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Overview
7-1
2006/9/18 3
6-1
Introduction
In the static (non-time-varying) case, (E , D) and
(B , H) form separate and independent pairs
not related
(E , D) X (B , H)
E medium
E
¾ The magnetic fields is a consequence, it does not
affect the calculation of the electric field.
2006/9/18 4
6-1
Time-Varying Fields
When the source producing the fields are
changing with time (time-varying)
changing magnetic field electric field
changing electric field magnetic field
2006/9/18 5
6-2
Faraday’s Law of
Electromagnetic
Induction
electromagnetic induction
transformers
transformer emf
eddy current
flux-cutting emf
6-2
Electromagnetic Induction
Michael Faraday discovered experimentally in
1831 that a current was induced in a conducting
loop when the magnetic flux linking the loop
changed.
The quantitative relationship between the
induced electromotive force and the rate of
change of flux linkage is the Faraday’s law.
2006/9/18 7
Fundamental Postulate for
6-2
Electromagnetic Induction
∂B
∇ × E= −
∂t
point-function relationship, applies
to every point in space, whether in
free space or in a material
∂B( x, y, z; t )
∇ × E( x, y, z; t )= −
take surface integral on both
∂t
sides over an open surface S
with a bounding contour C S
∂B
∫S ∇ × E ⋅ ds = ∫S − ∂t ⋅ ds C
∂B
v∫C E ⋅ d A = − ∫S ∂t ⋅ ds
2006/9/18 8
6-2
Electromagnetic Induction
changing magnetic field induces electric field
three different cases to consider the induction
phenomena
¾ a stationary circuit in a time-varying magnetic field
¾ a moving conductor in a static magnetic field
¾ a moving circuit in a time-varying magnetic field
2006/9/18 9
A Stationary Circuit in a Time-Varying
6-2.1
Field
∂B
v∫C E ⋅ d A = − ∫S ∂t ⋅ ds
take ∂/∂t outside the integral
d
v∫C E ⋅ d A = − dt ∫S B ⋅ ds
dΦ
V =−
dt
V = v∫ E ⋅ d A : emf induced in circuit with contour C
C
2006/9/18 10
Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic
6-2.1
Induction
dΦ
V =−
dt
the electromotive force induced in a stationary
closed circuit is equal to the negative rate of
increase of the magnetic flux linking the circuit
Lenz’s law : the negative sign asserts that the
induced emf will cause a current to flow in the
closed loop in such a direction as to oppose the
change in the linking magnetic flux
transformer emf : emf induced in a stationary
loop caused by a time-varying magnetic field
2006/9/18 11
Example 6-1
A circular loop of N turns of conducting wire lies in the xy-plane with its
center at the origin of a magnetic field specified by B = a z B0 cos(π r / 2b)sin ωt ,
where b is the radius of the loop and ω is the angular frequency. Find
the emf induced in the loop.
Solution :
Φ = ∫ B ⋅ ds
S
⎡ πr ⎤
= ∫ ⎢a z B0 cos sin ωt ⎥ ⋅ ( a x 2π rdr )
b
0
⎣ 2b ⎦
8b 2 ⎛ π ⎞
= ⎜ − 1 ⎟ B0 sin ωt
π ⎝2 ⎠
N turns
dΦ 8N 2 ⎛ π ⎞
V = −N =− b ⎜ − 1⎟ B0ω cos ωt
dt π ⎝2 ⎠
2006/9/18 12
6-2.2
Transformers
an a-c device for
transforming
voltages, currents,
and impedances
ferromagnetic core
N1i1 − N 2i2 = ℜΦ
A
ℜ= : reluctance
µS
A
N1i1 − N 2i2 = Φ
µS
2006/9/18 13
6-2.2
A
N1i1 − N 2i2 = Φ
µS
µ →∞
ratio of the currents of an
i1 N 2
ideal transformer is equal =
to the inverse ratio of the i2 N1
numbers of turns dΦ dΦ
v1 = N1 , v2 = N 2
dt dt
ratio of the voltages of
v1 N1
an ideal transformer is =
equal to the ratio of the v2 N 2
numbers of turns
2006/9/18 14
6-2.2
2
⎛ N1 ⎞
( R 1 )eff =⎜ ⎟ RL
⎝ N2 ⎠
2
⎛ N1 ⎞
( Z 1 )eff =⎜ ⎟ ZL
⎝ N2 ⎠
2006/9/18 15
6-2.2
Real Transformers
existence of leakage flux ( k < 1 )
non-infinite inductance
nonzero winding resistance
presence of hysteresis
eddy current loss
nonlinearity of the ferromagnetic core ( µ(H) )
2006/9/18 16
6-2.2
Eddy Currents
When time-varying magnetic flux flows in the
ferromagnetic core, the induced emf will produce
local currents in the conducting core normal to
the magnetic flux. These currents are called
eddy currents.
