4.

Nyquist Criterion for Distortionless

Baseband Binary Transmission

Objective: To design hT (t ) and hd (t ) under the

following two conditions:

(a). There is no ISI at the sampling instants (Nyquist

criterion, this section ).

(b). A controlled amount of ISI is allowed (correlative

coding, next section)

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 Design of Bandlimited Signals for Zero
ISI - Nyquist criterion
Recall the output of the receiving filter,
sampled at t = kT, is given by

∑
y (kT ) = µbk + µ bn p( kT − nT ) + no (kT )
n≠ k

Thus, in time domain, a sufficient condition for µp(t) such

that it is ISI free is
1 n=0
p ( nT ) =  (1)
0 n≠0
Question. What is the condition for P(f) in order for p(t) to
satisfy (1) (Nyquist, 1928)?

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 Theorem. (Nyquist) A necessary and and sufficient
condition for p(t) to satisfy (1) is that the Fourier
transform P(f) satisfies

∑
n
P( f − ) = T (2)
n
T

This is known as the Nyquist pulse-shaping criterion or

Nyquist condition for zero ISI.
Proof.

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Proof. When we sample p (t ) at On the other hand
t = kT , k = 0, ± 1, ± 2,L ,
we have the following pulses
Pδ ( f ) =
k
∑
p (kT ) F (δ (t − kT ))

∑
pδ (t ) ≡ p(t ) δ (t − kT )
k
( p(kT ) is constant for t.)

= ∑ p(kT )δ (t − kT )
k
= ∑ p(kT ) exp(− j 2πfkT )
k

The Fourier transform of pδ (t ) = 1 ( from (1) ) ( 4)

is given by
From (3) and (4), ISI free ⇔
Pδ ( f ) = F ( pδ (t ))
 
∑
1 k
= F

 k
∑ p ( kT )δ (t − kT ) 


T k
P( f − ) = 1
T

which gives the result in (2).

∑
1 k
= P( f − ) ( 3)
T k
T
 Investigate possible pulses which
satisfy the Nyquist criterion
Suppose that the channel has a bandwidth of W, then

H c ( f ) = 0 for | f |> W
Since P( f ) = H T ( f ) H c ( f ) H d ( f ) , we have

P ( f ) = 0 for | f |> W

We write Z ( f ) = ∑ P ( f − n / T )
n

and distinguish the following three cases:

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 Z(f)

-1/T-W -1/T -1/T+W -W W 1/T-W 1/T 1/T+W f

Fig. 4.1 Z(f) for the case T < 1/(2W)
Z(f)

1
-1/T W= 1/T f
2T

Fig. 4.2 Z(f) for the case T = 1/(2W)

Z(f)

-1/T -W 1/T-W W 1/T f

-1/T+W

Fig. 4.3 Z(f) for the case T > 1/(2W)

 1 1
1. T< , or > 2W
(i.e., bit rate > 2W, impossible!) No
2W T
choices for P(f) such that Z(f) = 0.

1 1
2. T= , i.e., W= (the Nyquist rate)
2W 2T
In this case, if we choose
T | f| ≤ W  f 
P( f ) =  i.e., P ( f ) = T ⋅ rect  
0 otherwise  2W 
t
which results in p (t ) = sin c  
T 
This means that the smallest value of T for which the
transmission with zero ISI is possible is
1 1 This is called the ideal
T= ( R≡ = 2W, bit rate )
2W T Nyquist channel.
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 In other words,

Ideal Nyquist channel :

1
R = 2 Bo =
T
W = Bo ( R = Rb , T = Tb )

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 Disadvantages:

(a) an ideal LPF is not physically realizable.

(a) Note that

t  1
p (t ) = sin c   ∝
T  |t |

Thus, the rate of convergence to zero is slow since the

tails of p(t) decay as 1/|t|.

Hence, a small mistiming error in sampling the output

of the matched filter at the demodulator results in an
infinite series of ISI components.

@G. Gong 9
 1
T>
1 < 2W
3. For , i.e,
2W
, in this case, there exists
T
numerous choices for P(f) such that Z(f) = T. The
important one is so called the raised cosine spectrum.

The raised cosine frequency characteristic is given by

 1
 2B 0 ≤ f < (1 − α ) B0
 0
 1  π (| f | −(1 − α ) B0 ) 
P( f ) =  1 + cos  (1 − α ) B0 ≤ f < (1 + α ) B0
 4 B0  2αB0 
0 f ≥ (1 + α ) B0



where α ∈ [0,1] is called the rolloff factor and

R
B0 =
2
1
( i.e., B0 = ) .
2T
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 1
2B0

− B0 B0 f
− (1 + α ) B0 − (1 − α )B0 (1 − α ) B0 (1 + α ) B0

Z(f) = T by the following sum of three terms at any

interval of length 2Bo:

P( f ) + P( f − 2 B0 ) + P ( f + 2 B0 ) = T − B0 ≤ f ≤ B0

P( f ) + P( f − 2 B0 ) + P( f + 2 B0 ) = T B0 ≤ f ≤ 3B0

…
 The time response p(t), the inverse Fourier transform of
P(f), is given by

cos2παB0t
p (t ) = sinc 2 B0t (5)
1 − 16α B0 t
2 2 2

This function has much better convergence property than

the ideal Nyquist channel. The first factor in (5) is
associated with the ideal filter, and the second factor that
decreases as 1/|t|2 for large |t|. Thus

1
p (t ) ∝ 3
t

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@G. Gong 13
 Summary:

Nyquist Criteria
+∞
1
∑
n = −∞
P ( f − nR) = T , R =
T

-Bo Bo

Ideal Nyquist Channel

Raised Cosine Spectrum

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