Alawi, Mohammed Ali

The risk of the presence of phosphorus compound (pesticide) residue in food to the human
health.

Food has become an obsessive issue to the consumer especially since its adverse impacts on

human health have been revealed increasingly in the last decade. A wide range of chemicals

used in food manufacturing in order to improve its colour, shelf life and taste. These

chemicals could be harmful to human health. Some are classified as carcinogenic

substances, defined as any substances in food that could cause cancer. There are many

types of carcinogens in food, for instance, aflatoxins B1 that can be excreted from

Aspergillus flavus, nitrosamines in fermented foods, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons as

result of heating food and the presence of organophosphorus pesticide residues in food

(Sugimura, Nagao and Wakabayashi 1996)

Pesticides are chemicals designed specifically for controlling and eradicating pests, and plant

disease such as weeds. Pesticides have been considered as chemical mutagens which can

cause chromosomal alteration, DNA damage and mutation. However, recently there has

been increasing pesticide usage which may result in a high risk to the population through

dispersal of the residues in food (Bolognesi 2003)

This is a critical issue to health organisations which are responsible for assessing and

analyzing the possible hazards that could result from these chemicals to the consumers.

Several methods of detecting pesticides have been considered to assess the adverse

impacts of these residues. The risk of using these chemicals in preparing food can be easily

measured by many principles such as, the possibility of causing harm to the human health

and the percentage of people who are affected by consuming polluted food (Viscusi 1995)
Alawi, Mohammed Ali

This project aims to illustrate the hazard of pesticide residues in food to human health from

different viewpoints and discuss the possible methods to control their use thereby reducing

harm to human health and the environment. Pesticides will be evaluated in terms of the

hazards and their necessity in the agriculture sector. Firstly, the effects of pesticide residues

to human health will be explained briefly. Then, the purpose of using pesticide including the

legal amounts for agriculture will be discussed. Next, various methods to detect pesticide

residues in the food will be proposed with an explanation of risk assessment.

Alawi, Mohammed Ali

1- Source of exposure to agrochemicals residues:

Exposure to pesticide can occur in several ways such as food ingestion, drinking water,

inhalation and dermal ingestion. The most common way of being exposed to pesticides is by

consuming food that contains residues. Moreover, people who live near an agricultural area

are highly exposed to pesticides either by inhalation or dermal absorption. Different health

organisations and agencies are responsible for determining the level of exposure and

assessing the risk posed by these chemicals. However, the Food Quality Protection Act

(FQPA) works to assess the accumulative risk which called aggregate exposure in risk

assessment, for instance; exposure via multiple routs. In Europe, the permitted limit of

pesticide in drinking water legally is 0.1 µg/L, although the total of all pesticides should not

reach more than 0.5 µg/L. These standards based on analytical not toxicological

consideration, not toxicological. (Boobis, et al. 2008)

Table 1.4 Major exposure sources and routes

Source Routes
Food residues Oral
Water residues Oral
Domestic/horticulture Oral, percutaneous, inhalation
Public hygiene pesticide use Oral, percutaneous, inhalation
Vector control Oral, percutaneous, inhalation
Occupational exposure Oral, percutaneous, inhalation
Human/veterinary medicine Oral, percutaneous

(Hamilton and Grossley 2004, 228)

Alawi, Mohammed Ali

Boobis et al. (2008) claim that in the European Union pesticide residues were not noticeable

in 53 – 64% of food samples containing residues, whereas in 32-42% they were detectable.

Exposure to varied pesticides could be due to consuming a single food item which has

multiple residues or varied food items having one or more residues (Boobis, et al. 2008).

However, it is important that the health organisations take into account the cumulative risk

of pesticide residues to human health.

2- The adverse impacts of pesticide residue to human health:

Hamilton and Grossly (2004) point out that the potential of a chemical to cause harm

depends on its toxicity level which can vary. The possible harm to human health as a result

of ingesting food containing pesticide residue is the main consideration. Measurements can

be carried out by conducting scientific research on laboratory animals to identity the safe

daily dose of ingestion or exposure to a pesticide as well as knowing its long-term adverse

impacts. A study has been carried out which suggests that some pesticides could affect the

sex steroid hormone system (Hamilton and Grossley 2004)

Lo (2007) concluded that several pesticides can disturb the 5α-reductase which is one of the

important enzymes of human androgen metabolism. It is responsible for the conversion of

testosterone into 5α-dihydrotestosterone (5α -DHT). Pesticides can act as an antiandrogen,

and inhibit the 5α-reductase. (Lo, et al. 2007)

Qiao & Rozelle (2003) mentioned that Chinese farmers use a higher quantity of pesticide

than other farmers worldwide in order to increase the crop yield possibly as a result of poor

education , which leads to accumulated residue in food, hazardous not only to international

trade but also to the Chinese consumer. (Qiao and Rozelle 2003)
Alawi, Mohammed Ali

Zhou and Jin (2009) conducted a questionnaire on a group of farmers in China to identify

whether the farmers who spray their crops with pesticide in China realize the possible

adverse effect of their use. The main findings of the research suggested that the older and

less educated farmers use highly toxic pesticide without realizing its adverse impacts,

untrained farmers tended to use more highly toxic pesticide and vegetable farmers without

a sufficient background in food safety were likely to use highly toxic pesticides(Zhou and Jin

2009).