Eddy currents produce ohmic power loss and
cause local heating. As a matter of fact, this is
the principle of induction heating.
Eddy current power loss is undesirable for
transformers and can be reduced by using core
materials with high µ and low σ.
¾ Ferrite is one such material.
2006/9/18 17
6-2.2
2006/9/18 18
6-2.2
Laminated Cores
2006/9/18 19
A Moving Conductor in a Static Magnetic
6-2.3
Field
Fm = qu × B
--
↑ and ⊕ ↓
Motional emf
To an observer moving with the conductor,
there is no apparent motion
V ′ = v∫ (u × B) ⋅ d A
C
2006/9/18 21
Example 6-2 (1)
A metal bar slides over a pair of conducting rails in a uniform magnetic
field B = azB0 with a constant velocity u.
a) determine V0 across the terminals 1 and 2
b) find electric power dissipated in R
c) show that the electric power dissipated in R is equal to the mechanical
power required to move the sliding bar with a velocity u
Solution :
--
++
2006/9/18 22
Example 6-2 (2)
a) the moving bar generates a flux-cutting emf
V0 = V1 − V2 = v∫ (u × B) ⋅ d A
C
1′
= ∫ (a x u × a z B0 ) ⋅ (a y d A) = −uB0 h
2′
(uB0 h) 2
Pe = I R =2
c) the mechanical force F must balance the magnetic force Fm to move the
sliding bar at a constant velocity
1′
F = −Fm = − I ∫ d A × B = a x IB0 h = a x uB02 h 2 / R
2′
Pm = F ⋅ u = Pe
2006/9/18 23
Example 6-3 Faraday Disk Generator
A circular metal disk with radius b rotates with a constant angular
velocity ω in a uniform and constant B = azB0. Brush contacts are
provided at the axis and on the rim of the disk. Determine the open-
circuit voltage V0.
Solution :
consider the circuit 122'341'1
V0 = v∫ (u × B) ⋅ d A
4
= ∫ [(aφ rω ) × a z B0 ] ⋅ (a r dr )
3
0 ω B0b 2
= ω B0 ∫ rdr = −
B = azB0 b 2
2006/9/18 24
A Moving Circuit in a Time-Varying
6-2.4
E′ = E + u × B
E
take surface integral on both B S
sides over an open surface S
C
with a bounding contour C
∂B
v∫C E′ ⋅ d A = − ∫S ∂t ⋅ ds + v∫ C (u × B) ⋅ d A
induced emf in the moving motional emf
transformer emf
frame of reference
2006/9/18 25
A Moving Circuit in a Time-Varying
6-2.4
∂B
v∫C
E′ ⋅ d A = − ∫
S ∂t
⋅ ds + v∫ (u × B) ⋅ d A
C
V ′ ≡ v∫ E′ ⋅ d A
C
∂B d
−∫ ⋅ ds + v∫ (u × B) ⋅ d A = − ∫ B ⋅ ds
S ∂t C dt S
d dΦ
V ′ = − ∫ B ⋅ ds = −
dt S dt
2006/9/18 26
6-2.4
2006/9/18 27
6-2.4
2006/9/18 28
Example 6-4 Faraday Disk Generator
Determine the open-circuit voltage of the Faraday disk generator by
using d dΦ
V ′ = − ∫ B ⋅ ds = −
dt S dt
Solution :
Φ = v∫ B ⋅ ds
S
