layer, the strain gauges end up at
different depths from the surface. The strain gauges are located at a depth of 150 mm and 170
mm in the reference and reinforced sections respectively. Placement of strain gauges at
different depths complicates the comparison between test sections and the evaluation of the
reinforced pavement.
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Figure 3
2.1.2.2 RUT DEPTH
A low speed laser profilometer called Primal, as shown in the figure 4, was used to
measure
transverse profiles of the test sections. The profilometer produces highly accurate
measurements of the transverse surface profile at intervals of 2 cm with an accuracy of 0.1
mm. The first measurements were performed in August 2000 before the road was opened to
traffic. Figure 5 shows the average rut depth per section based on both wheel paths. The
presented rut depths are the total rut depths measured on the surface and it is not possible to
determine how much of the rut is generated by asphalt layer, unbound pavement layer, and
subgrade, respectively. Figure 6, representative transverse profiles are presented and no
indication of flow rutting can be seen in the shape of the profiles. This means that the rutting
mainly depends on deformation/compaction of the layers. It is concluded from Figure 10 that
rut development is smaller in the structures with the reinforced pavements than in the
reference structure.
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Figure 4
Figure 5
10
Figure 6
2.1.2.3 CONCLUSIONS
The comparison of deterioration between a reinforced and a traditionally constructed

road
Structure has been presented above. The following can be concluded:
1. Results from Falling Weight Deflectometer measurements have not in this case
been able to show any significant differences between the test sections with or
without steel reinforcement.
2. Measured strains in the field show lower strain values for the reinforced
structures.
3. Rut development is smaller in structures with the reinforced pavements than in the
traditionally constructed road structure.
4. Referring to the strain levels and rut depth developments, the service life for the
reinforced structure will be prolonged significantly in the studied case.
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2.1.3 GEOSYNTHETIC REINFORCED FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS.
A study was done to characterize the deformation behaviour of geosynthetic-

reinforced flexible pavements during dynamic surface loading. Cyclic plate load (CPL) tests
were performed using a Vibroseis (shaker) truck, figure 7 on a low-volume, asphalt pavement
frontage road in Eastern Arkansas (the Marked Tree Site). This site is among the most unique
geosynthetic-reinforced pavement research sites in the country, consisting of sixteen 15-m
long sections including different geosynthetic types, two base course thicknesses, and control
sections. The goal of the CPL tests in this study was to understand the relative surface
deformations in several of the test sections due to dynamic loading. Specifically, the
Vibroseis was used to apply 100,000 loading cycles to the pavement at a peak dynamic force
of 62 KN (a static hold-down force of 40 KN with a superimposed +/- 22 KN dynamic force).
These loads were applied to a dual wheel-sized footprint resting on the pavement surface at a
rate of 50 Hz. The permanent and dynamic surface deflections due to the applied loading
were recorded every 500 cycles using nine LVDT’s located at incremental distances from the
loading footprint. The results from the different sections clearly show improved pavement
performance with increasing base course thickness. However, the influence of the
reinforcement (unreinforced, geogrid, geotextile, geogrid over geotextile) was not clearly
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identified. It is possible that more surface deflection is needed before the contribution of the
geosynthetic is mobilized.
2.1.3.1 FIELD TEST SITE
A series of sixteen, 15-m long, geosynthetic-reinforced pavement test sections were

constructed by the Arkansas State Highway and Transportation Department. The subgrade at
the site is poor and generally classifies as fat clay (CH, UCCS; A-7-6, AASHTO) with an
average PI of 42. Prior to construction, a significant amount of this material was obtained
from a borrow source and compacted on-site to bring the road up to the desired grade. Due to
differences in the initial surface elevations and the various base course thicknesses, the 25-cm
base sections ended up with approximately 90 cm of compacted subgrade soil, while the 15-
cm base sections ended up with approximately 150 cm of compacted subgrade. This subgrade
soil was compacted to a dry unit weight of 18.6 kN/m 3, and had a soaked CBR of
approximately 1.5. The base courses were constructed as 25cm for the first 6 sections and as
15cm for the remaining 6 sections.
A traffic survey was conducted at the Marked Tree Site over a period of one week by
AHTD in August 2009. The results of this survey show that the average number of ESAL
loadings per year is 165 for Sections 1b to 6 (approximately 658 since the road was
completed in 2005), and 115 for Sections 8 to 13b (approximately 459 since 2005). The 25
cm-base course sections have received 40% more loading that the 15 cm-base course sections
because of a driveway leading to a retirement home intersecting the test road at the transition.
The falling weight Deflectometer was used and the resilient modulus was back calculated
from the FWD values. The following figure 8 represents the loading set-up of the truck and
figure 9 represents the surface deflection measurement system.
Figure 7
13
Figure 8
Figure 9
2.1.3.2 RESULTS
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Every 500 cycles the peak dynamic deflections and the accumulated permanent
deformations were recorded so that they could be plotted versus the total number of loading
cycles up to that point. An example of the accumulated permanent surface deformations as a
function of number of loading cycles from two of the LVDTs is shown in Figure 10. These
results are for Section 13a, a geogrid-reinforced section with 15 cm of base course. Under
static loading (i.e., under 40 kN before cyclic loading starts), a deflection of 1 mm was
observed directly under the tire footprint, while at distances greater than 40 cm from the
footprint a small amount of surface heave was recorded. Under application of the dynamic
loads, the deflection under the footing continued to increase, reaching a maximum value of
approximately 4 mm after 100,000 cycles. Correspondingly, increases in the surface heave at
distances greater than 40 cm were measured with increasing number of loading cycles,
reaching a maximum value of more than 1 mm after 100,000 cycles. No meaningful
permanent deformation was measured at distances greater than 120 cm from the footprint
regardless of the number of loading cycles. The data from all of the LVDTs can be
synthesized to evaluate the permanent deformation profile after different numbers of cycles,
as shown in Figure 11. This figure reveals that a substantial amount of permanent
deformation occurs in the initial cycles of loading. A pronounced surface heave was noted at
a distance of 60 cm from the loading plate, which may indicate the formation of a shear plane
within the pavement layer.
Figure 10
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Figure 11
2.1.3.3 CONCLUSIONS
The results from full-scale cyclic plate load (CPL) tests on geosynthetic-reinforced
pavements are interpreted and compared in this study. The CPL tests clearly indicate
improved pavement performance with increasing base course thickness. The CPL test results
were not significantly impacted by the subgrade. No clear difference in pavement
performance was noted in sections with the same base course thickness but with different
reinforcement type (geogrid, geotextile, or the lack thereof). The lack of improvement in the
geogrid sections may be because of the location of the geogrid (at the bottom of the base
course layer). It is possible that differences in the reinforced and unreinforced pavement
sections may be more evident if the pavement is subject to greater strains. The maximum
surface deflection imposed in these tests was 0.6 cm, less than a typical ‘failure’ rut depth of
2.5 cm. Under strains closer to those induced during loading of a “failed” pavement section,
the effect of the geosynthetic reinforcement may be more evident in the deflection profiles
(due to mobilization of lateral restraint and tensioned membrane mechanisms). However,
under these ‘working’ strain levels the contribution of geosynthetic reinforcements to
pavement deformation was only observed in terms of a change in heave for thinner base
course sections. However, research is needed to evaluate if the magnitude of the permanent
surface heave is an indicator that reflects the impact of geosynthetic reinforcement.
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2.2 RIGID PAVEMENTS
Concrete pavements have been used for highways, airports, streets, local roads,
parking lots, industrial facilities, and other types of infrastructure. When properly designed
and built out of durable materials, concrete pavements can provide many decades of service
with little or no maintenance. Concrete generally has a higher initial cost than asphalt but
lasts longer and has lower maintenance costs.
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In some cases, however, design or construction errors or poorly selected materials