Bologensi (2003) claims that fifty six types of pesticides are classified as carcinogenic to

experimental animals and may cause cancer in humans; these chemicals include

phenoxyacid, 2,4,5-trichorophenoxy acetic acid, lindane and several organophosphates.

Females who work in green houses are highly susceptible to reduced fertility as a result of

pesticide exposure (Bologensi ,2003).

Gold et al (1997) point out that the National Research Council (NRC) was reported that 29

pesticides associated with causing cancer in rodents and evaluated that the risk for 23 were

greater than one in a million. (Gold, et al. 1997)

However, although it is true that pesticide is an effective substance in controlling plant

insects which may affect the crop yield, it has negative impacts on human health, the

environment and the economy as a result of financial loss for communities required to treat

incurable diseases. Most pesticides can cause gene mutation, chromosomal alteration and

DNA damage. Therefore, they are classified as carcinogenesis whose long-term exposure to

the human body could cause cancer.

Alawi, Mohammed Ali

3- Purpose of using pesticides and the policy of using it:

Pesticides have been extensively used in agriculture for centuries. For example, sulphur was

used in Roman times to control pests. Inorganic compounds of copper, lead and arsenic

were used in 19th century to control fungal disease and insects. Farmers used pesticides to

protect their crop yield from pest damage. The quantity and types of pesticide used are

based on climate conditions, pest species and pest damage. Moreover, they are used to

increase the crop yield of another plant that could be subject to pest damage. Pesticide

extract from specific plants can be used between each plant to control pests, for example,

pyrethrum extracts, and natural organic others e.g sulphur or arsenic. These types may pose

a significant hazard to consumers. (Hamilton and Grossley 2004)

Large-scale uses of pesticides, particularly organochlorine and organophosphorus

compounds, have been used since World War II. Health organisations have established

international standards and legislation to regulate the use of pesticides and to reduce their

residue in food in line with the legal limits. However, the level of pesticide residue in

foodstuff has been compared to a standard called Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) which

varies between countries. The codex committee on pesticide residues (CCPR) is responsible

to set the MRLs for pesticide residues. Major exposure to the pesticide may occur during

contact of the material with skin, eye and respiratory tract. A rout of exposure could occur

as result of airborne inhalation from spraying pesticide (Marrs and Ballantyne 2004)

There are varied issues about how the pesticide should be regulated has been a long-term

debate in the US. The significant issue is whether the adverse impact of using pesticide

should be compared to the benefits of these chemicals in improving agricultural productivity

Alawi, Mohammed Ali

or if their hazards should meet reliable standards. However, with respect to every effort

carried out in this field, there will be a question about the efficiency of legislation and policy

in reducing pesticides residue in food. The risk assessment research that has been

conducted by federal regulatory agencies commonly overestimates risk. The process of

registering chemicals approved before 1984 is conducted by the Environmental Protection

Agency (EPA) which is responsible for ensuring compliance with current standards. Delay in

registering a new pesticide allows other chemicals with undesirable effects on health and

the environment to remain in use; expressly the registration delay would obstruct

development and implementation of low risk pesticides. (Kuchler and Ralston 1997).

4- Risk assessment and method of detecting pesticide residues in food:

Risk assessment involves determining the adverse effects of pesticides in order to perform

risk. There are several experiments which showed whether the agricultural pesticide is

acceptably safe or not; therefore, different toxicological experiments are required to reveal

the adverse affect of each type of chemical that would be harmful to human health and the

environment. The main concept of toxicology is the amount of the ingested dose as well as

the type or species of the chemical which may react to a greater or lesser degree when the

body is exposed to it. For each chemical species there is a level of exposure that does not

cause a noticeable reaction which is known as no-adverse effect level. Animals are used in

toxicological studies to determine if different doses of exposure would cause an adverse

effect on human health or not. The experiment requires different areas of study as follows:

• Acute toxicity testing.

• Short – term repeat dose toxicity / carcinogenicity testing.

Alawi, Mohammed Ali

• Reproductive toxicity testing.

• Genotoxicity.

• Specialized study.