b ωt b2
= B0 ∫ ∫ rdφ dr = B0 (ωt )
0 0 2
dΦ ω B0b 2
B = azB0 V0 = −V ′ = − =−
dt 2
2006/9/18 29
Example 6-5 (1)
An h by w rectangular conducting loop is situated in a changing
magnetic field B = ayB0sinωt. The normal of the loop initially makes an
angle α with ay. Find the induced emf in the loop :
a) when the loop is at rest
b) when the loop rotates with an angular velocity ω about the x-axis
Solution :
2006/9/18 30
Example 6-5 (2)
a) when the loop is at rest
S = hw
dΦ
Va = − = − B0 Sω cos ωt cos α
dt
1 ⎛ w ⎞
Va ′ = v∫ (u × B) ⋅ d A = ∫ ⎜ a nω ⎟ × (a y B0 sin ωt ) ⋅ (a x dx)
C 2
⎝ 2 ⎠
3⎛ w ⎞
+ ∫ ⎜ −a n ω ⎟ × (a y B0 sin ωt ) ⋅ (a x dx)
sides 23 and 41 do 4
⎝ 2 ⎠
not contribute to Va'
⎛w ⎞
= 2 ⎜ ω B0 sin ωt sin α ⎟ h
⎝2 ⎠
2006/9/18 31
Example 6-5 (3)
⎛w ⎞
Va ′ = 2 ⎜ ω B0 sin ωt sin α ⎟ h
⎝2 ⎠
if α = 0 at t = 0, then α = ωt
Va ′ = B0 Sω sin ωt sin ωt
dΦ
using V ′ = − d
dt ∫S
B ⋅ ds = − directly
dt
1
Φ(t ) = B(t ) ⋅ [a n (t ) S ] = B0 S sin ωt cos α = B0 S sin ωt cos ωt = B0 S sin 2ωt
2
dΦ d ⎛1 ⎞
Vt ′= − = − ⎜ B0 S sin 2ωt ⎟ = − B0 Sω cos 2ωt
dt dt ⎝ 2 ⎠
2006/9/18 32
6-3
Maxwell’s Equations
Faraday’s law
Ampere’s circuital law
Gauss’s law
no isolated magnetic charge
integral form of Maxwell’s equations
6-3
contradicts ∂ρv
∇ ⋅ (∇ × H ) ≡ 0 = ∇ ⋅ J ∇⋅J = −
∂t
modified
∂ρv
∇ ⋅ (∇ × H ) = 0 = ∇ ⋅ J +
∂t
2006/9/18 35
6-3
∂D
: displacement current density (A/m2)
∂t
adding the ∂D/∂t term in the ∇×H = 0 equation is one of the major
contribution of James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879)
2006/9/18 36
6-3
2006/9/18 37
6-3
∂B
∇×E = −
∂t E, D, B, H D = ε E , B = µH
∂D
∇×H = J +
∂t sufficient
for the
solution
2006/9/18 38
6-3.1
∂B
v∫
C
E ⋅ d A = −∫
S ∂t
⋅ ds Faraday’s law of EM induction
∂D
v∫C H ⋅ d A = ∫S (J + ∂t ) ⋅ ds Ampere’s circuital law
v∫S
D ⋅ ds = ∫ ρv ⋅ dv
V
Gauss’s law
v∫ B ⋅ ds = 0
S
no name
2006/9/18 40
6-3.1
Maxwell’s Equations
∂B ∂Φ
∇×E = −
∂t
v∫ C E ⋅ d A = − ∂ t Faraday’s law
∂D ∂D
v∫ ∫
Ampere’s
∇×H = J+ H ⋅dA = I + ⋅ ds
∂t C S ∂t circuital law
∇ ⋅ D = ρv v∫ S
D ⋅ ds = Q Gauss’s law
v∫ B ⋅ ds = 0 no isolated
∇⋅B = 0 S magnetic charge
∫
V
ρv ⋅ dv = Q ∫ J ⋅ ds = I
S
2006/9/18 41
Example 6-6 (1)
An a-c voltage source vc = V0sinωt is connected across a parallel-plate
capacitor C1.
a) Verify that the displacement current in the capacitor is the same as the
conduction current in the wires.
b) Determine the magnetic field intensity at a distance r from the wire.
