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KATHMANDU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
KALIMATI, KATHMANDU
(Affiliated to T.U.)
A
PRACTICAL
REPORT
ON
SOIL MECHANICS
SUBMITTED BY: SUBMITTED TO:
RABINDRA SUBEDI THE DEPERTMENT OF CIVIL
BCE ‘C’ ENGINEERING
62109 Er. Renu Biswas
24TH, June, 2008
EXPERIMENT NO: 1 25th April,2008
OBJECT: TO DETERMINE THE WATER CONTENT OF THE SOIL SAMPLE BY USING OVEN
DRYING METHOD
1. APPARATUS REQUIRED:
• Thermostatically controlled oven at 110 C
• Weighing Balance
• Desiccator
• Container
2. THEORY:
The water content of a soil is an important parameter that controls its behavior. It is a quantitative
measure of the wetness of a soil mass. The water content of a soil can be determined to a high
degree of precision, as it involves only a mass which can be determined more accurately than
volumes. The water content of a soil is determined as a routine matter in most of the other tests.
The water content of a soil sample can be determined by any one of the following methods:
a) Oven drying method
b) Torsion balance method
c) Pycnometer method
d) Sand bath method
e) Alcohol method
f) Calcium carbide method
g) Radiation method
Oven drying method: The oven drying method is a standard, laboratory method.
This is a very accurate method. The soil sample is taken in a small, non‐corridible, airtight container.
The mass of the sample and that of the container are obtained using an accurate weighing balance.
According to IS: 2720(part I)‐1973, the mass of the sample should be taken to an accuracy of 0.04
percent. The quantity of the sample to be taken for the test depends upon the gradation and the
maximum size of the particles and the degree of wetness of the soil. The drier the soil, the more shall
be the quantity of the specimen. The drying period of 24 hours has been recommended for normal
soils, as it has been found that this period is sufficient to cause complete evaporation of water. The
sample is dried till it attains a constant mass. The soils containing gypsum and organic matter may
require drying for a period longer than 24 hours. Theoretically the water content of a soil is defined
as the ratio of the mass of water to the mass of solids.
It is denoted by (w).
Mathematically;
Water content (w) =
The water content is also known as the moisture content (m).
w= 100
Where M1 = Mass of empty container with lid
M2 = Mass of container with wet soil & lid
M3 = Mass of container with dry soil & lid
The water content of the fine‐grained soils, such as silts and clays, is generally more than that of the
coarse grained soils, such as gravels and sands. The water content of some of the fine‐grained soils
may be even more than 100%, which indicates that more than 50% of the total mass is that of water.
The water content of a soil is an important property. The characteristics of a soil, especially a fine‐
grained soil, change to a marked degree with a variation of its water content.
3. PROCEDURE:
The following procedure was adopted for the determination of water content of a soil
by using oven drying method.
i. The container was cleaned and dried and then weighed (M1).
ii. The required quantity (full of container) of the wet specimen was taken with
container and weighed (M2).
iii. Then the container was placed in the oven about 24 hours at 110°±5°C. Then
the weight was taken (M3).
4. OBSERVATION:
22 37 16
1 Mass of empty container (M1) 11 7 8
2 Mass of container + Soil (M2) 38 37 44
3 Mass of container +dry soil (M3) 33 31 37
4 5 6 7
Mass of water (Mw) =M2M3
5 22 24 29
Mass of solid (Ms) =M3M1
6 Water Content = 100 100% 22.73% 25.00% 24.14%
.
Water Content Mean = =23.957% Total=71.87%
5. RESULT:
From the experiment the water content of the soil sample is found to be 23.96%.
Submitted by: Rabindra Subedi Soil Mechanics Submitted to: Er. Renu Biswas
BCE 62109 ‘C’ Department of Civil
6. SUGGESTIONS AND CONCLUSION:
The water content of a soil is an important property of the soil for the
determination of other property of soil like liquid limit, plastic limit, dry density etc.
water content of the soil sample is found 23.96% which is in normal range, if the water
content of the soil is more than 100% we conform that the soil contains more than 50%
of the total mass is that of water.
This soil has great significance in engineering field. Various methods of water
content determination are available but we use oven dry method which is more precise
and reliable and is standard laboratory method.
For the most accurate result the weight of container with lid and soil must
me measured more accurately and the sample should be dried 24 hours more precisely
and the temperature of the oven must be 110 5°C.
