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Glycogen Depletion During Athletic Exercise

by Maria I. Martos
Glucose, the primary source of fuel for all body cells, is derived
primarily from carbohydrates, although, if needed, glucose can also
be metabolized from protein. After a meal, some of the glucose not
used immediately for fuel travels to the liver or skeletal muscles,
where it is converted to a compound called Glycogen--through a
process called glycogenesis--and stored for energy. Any excess
glucose is stored in adipose tissue as fat. The liver has a greater
capacity for glycogen storage than muscle: Liver cells can typically
store up to 8% of their weight as glycogen, while muscle cells can
typically store up to only 3%. The liver is responsible for
maintaining adequate levels of glucose in the body. As the body’s
glucose level drops, the liver converts some of the glycogen back
into glucose--through a process called glycogenolysis--and releases
it back into the bloodstream. Muscle cells, on the other hand, are
unable to reconvert glycogen to glucose. Instead, they convert
glycogen directly to fuel through a process called glycolysis.
Glycolysis is a cellular anaerobic process which, through a
complex series of steps, breaks down muscle glycogen into pyruvic
acid during high-intensity exercise. This process rapidly produces a
small amount of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the necessary fuel
for body cells. However, if too much pyruvic acid accumulates in the
muscle during glycolysis, it can substantially slow down or even
stop the process of ATP formation. Therefore, after one or two
minutes of high-intensity exercise, a subsequent process of energy
formation begins--oxidation
Oxidation, an oxygen-requiring process of energy formation,
produces over 95% of the energy used by muscles during moderate
and prolonged exercise. Oxidation immediately converts much of
the pyruvic acid formed through glycolysis to ATP. However, during
prolonged exercise, if an athlete is unable to breathe in oxygen
quickly enough to oxidize pyruvic acid into ATP, some pyruvic acid is
converted to lactic acid and diffused out of the cell. It then
circulates throughout the body until it can be reconverted to
pyruvic acid once oxygen again becomes available. If excess
accumulation of lactic acid occurs, extreme fatigue can set in,
which can greatly impair the athlete’s performance.
Glucose is needed by the central nervous system to keep the body
functioning. Therefore, during periods of moderate exercise lasting
longer than 20 minutes, the body works to conserve stored muscle
and liver glycogen. It does so by reducing the percentage of fuel
derived from glycogen to only 40% or 50%, with the remainder
supplied by fat. During exercise periods lasting longer than 4 or five
hours, as much as 60% to 85% of fuel produced by oxidation may be
derived from fat.
Fats need carbohydrates in order to burn efficiently. The
breakdown of carbohydrates generates oxaloacetic acid, which is
needed for the breakdown of fats into fuel. If insufficient
carbohydrate levels exist, the levels of oxaloacetic acid may also
drop, making it difficult for the body to continue producing a high
level of fuel from fat. Although the body can break down fats in the
absence of carbohydrates, it does so at a much slower rate. When

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the glycogen stores in the muscles and liver are depleted, and the
blood glucose level begins to fall, athletes begin to experience
fatigue, lack of coordination, light-headedness and lack of
concentration. This experience is commonly known as "hitting the
wall" or "bonking".
Following exhaustive exercise, the body needs to replenish the
depleted glycogen reserves. Increasing the intake of carbohydrates
promotes the storage of glycogen in the liver and muscles.
Therefore, according to Hickson and Wolinsky in their book
Nutrition in Exercise and Sport, a diet consisting of approximately
60% or more of complex (starch) carbohydrates is recommended
after strenuous exercise in order to promote glycogen
replenishment. With adequate consumption of complex
carbohydrates, coupled with extra rest, most of the glycogen
replenishment occurs within 24 hours. If a diet high in protein and
fat is consumed, glycogen replenishment may take longer than one
week.
While proper diet is important after an endurance event, it is
probably of even greater importance prior to an event. The larger
the stores of glycogen in the liver and muscles, the longer and more
effectively an athlete can perform during prolonged strenuous
exercise. Although many schools of thought exist regarding
appropriate nutrition for athletes, most seem to agree that the
most important nutrient for endurance athletes is carbohydrates.
As much as 60% to 70% of the diet should consist of carbohydrates.
It is important for a Sports Massage Therapist to understand the
process of glycogen depletion during athletic exercise. While
working with athletes during training or competitive events, the
Therapist can provide information to them about the process.
Additionally, the Therapist can encourage the athlete to eat a
proper diet during training, as well as prior to and after an
endurance event in order to provide the body with necessary
nutrients for optimum performance. Additionally, and possibly more
importantly, the Therapist can detect signs of glycogen depletion
and be able to assist the athlete during an event.

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