have considerably reduced pavement life. It is therefore important or pavement engineers to
understand materials selection, mixture proportioning, design and detailing, drainage,
construction techniques, and pavement performance. It is also important to understand the
theoretical framework underlying commonly used design procedures, and to know the limits
of applicability of the procedures.
2.2.1 PERFORMANCES
Concrete pavement engineering is the selection of design, materials, and construction

practices to ensure satisfactory performance over the projected life of the pavement.
Pavement users are sensitive to the functional performance of pavements – smoothness and
skid resistance – rather than structural performance. Pavements, as a general rule, develop
distresses gradually over time under traffic loading and environmental effects. An exception
is when poor material choices or construction practices caused effects before or shortly after
the pavement is put into service. In our discussion, the distresses will be mainly concentrated
on four major types, they are
1. Cracking
2. Joint deficiencies
3. Surface defects
4. Miscellaneous distresses.
CRACKING
Cracks may form in concrete pavements due to a one time overload or due to repeated
fatigue loading.
CORNER BREAKS
Corner breaks only occur at corners of JPCP or JRCP. A triangular piece of concrete,
from 0.3 m (1 ft) to half the width of the slab, breaks off. These are more likely with longer
slabs, because as the slabs warp or curl upward the slab corners may become unsupported and
break off when heavy vehicles travel across them. Huang(2004: 378) notes that “load
repetitions combined with loss of support, poor load transfer across the joint, and thermal
curling and moisture warping stresses usually cause corner breaks.” Corner breaks may be
avoided by limiting slab lengths, particularly with stiffer sub bases, and by providing load
transfer to adjacent slabs through dowels and tie bars.
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DURABILITY CRACKING
Durability or “D” cracking occurs near joints, cracks, and free edges, and is
manifested as a “closely spaced crescent-shaped hairline cracking pattern”(Miller and
Bellinger 2003: 37). The cracks are often darker than the remaining uncracked concrete.
Yoder and Witczak note that the phenomenon is regional and due to use of non-durable
materials and/or severe climatic conditions. It is a progressive failure mechanism than may
eventually result in nearly total disintegration of the slab. According to Huang (2004: 387), it
is caused by freeze-thaw expansion of some types of coarse aggregate. Mindess et al. note
that the problem occurs frequently with limestones in Midwestern states in the United States.
LONGITUDINAL CRACKING
Longitudinal cracks are defined as those parallel to the pavement centreline (Miller
and Bellinger). Huang suggests that longitudinal cracks are caused by a combination of heavy
load repetitions, loss of foundation support, and curling and warping stresses, or by improper
construction of longitudinal joints. If longitudinal cracks are not in vehicle wheel paths and
do not fault appreciably, the effect on pavement performance may not be significant.
Longitudinal cracks are also likely to occur at the crowns of crowned pavements if
longitudinal joints are not provided.
TRANSVERSE CRACKING
Transverse cracks are defined as those perpendiculars to the pavement centreline

(Miller and Bellinger. They are a key JPCP concrete pavement performance measure,
because once a transverse crack forms its faulting and deterioration leads to severe roughness.
JPCP does not have steel across the crack to hold it together. The cracking can progress and
lead to a shattered slab, requiring slab replacement (Hoerner et al. 2001: 70). Huang notes
that transverse cracks are “usually caused by a combination of heavy load repetitions and
stresses due to temperature gradient, moisture gradient, and drying shrinkage.”
JOINT DEFICIENCIES
These are classified as seal damage or spalling. These damages mainly concentrate at
the joints which lead to the weakening of the dowel bars or tie bars provided which ultimately
results in the failure of the pavement at the joints.
JOINT SEAL DAMAGE
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Joint seals are used to keep incompressible materials and water from penetrating
joints. Incompressible materials can lead to stress concentrations when open pavement joints
close, causing some of the concrete to spall off. Water leads to deterioration in the pavement
and underlying layers. Typical types of joint seal damage include extrusion (seal coming up
out of joint), hardening, adhesive failure (loss of bond), cohesive failure (splitting), complete
loss of sealant, intrusion of foreign material, or weed growth in the joint (Miller and Bellinger
2003: 44). Joints must be periodically cleaned out and resealed, and this type of damage
usually indicates a need to maintain the joints.
JOINT SPALLING
Joint spalling is defined as “cracking, breaking, chipping, or fraying of slab edges

within 0.3 m (1 foot) from the face of the joint”. Spalls are a surface phenomenon and are
generally caused by incompressible materials creating stress concentrations in joints as they
close due to slab expansion or traffic loading. They may also be caused by “poorly designed
or constructed load transfer devices”. Therefore, the best way to avoid spalls is to properly
maintain joints. Spalls may also be caused by poor construction practices, such as failing to
properly cure pavement joints after saw cutting.
SURFACE DEFECTS
Unlike cracking and joint deficiencies, surface defects are usually unrelated to design.
They are due to either poor materials selection or poor construction practices, or both.
MAP CRACKING
Map cracking is defined as a series of cracks that extend only into the upper surface of
the slab. Larger cracks frequently are oriented in the longitudinal direction of the pavement
and are interconnected by finer transverse or random cracks. According to Huang (2004:387),
it is usually caused by over finishing of concrete. Mindess et al. (2003:507) note that map
cracking can either be caused by excessive bleeding and plastic shrinkage from finishing too
much or too early, which leads to fine cracks, or by ASR, which leads to coarse cracks.
It is useful to distinguish between map cracking due to finishing problems, which is

unlikely to progress further, and map cracking due to ASR, which is likely to progress and
lead to eventual destruction of the pavement. ASR is an increasingly important problem for
concrete pavements, and is difficult to fix.
SCALING
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Scaling is defined as the deterioration of the upper concrete slab surface, normally 3–
13 mm (1/8-1/2 inch), and may occur anywhere over the pavement. Scaling may progress
from map cracking. Scaling may also occur with repeated application of de-icing salts. This
type of scaling may be prevented by using an adequately air entrained low permeability
concrete with a low water/cement (w/c) ratio. Risk of scaling is higher on concrete surfaces
that have not been finished properly.
POLISHED AGGREGATES
Polished aggregate problems refer to surface mortar and texturing worn away to
expose coarse aggregate. This typically leads to a reduction in surface friction. The reduction
in surface friction can make pavements unsafe, particularly in wet weather.
Because cement paste does not have good abrasion resistance, the wear resistance of
concrete depends on the hardness of aggregates used. Poor finishing practices may also lead
to a weak surface layer and lower abrasion resistance. Skid resistance may be restored by
diamond grinding, but with soft aggregates the treatment may have to be repeated in a few
years.
POPOUTS
Popouts are small pieces of pavement broken loose from the surface, normally
ranging in diameter from 25–100 mm (1–4 inches), and depth from 13–50 mm (1/2–2
inches). Popouts may be caused by “expansive, nondurable, or unsound aggregates or by
freeze and thaw action” (Huang 2004: 387). Popouts and D-cracking are caused by similar
mechanisms.
2.2.2. NOISE CHARACTERISTICS OF OPEN GRADED