Solution :
a) conduction current in the connecting wire
dvC
S2 iC = C1 = C1V0ω cos ωt
S1 dt
capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor
A
C1 = ε
d
vc V
D =εE =ε = ε 0 sin ωt
d d
2006/9/18 42
Example 6-6 (2)
a) displacement current
∂D ⎛ A⎞
iD = ∫ ⋅ ds = ⎜ ε ⎟V0ω cos ωt = C1V0ω cos ωt = iC
A ∂t
⎝ d⎠
v∫ C
H ⋅ d A = 2π rH φ = ∫ J ⋅ ds = iC = C1V0ω cos ωt
S1
∂D
v∫ C
H ⋅ d A = 2π rH φ = ∫
S2 ∂t
⋅ ds = iD = C1V0ω cos ωt
2006/9/18 43
Example 6-6 (3)
b) therefore,
C1 H φ
Hφ = ω cos ωt
2π r
2006/9/18 44
6-3.2
2006/9/18 45
6-3.2
Tangential Components
∂B
v∫ abcda E ⋅ d A = E1 ⋅ ∆w + E2 ⋅ (−∆w ) = − ∫S ∂t ⋅ dS
∂B
∆w a
∆h → 0 ⇒ S → 0 ⇒ ∫S ∂t ⋅ dS = 0
b E1t = E2t
∆h d
c
∂D
v∫ abcda H ⋅ d A = H1 ⋅ ∆w + H 2 ⋅ (−∆w) = ∫S J ⋅ dS + ∫S ∂t ⋅ dS
∂D
∆h → 0 ⇒ S → 0 ⇒ ∫S ∂t ⋅ dS = 0
H1t ∆w − H 2t ∆w = J sn ∆w
a n 2 × (H1 − H 2 ) = J s
2006/9/18 46
6-3.2
Normal Components
v∫
S
D ⋅ ds = (D1 ⋅ a n 2 + D2 ⋅ a n1 )∆S = Q = v∫ ρ s ds = ρ s ∆S
S
∂B
anEn
∆h → 0 ⇒ S → 0 ⇒ ∫S ∂t ⋅ dS = 0
E
∆S ρs a n 2 ⋅ (D1 − D2 ) = ρ s
v∫ B ⋅ ds = (B ⋅ a
S
1 n2 + B 2 ⋅ a n1 )∆S = 0
∂D
∆h → 0 ⇒ S → 0 ⇒ ∫S ∂t ⋅ dS = 0
B1n = B2 n
2006/9/18 47
6-3.2
Equivalence Between BC
As noted previously, the two divergence
equations can be derived from the two curl
equations and the continuity equation.
Therefore, the two conditions for normal
components cannot be independent from the two
conditions for tangential components.
As a matter of fact, in time-varying case,
E1t = E2t ⇔ B1n = B2 n
equivalent
a n 2 × (H1 − H 2 ) = J s ⇔ a n 2 ⋅ (D1 − D2 ) = ρ s
¾ simultaneous specification of Et and Bn would be
redundant and could result in contradiction if not
careful
2006/9/18 49
6-3.2
D1t ε1
E1t = E2t → =
D2t ε 2
B1t µ1
H1t = H 2t → =
B2t µ2
D1n = D2 n → ε1 E1n = ε 2 E2 n
B1n = B2 n → µ1 H1n = µ2 H 2 n
2006/9/18 50
Interface Between a Dielectric and a
6-3.2
Perfect Conductor
Good conductors are often considered perfect
electric conductor (PEC) in regard to BC.
¾ σ Æ ∞ for PEC
In the interior of a PEC, the E field is zero, or else
it would produce an infinite current density.
¾ B and H are also zero through Maxwell’s equations.
on the dielectric side (1) on the conductor side (2)
E1t = 0 E2t = 0
outward normal
a n 2 × H1 = J s H 2t = 0
from medium 2
a n 2 ⋅ D1 = ρ s D2 n = 0
B1n = 0 B2 n = 0
2006/9/18 51
6-3.2
Additional Comments
When the materials have finite conductivities,
currents flowing in the material are expressed in
terms of volume current density.
¾ surface current density defined for current flowing
through an infinitesimal thickness is zero
Therefore, the tangential components of H is
continuous across an interface with a conductor
having finite conductivity.
2006/9/18 52
6-3.2
Importance of BC
Boundary conditions are of basic importance in
the solution of EM problems.