It is conclude that the water content of a given sample of soil can be determined
accurately by oven drying method.
1) EQUIPMENT
a) Sand pouring cylinder.
b) Calibrating container.
c) Soil digging tools.
d) Glass plate.
e) Metal tray.
f) Weighing machine.
g) Container.
h) Oven.
2) THEORY
The dry mass density (ρd) is defined as the mass of solids per unit total volume. i.e.
Ρd =
As the soil may shrink during drying, the mass density may not be equal to the bulk mass density of the soil
in the dried condition. The total volume is measured before drying. The dry mass density is also known as the dry
density. The dry mass density is used to express the denseness of the soil. A high value of dry mass density
indicates that the soil is in a compact condition.
A hole of specified dimensions is excavated in ground. The mass of the excavated soil is determined.
The volume of the hole is determined by filling it with clean, uniform sand whose dry density is determined
separately by calibration. The volume of the hole is equal to the sand filled in the hole divided by its dry density.
The dry density of the excavated soil is determined as,
Ρd = (M/V)/ (1+w)
3) PROCEDURE
a) The volume of calibrating container was determined by measuring its diameter and height.
b) The pouring container was filled with sand and its weight was taken.
c) Then the container was then placed above the calibrating container and shutter was opened till the
calibrating container and cone was filled.
d) Then the pouring container was weighted.
e) Again the pouring container was filled with sand and was placed in clean glass plate and shutter
was opened till the cone was filled.
f) The sand left behind in the glass plate was weighted.
5) RESULT:
Hence form the laboratory experiment the field density of the soil (insitu –density) is found to be
1565.9023 kg/m3 or 1.566 gm/cc.
SUBMITTED BY :Rabindra
Subedi Soil Mechanics SUBMITTED TO: Er. Renu Biswas
62109 BCE ‘C’ Department of Civil
SUBMITTED BY :Rabindra
Subedi Soil Mechanics SUBMITTED TO: Er. Renu Biswas
62109 BCE ‘C’ Department of Civil
EXPERIMENT NO:3 9th May,2008
1. APPARATUS REQUIRED:
¾ Set of fine sieves 4.75mm,2mm,1mm,600µ,425µ,212µ,150µ, and 75µ ,pan
¾ Weighing balance with accuracy of 0.1% of mass of sample
¾ Oven
¾ Mechanical shaker
¾ Trays
2. THEORY:
Particle size analysis is a method of separation of soils into different fractions based on the
particle size. It expresses quantitatively the proportions, by mass, of various sizes of particles present in a
soil. The sieve analysis is meant for coarse‐grained soils (particle size greater than 75 micron) which can
easily pass through a set of sieves. The sieve analysis is also known as dry analysis. For the particle size less
than 75 micron sedimentation analysis is used which is also known as wet analysis. As a soil mass may
contain the particles of both types of soils, a combined analysis comprising both sieve analysis and
sedimentation analysis may be required for such soils.
In sieve analysis the soil is sieve through a set of sieves. According to IS: 1498‐1970, the sieves are
designated by the size of square openings, in mm or microns. Sieves of various sizes ranging from 80 mm to
75 microns are available. The diameter of the sieve is generally between 15 to 20 cm. The soil is sieved
through a set of sieves. The material retained on different sieves is determined. The percentage of material
retained on any sieve is given by;
Pn = 100
Where, Mn = mass of soil retained on sieve ‘n’,
And M = total mass of the sample.
The cumulative percentage of the material retained,
Cn = P1+P2+……….+Pn
Where P1,P2, etc, are the percentage retained on sieve ‘1’, ‘2’, etc. which are coarser than sieve ‘n’. The
percentage finer than the sieve ‘n’,
Nn=100‐Cn
3. PROCEDURE:
The following procedure was done for the particle size analysis of fine grained soil:
¾ First the soil mass was sieve through the IS sieve of 4.75 mm and passing soil of 1 kg mass
was taken by accurately measuring from the weighing machine.
¾ Then the sieves was prepared by stacking 4.75mm sieve at top and 75 micron sieve at
bottom and others as decreasing size order from the top & finally pan at the bottom.
¾ Then the soil sample was placed at the top sieve i.e. 4.75 mm sieve and it was covered by
the top cover.
¾ Then the sample was sieved by using mechanical shaker for 10 minutes.