FRICTION COURSES
This experimental feature documents the construction of two quieter pavements:
(1) An open-graded friction course (OGFC) modified with an asphalt rubber binder,
hereafter referred to as OGFC-AR and
(2) An OGFC with a styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS) polymer asphalt binder
hereafter referred to as OGFC-SBS. OGFC, with a higher volume of surface voids (a
minimum of 15 percent air voids), absorb some of the noise generated at the tire/pavement
interface and are thus “quieter” than densely-graded pavements with fewer voids (around 4-8
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percent). This aggressive proclamations regarding rubberized open-graded pavement as the

answer to making pavements quieter has reached even to the public sector who are now
asking for this type of pavement to be used on the highways that bisect their
DOWNSIDES OF OPEN GRADED FRICTION COURSES
There are downsides with the use of open-graded pavements. Open-graded pavements
are very susceptible to excessive wear from studded tires. This excessive wear produces ruts
in the pavements that fill with water during rainy periods and pose the additional hazard of
hydroplaning. The other downside is pavement life. The life of open-graded pavements is cut
short by the studded tire wear.
Open-graded pavements also have benefits other than reducing the noise level.
Drivers have improved visibility during rain storms on open-graded pavements due to the
open void structure that drains away excess water. The quick drainage of water away from
the surface of the pavement also improves the wet weather friction resistance of the roadway
and decreases the potential for hydroplaning. At night the drainage capability of the pavement
helps to improve visibility by reducing the glare associated with standing water on the
pavement. Painted traffic markings are also more visible at night because of less water
standing on the roadway.
2.2.2.1 MIX DESGIN
The mix design for the OGFC-SBS was performed in the WSDOT Headquarters
Materials Laboratory. The starting point for the percent of asphalt was determined by an
asphalt retention process which suggested using 6.8 percent. Samples were mixed at 6.3, 6.8
and 7.3 percent asphalt and evaluated using the FHWA pie plate drain down test. The results
of the pie plate drain down test suggested using more asphalt than the initial target of 6.8
percent. However, before additional tests could be conducted, a recommendation was needed
for the mix design that was to be used for the construction of the test section at the asphalt
plant site in Everett.
Therefore, a preliminary design calling for 7.8 percent was issued for the test section
construction. Additional samples were then mixed using 7.3, 8.3, and 8.8 percent asphalt and
evaluated using the pie plate drain down test. All of the samples were in specification for
volumetric properties, but the pie plate drain down test suggested that 8.3 percent was
optimum; therefore, the asphalt content for the mainline paving was set at this level. The
gyration level used for the mix design was 50 based on a recommendation from the ADOT.
The Special Provisions required that the asphalt binder for the OGFC-AR would be
G58-22 or PG64-22. The crumb rubber must conform to the gradation requirements. .The
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crumb rubber will have a specific gravity of 1.15 ± 0.05 and will be free of wire or other
contaminating materials, except that the rubber will not contain more than 0.5 percent fabric.
Calcium carbonate could be added to prevent the particles from sticking together. The
minimum amount of crumb rubber required in the mix was 20 percent by weight of the
asphalt binder.
The temperature of the asphalt binder at the time of the addition of the crumb rubber
should be between 350 and 400°F. A one-hour reaction period was required after the mixing
of the rubber with the binder. At the end of the reaction period the rubber particles must be
thoroughly “wetted” without any rubber floating on the surface or agglomerations of rubber
particles observable.
The temperature of the asphalt-rubber immediately after mixing will be between 325
and 375°F. The mixed asphalt-rubber must be kept thoroughly agitated during the period of
use to prevent the settling of the rubber particles. In no case can the asphalt-rubber be held at
a temperature of 325°F or above for more than 10 hours. Asphalt-rubber held for more than
10 hours must be allowed to cool and gradually reheated to the prescribed temperature. A
batch of asphalt-rubber can only be cooled and reheated in this manner once.
2.2.2.2 EVALUATION
WEAR AND RUTTING
As mentioned, the performance of the OGFC decreases with the passage of time. This
decay in performance has lead to the formation of rutting after the end of the design life
period of 10 years.
2.2.2.3 NOISE MEASUREMENT
23
Noise measurement is a new concept to the paving community. There are three types
of sound measurements currently used to characterize highway noise as noted below:
1. Source measurement: measures the effect of pavement on tire/pavement interaction

source level.
2. Sound absorption measurement: measures the effect of pavement on sound
absorption.
3. Wayside measurement: measures the effect of pavement on communities.
SOURCE MEASUREMENT
There are three types of source measurements;

1. The Close-Proximity Method (CPX),
2. The On-Board Sound Intensity (OBSI), and
3. The laboratory drum method (DR).
The Close- Proximity Method uses microphones near the tire to measure sound
pressure. The tire is mounted on a separate vehicle, usually a special trailer with enclosures
around the tire to minimize contamination. This is the type of measurement used by the
National Centre for Asphalt Technology (NCAT), ADOT, and throughout most of Europe.
The On-Board Sound Intensity method uses two adjacent microphones mounted near the tire
to measure sound intensity levels. The microphones are mounted on a vehicle, usually a rear
tire, but no enclosure is used to reduce noise from outside sources. This method was
developed by General Motors and has been used by the California Department of
Transportation (Caltrans) and ADOT and is the method that was used in this study. The final
method, the laboratory drum method, is used only in the laboratory. A pavement-lined drum
rotates against a tire mounted external to the drum. Microphones near the tire measure sound
pressure levels similar to the Close-Proximity Method.
SOUND ABSORPTION MEASUREMENT
There are also three types of sound absorption measurements; (1) impedance tube, (2)
impulse response, and (3) ground impedance using effective flow resistivity. The impedance
tube methods takes measurement in the laboratory on core samples from the pavement. A
sound source (loudspeaker) is mounted at one end of an impedance tube and a sample of the
pavement is placed at the other end. The loudspeaker generates broadband, stationary random
sound waves that are reflected back from the sample. Sound pressure readings are taken at
two points in the tube and from these the sound absorption coefficient can be determined.
The impulse response method can be used in the laboratory or in-situ. A source of
sound is used to produce a response from the pavement surface which is then measured. It is
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similar to the impedance tube method except the measurement is taken in an essentially free
field, that is, there is no confinement of the sound by a tube. There is only one microphone
used and it measures both the intensity of the source and the amount of absorption by the
pavement.
The ground impedance method uses point source, two-microphone configuration set
up on a pavement surface in the field. Data is captured for multiple frequencies to
characterize the pavement. The impedance tube method is used strictly in the laboratory. The
impulse response and ground impedance methods are used in the field but require a closure of
a lane to make the measurements.
WAYSIDE MEASUREMENT
There are four types of wayside measurements;