¾ General solutions of Maxwell’s equations carry little
meaning until they are adapted to physical problems
each with a given region and associated BC.
Maxwell’s equations are partial differential
equations and their solutions will contain
integration constants that are determined from
the additional information supplied by BC.
¾ Therefore, each solution will be unique for each given
problem.
2006/9/18 53
6-4
Potential Functions
Potential Functions
Maxwell’s equations are a set of coupled partial
differential equations.
If we try to solve for E and H directly from the
equations, it would be a very difficult process and
the results are very complicated.
Therefore, we can make use of some auxiliary
potential functions to simplify the process of
obtaining the fields in terms of the sources.
¾ The use of potential functions is purely mathematical.
¾ Electric and magnetic fields obtained through the
potential functions must still obey the Maxwell’s
equations.
2006/9/18 55
6-4
B = ∇× A
from Faraday’s law
∂B
∇×E = −
∂t
∂
∇×E = − (∇ × A)
∂t
∂A
∇ × (E + )=0
∂t
2006/9/18 56
6-4
∂A
E+ = −∇V
∂t
∂A
E = −∇V −
∂t
∂A
in static case =0
∂t
E = −∇V
2006/9/18 57
6-4
∂E
∇ × B = µ J + µε
∂t
∂A
B = ∇× A , E = −∇V −
∂t
∂ ∂A
∇ × ∇ × A = µ J + µε (−∇V − )
∂t ∂t
⎛ ∂V ⎞ ∂ 2
A
∇(∇ ⋅ A ) − ∇ A = µ J − ∇ ⎜ µε
2
⎟ − µε 2
⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂t
2006/9/18 58
6-4
Lorentz Condition
∂2A ⎛ ∂V ⎞
∇ A − µε 2 = − µ J + ∇ ⎜ ∇ ⋅ A + µε
2
⎟
∂t ⎝ ∂t ⎠
a coupled equation between the two unknowns A and V
∂V
∇ ⋅ A + µε =0
∂t
Lorentz condition, Lorentz gauge
2006/9/18 59
6-4
∂2A ⎛ ∂V ⎞
∇ A − µε 2 = − µ J + ∇ ⎜ ∇ ⋅ A + µε
2
⎟
∂t ⎝ ∂t ⎠
∂V
∇ ⋅ A + µε =0
∂t
∂ 2
A
∇ A − µε 2 = − µ J
2
∂t
2006/9/18 60
6-4
⎛ ∂A ⎞
−∇ ⋅ ε ⎜ ∇V + ⎟ = ρv
⎝ ∂t ⎠
∂ ρ
∇ V + (∇ ⋅ A) = −
2
∂t ε
∂V
∇ ⋅ A + µε =0
∂t
∂ 2V ρv
∇ V − µε 2 = −
2
∂t ε
2006/9/18 61
6-4.1
2006/9/18 62
6-4.1
∂t ε
∂ ∂
R =0 , =0
θ ∂φ ∂θ
ρ v (t )dv′ y
1 ∂ ⎛ 2 ∂V ⎞ ∂ 2V
φ ⎜R ⎟ − µε 2 = 0
x
R ∂R ⎝ ∂R ⎠
2
∂t
for an elemental point charge
ρv(t)dv' located at the origin change of variable
1
symmetry
V ( R, t ) = U ( R, t )
V depends only on R
R
and t but not θ and φ 1-D homogeneous
wave equation
∂ 2U ∂ 2U
∂ ∂ − µε 2 = 0
∂φ
=0 ,
∂θ
=0 ∂R 2
∂t
2006/9/18 63
6-4.1
∂ 2U ∂ 2U
− µε 2 = 0 non-physical, to
∂R 2
∂t be proved later
U ( R, t ) = C1 f (t − R µε ) + C2 g (t + R µε )
C1 , C2 : integration constant
f , g : any twice-differentiable function
a wave traveling in U ( R, t ) = f (t − R µε )
the +R direction with
a velocity u p = 1/ µε
2006/9/18 64
6-4.1
∂U df (t − R µε ) ∂ (t − R µε )
= ⋅ = f ′(t − R µε )
∂t d (t − R µε ) ∂t
∂ 2U
= f ′′(t − R µε )
∂t 2
∂U df (t − R µε ) ∂ (t − R µε )
= ⋅ = − µε f ′(t − R µε )
∂R d (t − R µε ) ∂R
∂ 2U
= µε f ′′(t − R µε )
∂R 2
∂ 2U ∂ 2U
− µε 2 = 0
∂R 2
∂t
2006/9/18 65
6-4.1
Wave Function
U ( R + ∆R, t + ∆t ) = f [t + ∆t − ( R + ∆R ) µε ]
= f [(t − R µε ) − (∆t − ∆R µε )]