¾ Then the soil fraction retained on each sieve was collect in a separate container. The mass
retained in each sieve was weighted accurately.
¾ Then the percentage retained, cumulative percentage retained, and the percentage finer
was calculated.
2) THEORY:
The liquid limit of a soil is the water content at which the soil behaves practically like
a liquid, but has small shear strength. It flows to close the groove in just 25 blows in Casagrandes liquid
limit device.
Liquid limit is the minimum water content at which the soil is still in liquid state but has a small
shearing strength against flowing. In the standard liquid limit test, it is the minimum water content at
which part of soil cut by a groove of standard dimensions, will flow together for a distance of 12 mm
under an impact of 25 blows falling from a height of 10 mm.
As it is difficult to get exactly 25 blows in a test 3 to 4 tests are conducted and the number of
blows (N) required in each test is determined. A semi‐log graph is plotted between logN and the water
content (w). The liquid limit is the water content corresponding to N=25 as obtained from the plot.
3) PROCEDURE
i. Adjusted the drop of the cup of the liquid limit device by releasing the two screws at
the top and by using the handle of the grooving tool or a gauge .The drop should be
exactly 1cm at the point of contact on the base .Tighten the screw after adjustment.
ii. About 120gm of the air dried soil sample passing 425 µ IS sieve was taken.
iii. The sample was thoroughly mixed with distilled water in an evaporating dish or a glass plate
to form a uniform paste. Mixing should be continued for about 15 to 30 minutes, till a
uniform mix is obtained.
iv. The mix was kept under humid conditions for obtaining uniform moisture distribution for
sufficient period. For some fat clay this moisturing time may be up to 24 hrs.
v. A portion of the matured paste was taken and remixes it thoroughly. Place it in the cup of the
device by a spatula and level it by a spatula or a straight edge to have a maximum depth of
the soil as 1 cm at the point of the maximum thickness. The excess soil, if any, should be
transferred to the evaporating dish.
vi. A groove was cut in the sample in the cup using the appropriate tool. Draw the grooving tool
through the paste in the cup along the symmetrical axis, along the diameter through the
center line of the cam. Hold the tool perpendicular to the cup.
vii. The handle of the device was turned at a rate of 2 revolutions per second. Count the number
of blows until the two halves of the soil specimen come in contact at the bottom of the
groove along a distance of 12 mm due to flow and not by sliding.
viii. A representative specimen of the soil was collected by moving spatula width‐wise from one
edge to the other edge of the soil cake, at right angles to the groove. This should include the
portion of the groove in which the soil flowed to close the groove. Place the specimen in an
air‐tight container for the water content determination. Determine the water content.
ix. Remove the remaining soil from the cup. Mix it with the soil left in the evaporating dish.
x. Change the water content of the mix in the evaporating dish either by adding more water if
the water content is to be increased or by kneading the soil, if the water content is to be
decreased. In no case the dry soil should be added to reduce the water content.
4) OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS:
S.No Observations Determination No.
1 2 3 4
1 No of blows(N) 30 13 18 23
4 Mass of container (M) 5 5 6 5
7 Mass of water 4 3 4 3
(Mw)=M1‐M3
5) RESULT
The flow curve between LogN and water content ‘w’ is plotted. Now from the graph of liquid
limit (corresponding to N=25), liquid limit (WL) =27%.
6) SUGGESTION AND CONCLUSION:
Hence from the experiment of liquid limit we found that the liquid limit of
the soil sample is 27%. It shows that the sample soil changes from the liquid state to the
plastic state only when the water content in the soil sample is 27%. At this stage the shearing
strength to the soil is smallest value. The value of liquid limit is directly used for the
classification of the fine grained cohesive soils according to Indian Standard on soil
classification. Once the soil is classified, it helps a lot in understanding the behavior of soils
and selecting the suitable methods of design, construction and maintenance of the structures
made up or resting on soils. The liquid limit of a soil is an indicator of the compressibility of a
soil. The compressibility of a soil generally increases with an increase in liquid limit.
Following precautions are necessary for the exact value of liquid limit:
1. Distilled water should be used in order to minimize the possibility of ion exchange
between the soil and any impurities in the water.