1. Statistical Pass-By Method (SPB),
2. Controlled Pass-By Method (CPB),
3. Coast-By Method (CB) and
4. Time-Averaging Method.
All four methods use a microphone set at a prescribed distance away from and height
above the roadway. The Statistical Pass-By Method measures the sparse highway traffic with
a single sound level representing a minimum of 180 single vehicle pass-bys. Traffic (counts,
categorizations, speeds) and meteorological data must be captured. The Controlled Pass-By
Method is similar to the SPB except that a limited number of controlled vehicles are used to
generate the noise. It has been used in both Caltrans and ADOT studies and in several
European studies. The Coast-By Method is identical to the CPB except the engine of the
control vehicle is switched off during the pass-by. The Time-Averaging Method measures the
existing traffic over a prescribed time period. Traffic (counts, categorization, and speeds) and
meteorological data must be captured. The method has been used by Caltrans, ADOT and
ODOT for studies.
2.2.2.4 NOISE MEASUREMENT EQUIPMENT
The On Board Sound Intensity method was the one chosen by WSDOT because the
noise produced by the tire/pavement is the only one that can be controlled by changes in the
pavement characteristics. Two adjacent microphones are mounted vertically near a tire to
measure the sound intensity level. Data from the microphones is sent to the computer. The
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computer collects the sound information as 11 separate data points corresponding to

frequencies from 500 to 5,000 Hz.
Figure 12
Figure 13
2.2.2.5 RESULTS
26
Initial measurements were made on the existing HMA pavement prior to the overlay
to serve as a base line. This section ranged in age from eight to twenty years with an average
of approximately twelve years. The sound intensity readings ranged between 103.8 and 105.3
with an average of 104.6 dBA. After completion of the open-graded overlays, sound intensity
measurements were conducted on a monthly basis, weather permitting (noise measurements
cannot be made when the pavement is wet) on all lanes of the three sections, OGFC-AR,
OGFCSBS and Class ½ inch HMA. With the usage of OGFC, the sound intensity of the lanes
got reduced by 22% over the design life. An average sound intensity of 92dBA was recorded
over the design life of 10 years.
2.2.3 THIN BONDED OVERLAYS
The thirteenth full-scale Accelerated Pavement Test (APT) experiment at the Civil
Infrastructure Laboratory (CISL) of Kansas State University aimed at determining the
response and the failure mode of thin concrete overlays. Four pavement structures were built
and tested in this experiment: two Thin Concrete Overlays (TCO) pavements, having 100 and
150 mm thick overlays constructed on top of a 125 mm thick PCCP and, two Thin White
topping (TWT) pavements, with 100 and 150 mm thick PCC overlays constructed on top of
125 mm hot-mix asphalt layer. The pavements were equipped with instrumentation to
measure the strains at selected locations in each PCC overlay. Each of the four pavements
was loaded with approximately two million passes of the CISL APT machine, under in-door
ambient temperature conditions. No moisture was added to the pavements. Response
measurements and performance evaluations were performed at about every 100,000 passes.
Due to the effect of wheel loading, the TCO pavements failed due to the loss of
support underneath the concrete slab. No loss of bond between the PCC overlay and the
supporting slab was observed. The 100 mm TWT exhibited a transverse fatigue crack at the
middle of the slab, while the 150 mm TWT exhibited no cracks at the end of testing. It was
found that the magnitude and shape of computed strains matched well those of the strains
measured before any APT loads were applied. It was, therefore, concluded that the three-
dimensional finite element model built and the assumption made (linear elastic materials,
fully bonded overlays) can estimate accurately the response of TWT and TCO pavements
under wheel loading and therefore, can be used for predicting the performance of thin
concrete overlays.
2.2.3.1 PERFORMANCE OF THE PCC OVERLAYS
The site was reported of excessive fatigue cracking and the solution for which was
developed by the thin bonded overlays. The fatigue cracking was overall removed by this
method. the cracking formed over the overlays was due to lack of proper grading of concrete
and the excessive wheel loads that was deliberately put on the pavement.
The 100 mm TWT pavement section exhibited cracking. One transverse crack
developed in the central slab, close to the middle of the slab, at about 400,000 passes of the
APT machine. No significant joint faulting was recorded. At the end of loading (2.0 million
27
passes), the 150 mm TWT pavement section exhibited no cracking or significant joint
faulting. Due to budget and time constraints it was decided to stop loading on the TWT
sections.
The TCO pavement sections exhibited cracking. One transverse crack developed in
the central slabs of both pavement sections, at about 1/3 in length for the West joint, at 1.1
million passes of the APT machine in the 100 mm TCO pavement section and, at 1.7 million
passes in the 150 mm TCO pavement section. Several other cracks developed after that only
in the 100 mm TCO pavement section. No significant joint faulting was recorded.
At the end of the loading phase of the experiment (after 2,000,000 load cycles), 100
mm diameter cores were extracted from central slabs of TCO on PCCP pavements at several
locations near the edges and the corners of the slabs. The examination of the cores showed no
de-bonding between the concrete layers. It was thus assumed, and confirmed by the
modelling of the pavement response, that the failure of these pavement sections was due to
the loss of support underneath the transverse joints, that lead to transverse cracking.
3. MAINTENANCE
Maintenance engineers have been applying treatments to both flexible and rigid
pavements for as long as such pavements have existed. The types and application of various
treatments for both corrective and preventive maintenance has been the subject of research
studies over a number of years, and many publications have reported these findings. The
practice of preventive maintenance, since there simply is not enough money available to
continue the types of maintenance currently employed.
Pavement management systems (PMS) generally include a subsystem for pavement

maintenance which may contain models to determine the most cost effective treatment. These
are generally based on pavement type, condition, and other important factors. It is critical,
however, that the proper maintenance treatment be placed at the right time for the pavement
to function as designed and for the maintenance program to be cost effective. A limitation of
many PMS systems is their inability to comprehensively analyze individual projects and
determine the proper timing and cost of treatment.
Two types of pavement maintenance are generally recognized, they are preventive
and corrective (or reactive). Preventive maintenance is used to arrest minor deterioration,
retard progressive failures, and reduce the need for corrective maintenance. It is performed
before the pavement shows significant distress to provide a more uniform performing
pavement system. Corrective maintenance is performed after a deficiency occurs in the
pavement; i.e., loss of friction, moderate to severe rutting, or extensive cracking. Although
there are many different definitions for these terms, these are the ones used in this report.
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Although each type of maintenance is needed in a comprehensive pavement

preservation program, the emphasis should be placed on preventing a pavement from
reaching the condition where corrective maintenance is required, since the cost associated
with this approach can be substantial. What is really needed is a determination of the cost
effectiveness of the preventive maintenance (PM) approach compared with standard practices
of rehabilitation when the pavement wears out.
Figure 14
29
Figure 15
30
Figure 16
3.1 ELEMENTS OF PAVEMENT PRESERVATION

PROGRAMME
The following elements should be considered when developing pavement

preservation
program:
1. ESTABLISH PROGRAM GUIDELINES - These guidelines become the instrument

to express the overall strategies and goals of the preservation program by providing
policy on such features as safety and environmental issues, and identifying a program
coordinator. The technical elements of the program, such as what system will be used
to determine needs, must also be included. Finally, a system to measure progress in
relation to the stated goals of the program needs to be identified.
2. DETERMINE MAINTENANCE NEEDS - A system to determine the existing

condition of the pavement network under the jurisdiction of the agency is an essential
component of the management program. Pavement management systems (PMS)
currently in use by agencies have this component, but they vary widely in their
approach and sophistication. Generally, a condition survey is conducted on segments
of existing pavements and various distress features are noted. This survey, conducted
31
by trained individuals or with automated vehicles, may be supplemented by

destructive sampling (i.e., cores and/or slabs) or non destructive testing means (i.e.,
friction trailer, falling weight Deflectometer, and profilometer/roughness meter). It
should be emphasized that the traditional PMS distresses generally indicate failure
conditions and do not provide early indicators for preservation.
3. PROVIDE A FRAMEWORK FOR TREATMENT SELECTION - It is important that

the maintenance treatment selected is the proper one for the type and levels of
distress, the climate, and the level of service expected for the project.
4. DEVELOP ANALYSIS PROCEDURES TO DETERMINE THE MOST