In terms of acute toxicity testing; it involves adverse effects arising from a single dose of the

chemical within a short time of a single dose. The purpose of conducting this type of test is

to satisfy the classification, labelling requirement. It comprises a six pack of test required;

acute oral toxicity, acute inhalation toxicity, dermal irritation, dermal sensitization and

ocular irritation. (Hamilton and Grossley 2004)

With respect to short-term repeat dose toxicity; it involves measuring of oral toxicity by

using repeated dose may be conducted after essential information on toxicity has been

given by acute testing. This type of test provides information on the possible health risk

could occur as a result of repeated exposure over a period of time, in terms of long-term

repeat dose toxicity (carcinogenicity testing; the aim of this test is to examine and observe

lab test animals for most of their life span in order to detect if there is neoplastic lesion has

developed during or after exposure to different dose of a test substance. The other test is

reproductive toxicity testing which concerns determining any effect on mammalian

reproduction. Moreover, both the observation and the result should be associated to all

other toxicological data in order to decide whether reproductive hazard to human is more

than or equal to those derived by other toxicological chemicals. Geneotoxicity involves

detection of compound that catalyses genetic damage directly or indirectly by several

mechanisms. It concerns hazard identification in terms of damage to DNA and its fixation.

(Hamilton and Grossley 2004)

Alawi, Mohammed Ali

However, Risk assessment requires working with animals to determine the possible risk

posed by agricultural pesticides. Choosing a suitable type of test for the situation is

important to obtain required information. Toxicological studies may be concluded as result

of plant and soil metabolism studies.

Various methods such as the chromatographic method, detect pesticide residues in food.

Jiang et al (2008) show that immune sensors use antibodies or antigens as a particular

element. Concentration–dependent signals are supplied and immunosensoring technology

rapidly detects pesticide residues in environment and food. The detection of pesticide and

its quantity is mainly based on chromatographic methods, for example high performance

liquid chromatography (HPLC) or gas chromatography (GC). These techniques are very

sensitive and accurate but involve more time and cost.

However, immunosensors based on antibodies-antigens combination and highly effective in

monitoring pesticide residue became increasingly relevant in environmental and food

analysis. This technique can be utilized in the field, and as well as being very sensitive and

selective, can provide a rapid result (Jiang, et al. 2008)

5- The trends of using agrochemical and food safety:

With respect to the use of agrochemicals, there are two different trends each of which is

associated with a geographic region. Developed countries including the USA, Canada and

the European Union have set new legislations restricting the use of agrochemicals. This law

aims to protect consumers from toxicological residue that could be found in food by

enforcing lower concentration limits accumulated in food and water. Studies indicate that

the residue of these chemicals has devastating impacts on human health; the adverse
Alawi, Mohammed Ali

effects of xenobiotic chemicals lead to suppression of the immune response and

hypersensitivity to chemical agents. There is a link in most cases, between organochlorine

residue and breast cancer, and between sterility in males and polychlorinated biphenyls

(PCBs). Developing countries prefer to take a different direction by using cheap pesticide.

They seek to improve the productivity of their crop yield, and using crop protection

chemicals tends to be preferable for producing better crop yield. Therefore, they use

pesticides that are cheap. Moreover, they have chosen to use using fewer chemicals in

other words, green products. In addition, new agrochemicals have less persistence in

environment than normal pesticide. However, these new pesticides are expensive

compared with old chemicals and the majority of developing countries cannot afford the

cost of these chemicals.

Developing countries prefer to use cheap pesticides. They seek to improve the productivity

of their crop yield and using crop protection chemicals tends to be a simple way of

producing better crop yield. Therefore, they use pesticides that are cheap, for instance;

Benzenehexachloride BCH and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT). As result of using

cheap pesticides, the contamination of environment, exposure of public and food is higher

(Carvalho, 2006)

Conclusion:

It can be concluded that there are several ways in which humans can be exposed to

pesticides, but the most common is from consuming food containing toxicological residues.

The side effects of consuming polluted food depend on the level of chemical toxicity.

Furthermore, it can affect the sex steroidal hormone, and is linked to the majority of
Alawi, Mohammed Ali

prostate and breast cancer cases. Although pesticides greatly benefit and increase the crop

yield, they have devastating impacts on human health and the environment if high

quantities are used. The risk of these chemicals can be assessed through different tests by

using lab animals to determine their possible side effects and potential to cause harm to

human health in the long term. Several methods measure the presence of pesticide residue

in food but each one differs in terms of cost, time and accuracy. The immunosensor method

is sensitive and can provide a rapid result. Regarding the research carried out on farmers to

reveal whether they understand the risk of using agrochemicals to consumer health, the less

educated ones used highly toxic pesticides in greater quantities. This indicates the

importance of educating the farmer using these chemicals to recognise the risk posed from

pesticide and its adverse impact on human health and the environment. The international

health organisation and agencies should take into account the delay in registering the new

environmentally friendly pesticide thereby allowing farmers to use a highly toxic classic

pesticide. The laws governing pesticide use should be applied worldwide especially to

developing countries in order to avoid contaminating the environment. I would recommend

that if this project will be extended by the school of life science which is critically important

to protect our food and the environment from pesticide. The main limitation in this project

is the time which impedes the researcher from illustrating other significant aspect in this

topic.
Alawi, Mohammed Ali

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