2. Soil used for liquid limit should not be oven dried prior to testing.
3) PROCEDURE:
a) About 30 gm of air dried soil passing from 425µ sieve was taken.
b) The soil was mixed with water and was made plastic enough to shape into a small ball.
c) Then the plastic soil was rolled with hand in a glass plate into a thin thread. When the
crumbling occurred when the thread was just above 3mm diameter the sample was then
taken for the calculation of plastic limit.
d) The sample so made was then kept in two containers of known weights, and combined
weights of sample and container was taken.
e) Then the sample was left in oven for 24 hours for complete drying.
f) After 24 hours the weights of each containers containing samples were weighted
g) And then the plastic limit was calculated.
4) OBSERVATION:
Sample Water Content Result
S.No. Observations and calculations.
(%) (added in lab test)
4 Weight of dry soil (Ms)=(M2‐ 5gm
M)
4 Weight of water (Mw)=M1‐Ms 1 gm
5 20%
Water content (w) = 100
%
5) CALCULATIONS &RESULT:
Plastic limit (Wp) =20%
Liquid limit (Wl) =27% (from experiment no 5 where the sample was same)
Plasticity index (Ip) = (Wl‐Wp) = (27‐20) % =7%
Plasticity index by the formula (p.I.) =0.73(w.l.‐20) = 0.73*(27‐20) =5.11% adopt the
higher of two value i.e. plasticity index =7%.
Hence from the experiment we found that the plastic limit of the soil sample is 20%.
Submitted by: Rabindra Subedi Soil Mechanics Submitted to: Department of Civil
BCE 62109 ‘C’ Engineering
In the dry side, water acts as a lubricant and helps in the closer packing of soil grains. In the wet side,
water starts to occupy the space of soil grains and binders in the closer packing of grains.
At water content lower than the optimum, the soil is rather stiff and has lot of void spaces and,
therefore, the dry density is low. As the water content is increased, the soil particles get lubricated and
slip over each other, and move into densely packed positions and the dry density is increased.
However, at water content more than the optimum, the additional water reduces the dry density, as it
occupies the space that might have been occupied by solid particles.
For given water content, theoretical maximum density, (ρd) theomax, is obtained corresponding to
the condition when there are no air voids (i.e. degree of saturation is equal to 100%). The theoretical
maximum dry density is also known as saturated dry density (ρd) sat. . In this condition, the soil becomes
saturated by reduction in air voids to zero but with no change in water content. The soil could also
become saturated by increasing the water content such that all air voids are filled.
/
Dry density i.e. (ρd) = where, M= total mass of soil, V = volume of soil & w = water content
The condition of zero air void line is a condition where all air is expelled from the voids such that the
soil is fully saturated. This condition is idealistic, which cannot be achieved through compaction in
actual practice. In practice never brings the soil to zero air void condition. Thus all compaction curves
fall at the left hand side of the zero air void line.
Г
I.e. Гd =
3. PROCEDURE:
The following procedure was done:
a. About 20 kg soil sample was taken for the mould of 1000 c.c.
b. The soil was sieve through 20 mm and 4.75 mm sieves.
c. The percentage retained on 20 mm and 4.75 mm sieves and passing from 4.75 mm sieves was
calculated. The soil retained on 20 mm sieve was not used.
d. Mould of 100 mm dia. was used so that the percentage retained on 4.75 mm sieve was less
than 20.
e. The soil was mixed according to retained on 4.75 mm sieve and passing from 4.75 mm sieve
thoroughly in the proportion obtained in step c.
f. 2.5 kg of the prepared soil sample was taken for 1000 cc mould for light compaction.
g. Water was added to it to bring its moisture content to about 4% in coarse grained soils and 8%
in fine grained soils.
h. The mould & base plate was cleaned, dried and grease lightly. The mould with base plate was
weighted.
i. The collar was fitted and placed the mould on a solid base.
j. The wet soil was compacted in three equal layers by the rammer of mass 2.6 kg and free fall of
31 cm with 25 evenly distributed blows in each layer.
k. The collar was removed and trimmed off the soil flush with the top of the mould. In removing
the collar it was rotated to break the bond between it and the soil before lifting it off the
mould.
l. The outside of the mould and the base plate was cleaned and weighted the mould with soil
and the base plate.
m. The soil from the mould was removed and a representative soil sample from the bottom,
middle and top was taken for the water content determination of the compacted soil.
n. The weight of the sample for water content with the container was taken and the sample with
the container was placed to the oven at temperature 105˚C to 110˚C for 24 hours.