EFFECTIVE TREATMENT – A number of procedures exist to determine the cost
effectiveness of maintenance treatments (6, 7). These are based on several approaches
and vary from simple to complex. A simplified approach, which is based on the
decision tree or matrix process.
5. INCLUDE A FEEDBACK MECHANISM TO DETERMINE PROGRAM

EFFECTIVENESS - This is a management process to assess how the program is
working in relation to the established goals. It becomes a tool to help adjust factors
that need to be changed because of program modifications. The feedback should
include both individual pavement performance and overall system performance.
3.2 DECISION TREES
As the terminology implies, decision trees incorporate a set of criteria for identifying
a particular treatment through the use of “branches.” Each branch represents a specific set of
conditions (in terms of factors such as pavement type, distress type and level, traffic volume,
and functional classification) that ultimately leads to the identification of a particular
treatment.
Many decision trees use distress criteria of a composite nature to further simplify the
selection process. The Pavement Condition Index (PCI) is an example of one of these
composite distress indices. The problem with decision trees based on a composite distress
index is that the treatments do not always appropriately address the actual distress conditions,
particularly at the higher levels of deterioration associated with pavement rehabilitation.
The described flow chart provides an example of a relatively straightforward

maintenance and rehabilitation decision tree for asphalt pavements using only a few
treatments to illustrate the concept. In this example (intended for demonstration purposes
only), five criteria are used as the basis for treatment selection. It should be noted, however,
that inherent in a simplified decision tree of this type are certain environmental conditions
and traffic levels which influenced the original determination of the recommended
treatments. Accordingly, users should exercise caution in applying any decision tree for
conditions that are outside the basis for its development.
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33
Figure 17
The detailed steps can be summarised as follows:
1. STRUCTURAL DETERIORATION. If little or no structural deterioration exists, the

associated treatments are directed at maintaining the functional performance and
preserving the intended life of the original pavement. This is the optimum timing for
applying preservation treatments. If structural deterioration (in the form of fatigue
cracking or rutting) does exist, then the associated treatments are directed more at
improving the structural performance; i.e., retarding the rate of structural deterioration
and extending the intended life of the original pavement.
2. ENVIRONMENTAL CRACKING. This refers to the transverse, longitudinal, and

block cracking that develop in an asphalt pavement as it ages and undergoes the
thermal stresses associated with daily temperature cycles. Treatments for this type of
distress are intended to prevent moisture intrusion and retard the rate of crack
deterioration that occurs at the pavement surface. The extent levels, in this case, are
defined as follows:
a. Low – The amount of cracking is so slight that there is little question as to the
feasibility of crack sealing.
b. Moderate – The cracking has achieved a level where sealing alone may not be cost
effective.
c. High – The extent of cracking is so great that crack sealing would definitely not
be cost effective and some other remedial work is required.
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3. SURFACE WEAR. This refers to the pavement deterioration that takes place at the
asphalt pavement surface (i.e., within the top 20 mm), primarily as a result of tire
wear (e.g., polishing) and material degradation (e.g., ravelling). Treatments for
surface wear remove and/or cover up the worn surface. The severity levels, in this
case, are defined as follows:
a. Low – Surface texture and frictional resistance are minimally affected.
b. Moderate – Surface texture and frictional resistance are significantly affected. The
potential for wet weather accidents is increased.
c. High – Surface texture and frictional resistance are heavily affected. The
probability of wet weather accidents is near (or above) the unacceptable level.
4. FATIGUE CRACKING. Wheel path cracking associated with the cumulative effects
of wheel loads is a clear indication of structural deterioration and loss of load carrying
capacity in a pavement. Accordingly, rehabilitation strategies tend to focus on
removal and replacement of significant amounts of the HMA surface layer and, in
some cases, base course. The extent levels are defined as follows:
a. Low – Less than one percent of the wheel path area exhibits load-associated
cracking, which may start as single longitudinal cracks.
b. Moderate – At least 1 and up to 10 percent of the wheel path area exhibit
cracking, likely in an interconnected pattern. The rate of crack progression is
increasing.
c. High – Ten percent or more of the wheel path area exhibits load-associated
cracking. Rapid progression to 100 percent of the wheel path area is likely.
5. RUTTING. This type of permanent deformation can take place in any one or more of
the pavement layers. If the HMA surface layer is of poor quality (either because of
poor mix design or improper construction), rutting can be confined to the top 50 to
70mm of the pavement. If the structural design is inadequate or the pavement is
overloaded, rutting can take place in the underlying pavement layers and natural
subgrade soil. Generally, pavement rehabilitation strategies are targeted at replacing
the deteriorated/deformed layers. The treatments described on the flowchart are based
on the assumption that the rutting is confined to the HMA surface layer. The three rut
severity levels are defined as follows:
a. Low – Rut depth is less than 6 mm. Problems with hydroplaning and wet weather
accidents are unlikely.
b. Moderate – Rut depth is in the range of 7 to 12 mm. Inadequate cross slope can
lead to hydroplaning and wet weather accidents.
c. High – Rut depth is greater than 13 mm. The potential for hydroplaning and wet
weather accidents is significantly increased.
3.2.1 DECISION MATRICES
35
Decision matrices are very similar to decision trees in the sense that each relies on a
set of rules or criteria to arrive at an appropriate maintenance or rehabilitation treatment. The
major difference is that decision trees provide a more systematic and graphical approach to
the selection process. The fact that decision matrices are tabular, however, makes them
capable of storing more information in a smaller space.
Figure 18
Figure 19
3.3 BENEFITS AND LIMITATIONS OF DECISION TREE
36
A deterministic decision trees are not a good idea (i.e., when someone identifies a set
of conditions, including type and extent of distress, traffic, and environmental conditions, and
then picks a treatment). The preferred way is to identify the conditions, identify feasible
alternates (usually three to four are enough), evaluate the cost effectiveness of each alternate,
and select the optimum treatment based on minimization of costs or maximization of benefits.
BENEFITS
1. It makes use of existing experience.

2. Works well for local conditions.
3. Good as a project level tool.
LIMITATIONS
1. Not always transferable from agency to agency.