Submitted by: Rabindra Subedi Soil Mechanics Submitted to: Department of Civil
BCE 62109 ‘C’ Engineering
o. The above procedure was repeated by increasing the water content 7, 10,13,16,19 and 22%
until the weight of the soil decreases.
p. The weight of the container with dry soil sample and the weight of container were taken in the
nest day.
4. OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:
The following observation was taken from the experiment:
Diameter of mould = 100 mm height of mould = 127.3 mm
2
Volume of mould, V =π/4 (10.0) 12.73 = 999.81 ≈1000 ml
Specific gravity of solids, G = 2.67 (taken)
S.No Observations and calculation Determination No.
1 2 3 4 5
1 Mass of empty mould + base 3895 3895 3895 3895
plate gm gm gm gm
2 Mass of mould + base plate 5825 5950 5995 5875
+compacted soil gm gm gm gm
3 Mass of compacted soil, M =(2)‐ 1930 2055 2100 1980
(1) gm gm gm gm
4 Bulk density, ρ= 1.93 2.055 2.100 1.980
g/cc g/cc g/cc g/cc
5 Container no G 43 B F3 39
6 Mass of container + wet soil (a) 23 gm 22 gm 38 gm 32 gm
7 Mass of container + dry soil (b) 21 gm 20 gm 33 gm 27 gm
8 Mass of water (Mw) =(a)‐(b) 2 gm 2 gm 5 gm 5 gm
9 Mass of container (c ) 5 gm 6 gm 5 gm 6 gm
10 Mass of dry soil (Ms)= (b)‐(c) 16 gm 14 gm 28 gm 21 gm
11 Moisture content (w) = 12.5 % 14.285% 17.857% 23.809%
12 Dry density (ρd) = 1.716 1.798 1.782 1.599
g/cc g/cc g/cc g/cc
.
Sample calculation: ρd = = =1.716 gm/cc
.
Water content at optimum water content = 16% and maximum dry density ρd max. = 1.80 gm/cc
.
The dry density at 100% saturation is, ρd = = . . =1.87 gm/cc. I.e. S =1 and for ρd=1.80 gm/cc, S
=0.884 i.e. degree of saturation is = 88.4%.
Gs = specific gravity of soil grains
W = water content at o.m.c.
ρw = unit mass of water (1g/cc)
S= degree of saturation (one for fully saturated soils).
5. RESULT:
Hence from the experiment we found that the maximum dry density of the soil is 1.80 gm/cc.
And the Optimum water content is 16 %.
The degree of saturation at optimum water content is 0.884 i.e. 88.4 %.
Submitted by: Rabindra Subedi Soil Mechanics Submitted to: Department of Civil
BCE 62109 ‘C’ Engineering
6. SUGGESTIONS & CONCLUSION:
Following precautions are necessary for the exact determination of O.M.C. and maximum dry density of
the soil:
a. Adequate period is allowed for mixing the water with soil before compaction.
b. The blows should be uniformly distributed over the surface of each layer.
c. Each layer of compacted soil is scored with a spatula before placing the soil for the succeeding layer.
d. The amount of soil used should be just sufficient to fill the mould i.e. at the end of compacting the
last layer surface of the soil should be slightly (5 mm) above the top rim of the mould.
e. Mould should be placed on a solid foundation during compaction.
Compaction of soils increases soil density, shear strength, bearing capacity but reduces their void ratio,
porosity, permeability and settlements. The results of this test are useful in the stability of field problems like
earthen dams, embankments, roads and airfields. In such constructions, the soils are compacted. The moisture
content at which the soils are compacted in the field is controlled by the value of optimum moisture content
determined by the laboratory proctor compaction test. The compaction energy to be given by the field
compaction unit is also controlled by the maximum dry density determined in the laboratory. In other words, the
laboratory compaction tests results are used to write the compaction specification for field compaction of soils.
From the experimental value of the test soil the optimum moisture content of the soil is found to be 16% which
is the maximum value of water that can be added to the soil so that we can achieve the maximum dry density
from the soil.
Submitted by: Rabindra Subedi Soil Mechanics Submitted to: Department of Civil
BCE 62109 ‘C’ Engineering
EXPERIMENT NO: 7 30 th
May, 2008
GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS BY HYDROMETER METHOD
OBJECT: TO DETERMINE THE PERCENTAGES OF VARIOUS SOIL GRAINS (FINER THAN 75 MICRON) BY
HYDROMETER METHOD.
1. APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Hydrometer (calibrated at 27 ° C, range 0.995 to 1.030 g/cc).
2. Cylinder or Jars (two, volume of 1000 cc, graduated, dia.. about 7 cm, height 30 cm )
3. Dispersing agent solution (containing 33 gm of sodium hexameta‐ phosphates and 7 gm of sodium carbonate in
distilled water to make one liter of solution)
4. Mechanical stirrer (high speed greater than 5000 rpm)
5. Balance (accuracy 0.01 gm)
6. Thermometer (accuracy 0.5 ° C)
7. Stop watch
8. Sieve 75 micron
9. Centimeter scale
10. Distilled water
11. Soil weighing dish.
2. THEORY:
The hydrometer analysis is based on strokes law, which defines the rate of free fall of a sphere through a
liquid it is given as:
V= (2γs‐γ1) r2/9η ……………………………………………………… (1)
Where, V = velocity of sphere (also known as terminal velocity, (cm/sec))
γs = density (unit mass of sphere), gm/cm3
γ1 =density of liquid, gm/cc
r = radius of sphere, cm
η = Viscosity of liquid, gm/sec cm2
If the above equation is used for hydrometer analysis, γs is taken equal to average specific gravity of soil grain
assuming unit mass of water equal to 1 and if viscosity is taken in dyne sec/cm2, it becomes:
V = D2 …………………………………………………………………… (2)
Where Gs = average specific gravity of grains (solids)
D = equivalent diameter of grains (mm)
Hence D =
If particles of diameter D travel through a distance h (cm) in time t minutes
Then, D = …………………………………………………… (3)
In the above equation h is determined by the equation, h = h1+ (h0 ‐ ) …………………………………….. (4)
Where, h1= distance from the lowest graduation to the graduation mark (R) of the stem at the top surface of soil
water mixture,
h0 = distance from the lowest graduation to the centre of volume of the bulb.
Vh = volume of hydrometer
A1= cross‐sectional area of the jar.
A calibration table is prepared between h and the hydrometer reading on the stem.
Diameter of particle D = D = = M /
Composite correction C = top meniscus reading on hydrometer stem when floating in jar containing distilled
water and dispersing agent only ‐1.000 =1.0265‐1.000= +0.0265 correction is –ve i.e. ‐0.0265.
Date Time Elapse Hydr Tem Compo Rc1= Effec‐ / Viscosit Factor Particle Rc2= Factor % finer
(min d omet p‐ site Rh+Cm tive y M “C’ Rh±C N w.r.to
ute) Time(t er eratu Correcti depth η (mm) (4)+(6) wt. Wd
) Readi re on h(cm) (gm/sec (9) (13)
2
minut ng T(˚C) ±C /cm ) (14)
e (Rh)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15)
30th 0.5 0.5 22 24˚C ‐0.0265 22.0005 11.4754 4.7906 9.3374 12.951 0.06204 21.973 3.1976 70.2625
may *10‐6 4*10‐3 5
‘’ 1 1 22 ‘’ ‐0.0265 22.0005 11.4754 3.3875 9.3374* 12.951 0.04387 21.973 3.1976 70.2625
10‐6 4*10‐3 5
‘’ 2 2 17 ‘’ ‐0.0265 17.0005 11.7754 2.4265 9.3374* 12.951 0.03143 16.973 3.1976 54.2745
‐6
10 4*10‐3 5
‘’ 4 4 14 ‘’ ‐0.0265 14.0005 12.6754 1.7801 9.3374* 12.951 0.02305 13.973 3.1976 44.6817
10‐6 4*10‐3 5
‘’ 8 8 10.5 ‘’ ‐0.0265 10.5005 13.7754 1.3122 9.3374* 12.951 0.01699 10.473 3.1976 33.4901
‐6
10 4*10‐3 5
‘’ 16 16 6.5 ‘’ ‐0.0265 6.5005 14.9254 0.9658 9.3374* 12.951 0.01251 6.4735 3.1976 20.6997
‐6
10 4*10‐3
‘’ 30 30 5.0 ‘’ ‐0.0265 5.0005 15.6754 0.7229 9.33741 12.951 0.00936 4.9735 3.1976 15.9032
10‐6 4*10‐3
‘’ 1 hr 60 4.5 ‘’ ‐0.0265 4.5005 15.5754 0.5095 9.3374* 12.951 0.00659 4.4735 3.1976 14.3044
10‐6 4*10‐3
‘’ 2 hr 120 4.0 ‘’ ‐0.0265 4.0005 15.6754 0.3614 9.3374* 12.951 0.00468 3.9735 3.1976 12.7057
10‐6 4*10‐3
‘’ 4 hr 240 3.0 24.5˚ ‐0.0265 3.0005 15.9754 0.2580 9.2304* 12.876 0.00332 2.9735 3.1976 9.5081
C 10‐6 9*10‐3
31th 24 hr 1440 3.0 24.5˚ ‐0.0265 3.0005 15.9754 0.1053 9.2304* 12.876 0.00135 2.9735 3.1976 9.5081
May
C 10‐6 9*10‐3
5. RESULT:
From the hydrometer analysis the particle size less than 0.075 mm and percentage finer is calculated in the
above table. And the particle size distribution curve is plotted in the graph.