2. Limits innovation or use of new treatments.
3. Hard to incorporate all factors which are important (e.g., competing projects,
functional classification, remaining life)
4. Difficult to develop matrix that can incorporate multiple pavement distress types (i.e.,
does not always address the actual distress conditions)
5. Does not include more comprehensive evaluation of various feasible alternatives and
LCC analysis to determine most cost effective strategy.
6. Not good for network evaluation.
3.4 OPTIMUM TIMING OF MAINTENANCE TREATMENTS
One of the very recent approaches to initiate maintenance is by annual cost approach.
The Figure 20 shows that the longer the maintenance is delayed, the more costly it gets as
time proceeds. Alternatively, if the pavement is maintained too soon, then the initial cost of
maintenance also increases, as shown in Figure 21. When the costs of delayed maintenance
vs. those of early maintenance are superimposed (as shown in Figure 22) one can determine
optimum timing to fix pavements.
37
Figure 20
Figure 21
38
Figure 22
Generally, the optimum timing for applying the treatments are enlisted down.
TREATMENT YEARS
FOG SEALS 1-3 YEARS
CRACK SEALS 2-4 YEARS
CHIP SEALS 5-7 YEARS
SLURRY SEALS 5-7 YEARS
THIN OVERLAYS 5-10 YEARS
The actual timing for the various treatments may vary depending on traffic level and
environment. Each agency is encouraged to develop their own optimal timing for
maintenance treatments to minimize life-cycle costs.
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4. OTHER ADVANCEMENTS
4.1 COOL PAVEMENTS
Cities can be several degrees warmer than surrounding regions due to the built
environment and the concentration of human activity, a phenomenon referred to as an urban
heat island. Pavements have become an important contributor to this effect by altering land
cover over significant portions of an urban area. Reducing the urban heat island effect can
benefit air quality, lower air conditioning needs, and enhance human health and comfort.
Using cool pavements also helps to improve water quality, noise, safety, and night time
illumination.
Researchers have studied ways to reduce the urban heat island effect, and have
identified vegetation, “cool roofing” materials, and “cool pavements” as mitigation strategies.
While good ways to use vegetation are understood and cool roofing products have been
identified, the idea of cool pavements has yet to gain wide dissemination and acceptance
among local transportation and public works agencies and private-sector developers and
owners. Several reasons account for this situation. First, there are technical hurdles in
identifying the best cool pavement technologies and their different applications in varying
climates. Second, the benefits from cool pavement are indirect. Third, institutional
complexities surround pavement type selection throughout a metropolitan area, and more
information on the economics of cool pavements, as well as funding mechanisms to support
these technologies, are needed.
Cool pavements can be achieved with existing paving technologies and do not require
new materials. Possible mechanisms for creating a cool pavement that have been studied to
date are
a) Increased surface reflectance, which reduces the solar radiation absorbed by the
pavement; b) Increased permeability, which cools the pavement through evaporation of
water; and
c) A composite structure for noise reduction, which also has been found to emit lower
levels of heat at night.
Several conventional paving technologies now exist that can apply these mechanisms.
For example, greater reflectance can be provided by conventional concrete, roller-compacted
concrete, concrete-over-asphalt (“white topping” and “ultra-thin white topping”), asphalt
40
concrete and asphalt chip seals with light-colored aggregate, and asphalt pavements with
modified colour. Porous pavements can be built with asphalt concrete, Portland cement
concrete, or unbound surfaces such as stone, brick, or grass. The composite structure used for
noise reduction plus night-time temperature benefits comprises rubber asphalt surfacing over
conventional concrete slabs. It should be noted that specific pavement technologies with cool
attributes will not be appropriate for all uses; some may be better suited to light traffic areas,
for instance; others to areas where noise management is considered crucial. In addition,
certain paving technologies may not always be appropriate or feasible in a particular region
of the country – whether technically, economically, organizationally, or institutionally.
4.1.1 BENEFITS OF COOL PAVEMENTS
As part of a heat island reduction strategy, cool pavements contribute to the general
benefits of heat island mitigation, including increased comfort, decreased energy use, and
likely improved air quality. Cool pavements also can be one component of a larger
sustainable pavements program, or a “green” transportation infrastructure.
Cool pavements can contribute to local as well as regional comfort improvements. For
instance, they help make large paved areas such as parking lots more comfortable for users.
Shopping centres may feel this enhances the shopping experience.
Quantifying the heat island mitigation benefits of cool pavements is complicated by

several factors in a real urban setting. The reflectivity of pavement surfaces changes over
time; buildings, trees, and vehicles cast shadows; some of the reflected light could be
reabsorbed by surrounding structures, negating the effect of the cooler pavement; and the
degree of cooling afforded by permeable pavements is not well quantified. There may be
offsetting effects or tradeoffs in the several mechanisms at work, all complicating the
estimate of the benefits that cool pavements can yield.
The benefits of cool pavements are not limited to heat island reduction. There also are
a number of ancillary benefits that can be gained from the use of cool pavement technologies,
which can make their use worthwhile in their own right or as additional factors contributing
to sustainable or green pavement initiatives. These additional benefits of cool pavements
include:
41
1. WATER QUALITY – They can improve the water quality by two ways. They are:
a. Permeable roadway pavements and especially parking facilities of all types (asphalt,
concrete, and reinforced grass and gravel paving systems) can address water quality
problems by reducing the percentage of land covered by impervious surfaces. When
combined with water treatment wetlands, these pavements help to act as filters,
improving water quality and providing greater groundwater protection. These
improvements can translate into savings for urban areas by reducing the need to
construct separate sewers or expanded water treatment facilities.
b. Both permeable and non-permeable cool pavements can help water quality through
reduced heating of runoff. Laboratory tests with permeable pavers have shown
reductions in runoff temperatures of two to four degrees Celsius in comparison to
conventional asphalt paving.
2. NOISE - The open pores of permeable pavements have been shown to significantly
reduce tire noise.
3. SAFETY - Permeable roadway pavements can enhance safety by reducing water spray
from moving vehicles and increasing traction through better water drainage.
4. NIGHT TIME ILLUMINATION - More reflective pavements can enhance visibility

at night, potentially reducing lighting requirements and saving both money and
energy. European road designers often take pavement colour into account when
planning lighting needs. Better illumination from lighter pavements is sometimes
considered valuable at private establishments as well, for security or customer appeal.
Some sources cite night time illumination enhancements of 10 to 30 percent with
more reflective pavements
4.2 QUIET PAVEMENTS
By definition, noise is any unwanted sound produced around the locality. Noise, especially
transportation noise has become one of the most pervasive forms of pollution in today’s
environment. It affects our lives at home, work or play. Urban noise is an indication of
economic activity and commerce, and up to a point, improving the quality of life. But in
extreme situations, it can lead to anxiety, stress and other health related problems. When that
happens, noise needs to be controlled or abated.
4.2.1 NOISE REDUCTION TECHNIQUES
Potential innovative solutions include stamping, brushing, and other new texturing
techniques; exposed aggregate concrete pavements; pervious concrete pavements; sprinkle
treatment; and shot peening. Two of these promising innovative concrete pavement solutions,
exposed aggregate concrete pavements and pervious concrete pavements, have been
identified as potential candidates for fast-track advancement. These technologies require
42
further study and detailed cost-effectiveness evaluation before becoming part of common
practice all around the world.
A. Conventional texturing- done mainly when the concrete is still in plastic state.
a. Drag texture.
b. Tined texture.
B. Diamond grinding- done on the hardened concrete pavement.
DRAG TEXTURE
Pavement finishing was limited to shallow texturing techniques, such as brooming or