6. SUGGESTION AND CONCLUSION:
The hydrometer analysis is based on the strokes law of viscosity. The particle size less than 75 micron can not be
determined by simple sieve analysis so it needs hydrometer analysis for the particle size determination. The
PERMEABILITY TEST OF SOIL
OBJECT:
TO DETERMINE COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY OF GIVEN SOIL SAMPLE BY VARIABLE HEAD METHOD.
1. APPARATUS REQUIRED:
a. Permeater mould , internal diameter = 100 mm , effective height =127.3 mm, capacity=1000cc
b. Detachable collar, 100 mm diameter, 60 mm height
c. Dummy plate, 108 mm diameter, 12 mm thick
d. Drainage base, having a porous disc
e. Drainage cap, having a porous disc with a spring attached to the top
f. Water supply reservoir
g. Vacuum pump
h. Stop watch
i. Thermometer
j. Graduated glass stand pipe, 5 to 20 mm diameter
k. Supporting frame for the stand pipe, and the clamp
2. THEORY:
The property of the soils which permits water (fluids) to percolate though its continuously connected
voids is called its permeability.
Depending upon the value of Reynolds’s number the flow of water through soils may be ‘laminar’ or
‘turbulent’. In laminar flow, a particle of water starting from a given position follows a definite path without
crisscrossing the path of other particles. In turbulent flows the particles do not follow any definite path but have
random, twisting and crisscrossing path.
For laminar steady flow, according to Darcy’s law the rate of water is proportional to the hydraulic gradient in
uniform and homogeneous soils.
i.e. V α i ………………………………………………………………………………………………..(i)
Where v = discharge velocity of water
V = k *i
If q = discharge of water per unite time
q = k*i*A (7‐2)
If i= 1
K = v (7‐3)
Where, i = hydraulic gradient
K = coefficient of permeability
A = cross sectional area of the soil for discharge q.
In soil mechanics, the coefficient of permeability, k expresses the degree of permeability. It has the velocity
dimensions.
Factors affecting the coefficient of permeability can be studied by the equation
Г
K= c ds2
Where k = coefficient of permeability
C= constant
ds = average diameter of soil grains
Гw = unit weighted water
η = viscosity of the water
e = void ratio of the soil
Viscosity and unit weight of water depend upon temperature; hence the coefficient of permeability is effected by
the climatic conditions also. Constant ‘C’ depends upon arrangement and shape of grains and voids. Thus the soil
in‐situ often as smaller permeability in vertical direction as compared to the horizontal due to horizontally
stratified structure.
In the variable or falling head test, the coefficient of permeability (k) is given by
aL H
k = 2.3 log10 1
At H2
Where, a = cross sectional area of stand pipe
A = cross sectional area of soil
l = length of soil sample
t = time taken for water to flow from head h1 to h2
H1 = initial water level on stand pipe measured from the lower opening
H2 = final water level on stand pipe measured from the lower opening
Applications:
Water flowing through soil exerts considerable seepage forces which have direct effect on the safety of hydraulic
structures. The rate of settlement of compressible clay layer under load depends on its permeability. The quantity
of stored water escaping through and beneath an earthen dam depends on the permeability of the embankment
and the foundation respectively. The permeability of the soil is the factor for the rate of drainage of water through
wells and excavated foundation pits. Shear strength of the soil also depend indirectly on its permeability as the
dissipation of the pore pressure is controlled by its permeability. Different soils have different values of
permeability. The values of permeability for different types of soils determine the use of the soils for different
purposes.