dragging (Hoerner and Smith 2002). Broomed surface textures are created by dragging a
handheld or mechanical broom along the surface of the pavement, creating a ridged surface.
This texture typically consists of 1.5- to 3-mm-deep (0.06 to 0.12 in.) grooves, either
longitudinal or transverse to the centreline of the roadway.
Artificial turf drag surfaces are similarly created by dragging an inverted section of artificial
turf along the surface of the pavement. Today, this technique often employs a device that
controls the time and rate of texturing, most commonly a construction bridge that spans the
pavement. Grooves of 1.5 to 3 mm (0.06 to 0.12 in.) in depth are typically created.
Burlap drag (also known as Hessian drag) texturing is created by dragging moistened, coarse
burlap across the surface of the pavement, typically creating grooves with depths between 1.5
and 3 mm (0.06 and 0.12 in.).
Figure 23
43
Figure 24
Although the use of these shallower texturing techniques commonly leads to quieter
pavements, concerns about adequate skid resistance have also been reported, particularly for
high-speed facilities (Hoerner and Smith 2002). Studies have shown that dragged textures are
sufficient for roadways with speeds less than 72 km/h (45 mph) (ACPA 2000). Furthermore,
recent pavement evaluations in Minnesota have concluded that the use of drag texturing
results in comparable noise levels and surface friction to conventional hot-mix asphalt
(HMA) pavements (ACPA 2000). The required texture depth specification in Minnesota is
reported to be 1.0 mm (0.04 in.).
TINED TEXTURE
The pavement surfaces are tined using various tools in order to make them more noise
absorbant surface and hence by providing adequate skid resistance as well. There are
basically two types of tining being done all over the world. They are
a. Transverse tining.
b. Longitudinal tining.
TRANSVERSE TINING
Transverse tining is one of the most commonly used texturing methods on higher speed
concrete pavements. It is considered an inexpensive method for durable, high-friction
surfaces on new concrete pavements. Favourable friction qualities of transverse tining are
particularly pronounced in wet weather conditions, as deep macro texture is capable of
reducing the water film thickness and thus the potential for hydroplaning. Depending on the
properties of the concrete mixture, transverse tining can provide beneficial friction qualities
over the life of the pavement.
44
Transverse tining has also been known to exhibit undesirable noise emissions due to the
interaction of the pavement and vehicle tires. Noise emissions from transverse tined textures
depend on tine spacing, depth, and width. A study conducted by the Wisconsin Department
of Transportation in 2000 concluded that wider and deeper transverse tine textures often
produce greater noise. Figure 25 shows uniformly spaced tining texture.
Transversely tined textures are created using a tining device, commonly a metal rake that is
either controlled by hand or attached to a mechanical device. Tines are moved across the
width of the pavement. Individual tines can be either uniformly or randomly spaced. Tine
width is typically 3 mm (0.125 in.) while the depth is typically 3 mm (0.125 in.), but depth
reportedly varies between 1.5 and 6 mm (0.0625 and 0.25 in.). figure 26 shows random tining
45
Figure 26
LONGITUDINAL TINING
Longitudinally tined textures are constructed in a manner similar to that of transverse tining,
except that the tining device is moved longitudinally along the direction of paving.
46
Longitudinal tining is commonly reported to exhibit lower noise characteristics and is thus
increasing in popularity. Some cautiousness to change has stemmed from data that have
shown longitudinally tined surfaces to have lower friction numbers when compared to
transversely tined pavements, all else being equal. One possible explanation of this may be
the shape of the grooves with respect to the traction forces of the tire (compared to transverse
tining). It should be noted, however, that longitudinal tining on horizontal curves has been
shown to prevent vehicle skidding and improve safety. Furthermore, some DOTs have
reported that if adequate cross-slope exists, the differences between the surface drainage on
transverse and longitudinal tining are minimal.
In order for longitudinally tined textures to provide optimal noise reduction performance,
some recommend the design of the texture as follows: uniform tine spacing of 19 mm (0.75
in.), tine width of 3 ±0.5 mm (0.125 ± 0.02 in.), and an individual tine depth of 3 mm (0.125
in.). Deeper tining reportedly exhibits more noise, regardless of the orientation of the texture.
However, variability in tining depth currently makes this type of conclusion difficult to
substantiate.
Research has shown that the long-term effectiveness of longitudinally tined surfaces is
impacted by the design of the pavement mix. Data have shown that longitudinally tined
pavements should contain a minimum of 25% siliceous sand to improve the level and
durability of the friction capacity (ACPA 2000). Regardless of the mixture design, the use of
studded tires has been shown to diminish the texture of the longitudinal tining over time.
A Wisconsin DOT study further concluded that among all of the concrete pavements
evaluated, those with longitudinal tining provided the lowest exterior noise while still
providing adequate texture. When the texture is properly designed and constructed,
47
longitudinally tined pavements can achieve friction characteristics and durability comparable
to either transversely tined concrete pavements or dense-graded HMA pavements.
DIAMOND GRINDING
Diamond grinding is a technique that removes a thin layer of hardened concrete pavement
using closely spaced diamond saw blades. The diamond saw blades are stacked side-by-side
and generally remove between 3 and 20 mm (0.12 and 0.79 in.) from the surface. The blades
are gang-mounted on a cutting head and can generate 164 to 197 grooves/m (50 to 60
grooves/ft.). This technique should not be confused with milling, which employs carbide
teeth that “rip” into a pavement surface, leaving a very rough texture.
Although diamond grinding has traditionally been used to rehabilitate existing pavements by
restoring smoothness, it has also been found to reduce tire-pavement noise and restore
pavement friction. This raises the possibility of using this technique as an initial texturing
method for newly placed concrete pavements. The grinding procedure results in the
development of macro texture and, in some cases, exposure of increased micro texture.
Furthermore, directional stability is more easily controlled, making this technique more
appealing to drivers than longitudinal tining. Diamond grinding was used to remove a thin
layer of the concrete surface. In some cases, thin fins of concrete were left behind and were
subsequently broken off by a blade. Each grinding head consisted of 166 saw blades, 3.18-
mm- thick (0.125 in.) separated by spacers with a thickness of 2.67 mm.
Figure 28
The study concluded that the longitudinal ground pavement was quieter than the transversely
tined pavement by 2 to 5 dBA (measured on the side of the road). When noise measurements
were conducted a year later, there was a negligible change in noise levels. When comparing
different vehicle types, the ground surface led to a 5-dBA noise improvement for light trucks
and automobiles, and a 2-dBA improvement for medium and heavy trucks. The lower noise
48
reduction for larger vehicles is believed to be due to differences in the noise emission source;
larger vehicles generate a greater percentage of noise from the engine and exhaust systems.
4.3 INTERNALLY ILLUMINATED PAVEMENT MARKERS
Pavement markers which self-activate in response to environmental conditions are

one of the newer technologies being applied in efforts to promote the safety of road users.
Self activated pavement markers are designed to provide enhanced road delineation in the
event of wet weather, fading light, or ice formation by means of a solar powered LED. Three
aspects of the performance of the self-activated pavement markers were assessed. They are
1. Laboratory tests were used to determine the consistency of the markers’ on/off
thresholds in response to fading light, fog, and low temperatures.
2. The “in service” performance of the markers was assessed via inspection of several
trial installation sites.
3. The impact of the pavement markers on driver behaviour was measured by means of a
“before and after” observational study.
The on/off threshold of the pavement markers is accurate enough for their purpose
and they do appear to encourage drivers to travel more slowly and to place their vehicles
further from the centre of the road in some circumstances. Nonetheless, the self-activated
pavement markers do not appear to be sufficiently robust, being susceptible to theft,
vandalism, and damage by traffic.
One of the more recent technologies available for improving road delineation are solar
powered LED illuminated pavement markers that activate in response to environmental
conditions such as rain, ice, or fading light. Self-illuminated pavement markers offer certain
advantages over conventional retro reflective markers, the most obvious being their visibility.
Conventional retro reflective pavement markers function by returning light in the direction
from which they are illuminated. To a driver, conventional retro reflective markers appear
bright only when headlights are shining directly onto them. As such, there are limits to the
extent to which effective delineation around a curve can be maintained using conventional
retro reflective markers. Internally illuminated markers are designed to provide drivers with
consistent light output from a wide range of viewing angles, thus giving a clear indication of
road curvature throughout a curve.
4.3.1 TESTING
Each of the tested markers responded to either fading light (for delineation during
darkness), low temperatures (for alerting drivers to the presence of ice on the road), or
moisture (for delineation during rain and fog). Thirteen light sensitive pavement markers of a
combination of four colours (red, green, amber, and white) and three housing types (surface
mounted, flush mounted, and inset) were tested. Five blue surface mounted temperature
sensitive markers and seven amber surface mounted moisture sensitive markers were also
tested.
49
The triggering consistency of the temperature sensitive and moisture sensitive

pavement markers were tested in their climatic chamber. This allowed the atmosphere
surrounding the markers to be controlled and monitored. During the testing of the moisture
sensitive markers, humidity within the chamber was kept at 70%. The temperature in the
chamber was lowered gradually and an injection of steam used to create fog. The response of
all seven moisture sensitive markers was recorded.
During the testing of each of the five temperature sensitive pavement markers, a dish
of water was placed near the markers to allow checking for ice formation. The temperature in
the climatic chamber was lowered gradually until the marker was activated, at which point
the temperature was increased again and the process repeated. The temperature of the
pavement markers was monitored using a thermocouple.
Optometric and Photometric Technology (OPT) assessed the triggering consistency of

the 13 light sensitive markers. The light sensitive pavement markers were arranged with
sensors facing toward a light source and were illuminated from a distance of 25 metres.
Initially the laboratory was dark and all of the units were on, then the illuminance was
increased in steps and the illuminance level at which each marker turned off was noted. When
all of the pavement markers had turned themselves off, the illuminance was decreased in
steps and the illuminance at which each marker turned on was noted.
4.3.2 RESULTS
The moisture sensitive pavement markers activated before fog formed in the chamber.
Within two minutes of the steam injection, and all within a narrow time frame, the seven
moisture-sensitive pavement markers had activated. It appeared that the slight rise in ambient
temperature caused by the steam injection resulted in the formation of moisture on the
markers and this small amount of moisture was sufficient to activate the studs. The only
circumstance in which fog would not activate the markers in the field would be when they
were hot enough to remain above the ‘dew point,’ (at which moisture would form on their
surface). Given that the self-illuminated pavement markers activated consistently in response
50
to the formation of dew on their surface there is little reason to suspect that even light rainfall
would fail to activate them.
4.3.3 DRIVER BEHAVIOUR
To determine the effect of the installation of internally illuminated pavement markers

on the behaviour of drivers, observations of traffic movement through a stretch of road
between two bends, both before and after internally illuminated pavement markers had been
installed, were conducted. A video trailer was used to collect the data. Using footage of 400
vehicles (200 in both the before and after periods) taken during darkness, data was collected
in relation to five variables; Lateral placement, speed, brake use, high beam headlight use and
travel on or over the centreline.
4.3.4 RESULTS
The “before and after” effects were estimates as a t-test. The data obtained were as
given in the table.
The lateral placement of vehicles travelling through the observation site changed
following installation of the pavement markers, four t-tests were conducted, one for each
point at which lateral placement was measured.
51
An alpha level of 0.1, the t-tests reveal that in two locations distance from the
centreline was increased, a favourable outcome that may result in decreased risk of head-on
collisions. In a third location however, distance from the centreline decreased after the
pavement markers were installed. Perhaps in some circumstances clearer delineation of the
centreline makes travel close to the centre of the road more comfortable than travel nearer to
what may be a poorly delineated road-edge.
4.3.5 CONCLUSIONS
Based on the information gathered from the laboratory-based tests it appears that
internally illuminated pavement markers perform the tasks they were designed to perform.
The tested pavement markers activated in response to the environmental conditions to which
they are designed to activate. They illuminated before ice formed, in response to the presence
of moisture on their surface, and before light levels fell below that afforded by good street
lighting. There is also little to indicate that the markers will not turn themselves off within an
appropriate interval. Although they perform in the lab as specified, the performance of the
tested pavement markers in the field is detracted from by their proneness to theft and damage.
Observation of driver behaviour revealed that some behaviours, such as high-beam

headlight use and brake use were largely unaffected by the presence of the markers. The
markers did seem to facilitate some reduction in the speed at which vehicles travelled through
the installation site however, and this was a favourable finding, as was the apparent reduction
in the tendency of vehicles to travel on or over the centreline. Findings in relation to changes
in lateral placement associated with the installation of the pavement markers were mixed. In
some circumstances installation of the pavement markers may facilitate travel closer to the
centreline.
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53

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Advancements in pavement technologies

2.1 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

2.1.1.4 PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTION OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

Type of road surface Conditions of road surface

Guide to interpret Skid Resistance Values.

Motorways ,trunk roads, heavily trafficked roads in urban 55 (B)

All other sites (city roads with more traffic) 45 (C)

SAND PATCH TEST

Texture Depth in mm Surface characteristics of pavement

Rebound Deflection (mm) Strength of pavement

FIELD DENSITY ANALYSIS

SURFACE CONDITION SURVEY

2.1.2 REINFORCED STEEL FABRIC

2.1.2.1 STRAIN MEASUREMENTS

2.1.2.2 RUT DEPTH

The comparison of deterioration between a reinforced and a traditionally constructed

2.1.3 GEOSYNTHETIC REINFORCED FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS.

A study was done to characterize the deformation behaviour of geosynthetic-

2.1.3.1 FIELD TEST SITE

A series of sixteen, 15-m long, geosynthetic-reinforced pavement test sections were

2.2 RIGID PAVEMENTS

In some cases, however, design or construction errors or poorly selected materials

Concrete pavement engineering is the selection of design, materials, and construction

Transverse cracks are defined as those perpendiculars to the pavement centreline

JOINT SEAL DAMAGE

Joint spalling is defined as “cracking, breaking, chipping, or fraying of slab edges

It is useful to distinguish between map cracking due to finishing problems, which is

2.2.2. NOISE CHARACTERISTICS OF OPEN GRADED

This experimental feature documents the construction of two quieter pavements:

percent). This aggressive proclamations regarding rubberized open-graded pavement as the

DOWNSIDES OF OPEN GRADED FRICTION COURSES

2.2.2.1 MIX DESGIN

WEAR AND RUTTING

2.2.2.3 NOISE MEASUREMENT

1. Source measurement: measures the effect of pavement on tire/pavement interaction

There are three types of source measurements;

SOUND ABSORPTION MEASUREMENT

There are four types of wayside measurements;

2.2.2.4 NOISE MEASUREMENT EQUIPMENT

computer collects the sound information as 11 separate data points corresponding to

2.2.3.1 PERFORMANCE OF THE PCC OVERLAYS

Pavement management systems (PMS) generally include a subsystem for pavement

Although each type of maintenance is needed in a comprehensive pavement

3.1 ELEMENTS OF PAVEMENT PRESERVATION

The following elements should be considered when developing pavement

1. ESTABLISH PROGRAM GUIDELINES - These guidelines become the instrument

2. DETERMINE MAINTENANCE NEEDS - A system to determine the existing

by trained individuals or with automated vehicles, may be supplemented by

3. PROVIDE A FRAMEWORK FOR TREATMENT SELECTION - It is important that

4. DEVELOP ANALYSIS PROCEDURES TO DETERMINE THE MOST

5. INCLUDE A FEEDBACK MECHANISM TO DETERMINE PROGRAM

3.2 DECISION TREES

The described flow chart provides an example of a relatively straightforward

The detailed steps can be summarised as follows:

1. STRUCTURAL DETERIORATION. If little or no structural deterioration exists, the

2. ENVIRONMENTAL CRACKING. This refers to the transverse, longitudinal, and

3.2.1 DECISION MATRICES

3.3 BENEFITS AND LIMITATIONS OF DECISION TREE

1. It makes use of existing experience.

1. Not always transferable from agency to agency.

3.4 OPTIMUM TIMING OF MAINTENANCE TREATMENTS

FOG SEALS 1-3 YEARS

CRACK SEALS 2-4 YEARS