Approximate values of coefficient of permeability for different types of soils are:
Type of soil Value of K (cm/sec) Nature Drainage properties
Sand 1.0 – 10‐3 Pervious good
Silt 10‐3 – 10‐6 Semi‐pervious fair
Clay less than 10‐6 Impervious poor
3. PROCEDURE:
Following procedure was done for the determination of permeability coefficient of the soil:
a) At first the cover of the mould was removed and little grease on the sides of the mould was
applied.
b) The weight of the mould with dummy plate was
weighted.
c) The internal diameter and effective height of the
mould was measured and then the collar and the
base plate were attached.
4. OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION:
Diameter of stand pipe (d) = 20.4 mm = 2.04 cm
Cross sectional area of stand pipe (a) = π/4 20.42 = 326.851 mm2 = 3.2685 cm2
Diameter of soil sample (D) = 10 cm
Length of soil sample (L) = 127.3 mm =12.73 cm
Temperature of water = 24˚C
Ht. of the base of standpipe to the bottom opening (H) = 48.5cm
Sample Calculation
For 1st observation:
We have,
aL H
k = 2.3 log10 1
At H2
H1 = 100cm
H2 = 90 cm
t = 19.1 sec
∴ Mean k24oC = 1.9576 10‐3 cm/sec
Now,
η27 oC = 8.55 x 10‐3 poise
η 24˚C= 9.16 x 10‐3 poise
k27oC = k24oC x η24oC / η27oC = 1.9576 x 10‐3 x 9.16 x 10‐3 / (8.55 x 10‐3) = 2.0973 x 10‐3 cm/sec
5. RESULT:
From the above experiment, the coefficient of permeability of the soil sample at 24˚C is found to be 1.9576x10‐3
cm/s & the coefficient of permeability at standard temperature 27o C (as IS: 2720) is found to be 2.0973x10‐3 cm/s.
The coefficient of permeability of the soil lies between 10‐3 to 10‐6 hence, we classify that the soil is silty and which
is semi‐pervious.
Submitted by: Rabindra Subedi Soil Mechanics Submitted To: Department of
BCE 62109 ‘C’ Civil Engineering
6. SUGGESTIONS &CONCLUSION:
The permeability of the soil is an important factor regarding the engineering properties of
the soil. The stability and safety of the structure standing depends on the permeability of the soil.
Excessive seepage can cause the failure of structure. Similarly, the settlement of soil, quantity of water
drained, shear strength of the soil etc are governed by the permeability of the soil. All these factors are
very significant in civil engineering point of view. For this reason, the permeability of soil is to be
determined prior to construction of any structure. For the correct value of permeability coefficient
determination of the soil following precautions are necessary:
a) All the possibilities of leakage at the joints must be eliminated. All the joints and washer
must be thoroughly cleaned so that there are no soil particles between them.
b) Grease should be applied liberally between mould, base plate and collar.
c) Rubber washers must be moisture with water before placing.
d) Porous stones must be saturated just before placing.
e) De‐aired and distilled water must be used to avoid the choking of flow water.
f) Soil samples must be fully saturated before taking the observations.
g) In order to ensure laminar flow condition, cohesionless soils must be tested under low
hydraulic gradient.
h) Steady flow must be established before taking the observations.
Hence the variable method is suitable for very fine sand and silt with K =10‐2 to 10‐5 mm/sec.
permeability has vast application in the seepage analysis of the soil and the drainage property of
the soil. Knowledge of permeability is essential in a number of soil engineering problems, such as
settlement of buildings, yield of wells, seepage through and below the earth structures. It controls
the hydraulic stability of soil masses. The permeability of soils is also required in the design of
filters used to prevent piping in hydraulic structures.
The coefficient of permeability of the soil in lab is determined generally by two methods:
a. Constant head method and b. variable head method.
In field the coefficient of permeability of a soil deposit in‐situ conditions can be determined by
the following methods:
1. Pumping‐out tests.
2. Pumping‐in tests.
Rabindra Subedi Soil Mechanics