if ∆t = ∆R µε = ∆R / u p
U ( R + ∆R, t + ∆t ) = f (t − R µε ) = U ( R, t )
the function U(R, t) : wave function
retains its form
if ∆t = ∆R/u u p = 1/ µε : velocity of propagation
1
V ( R, t ) = f (t − R / u p )
R
2006/9/18 66
6-4.1
ρv (t )∆v′
∆V ( R ) =
4πε R
1
from comparison V ( R, t ) = f (t − R / u p )
R
ρv (t − R / u p )∆v′
∆f (t − R / u p ) =
4πε
1 ρv (t − R / u p )
4πε ∫
V ( R, t ) = dv′
V′ R
2006/9/18 67
6-4.1
Retarded Potentials
1 ρv (t − R / u p )
4πε ∫
V ( R, t ) = dv′
V′ R
V(R, t ) : retarded scalar potential
µ J (t − R / u p )
A ( R, t ) =
4π ∫V ′ R dv′
2006/9/18 68
6-5
Time-Harmonic Fields
use of phasor
time-harmonic electromagnetics
vector phasor
Helmholtz’s equation
simple media
classification of materials
the electromagnetic spectrum
6-5
Time-Harmonic Fields
Maxwell’s equations and all the equations
derived from them hold for EM quantities with an
arbitrary time-dependence.
¾ The actual type of time functions of the field quantities
depends on the source quantities ρ and J.
However, for real engineering problems, arbitrary
time dependence is very difficult to handle.
In engineering, sinusoidal time functions occupy
a unique position and they are easy to generate.
¾ periodic time functions can be expanded into Fourier
series of harmonic sinusoidal components
¾ transient non-periodic time functions can be expressed
as Fourier integrals
2006/9/18 70
6-5
Principle of Superposition
Since Maxwell’s equations are linear differential
equations, sinusoidal time variations of source
quantities of a given frequency will produce
sinusoidal variations of E and H with the same
frequency in the steady state.
For source quantities with an arbitrary time
dependence, electrodynamic fields can be
determined in terms of those caused by the
various frequency components of the sources.
Application of the principle of superposition will
give the total fields.
2006/9/18 71
6-5.1
2006/9/18 72
6-5.1
i (t ) = I cos(ωt + φ )
amplitude phase
2006/9/18 73
Trouble of Dealing Directly with cosine or
6-5.1
sine Function
R L C
di 1
~ e(t)
i(t) L + Ri + ∫ idt = e(t )
dt C
i (t ) = I cos(ωt + φ )
⎡ 1 ⎤
I ⎢ −ω L sin(ωt + φ ) + R cos(ωt + φ ) + sin(ωt + φ ) ⎥ = E cos ωt
⎣ ωC ⎦
complicated!!
2006/9/18 74
6-5.1
di I s jωt
dt
= ℜe( jω I s e jωt ) , ∫ idt = ℜe( jω e )
for the series RLC circuit,
di 1
L + Ri + ∫ idt = e(t )
dt C
⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
⎢R + j ⎜ωL − ⎟ ⎥ I s = Es easy!!
⎣ ⎝ ωC ⎠ ⎦
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Example 6-7
Write the phasor expression Is for the following current function using a
cosine reference.
a) i(t) = – I0 cos(ωt – 30°)
b) i(t) = I0 sin(ωt + 0.2π)
Solution :
for cosine reference,
i (t ) = ℜe( I s e jωt )
a)
i (t ) = − I 0 cos(ωt − 30°) = ℜe[(− I 0 e − j 30° )e jωt ]
I s = − I 0 e − j 30° = − I 0 e − jπ / 6 = − I 0 e j 5π / 6
b)
i (t ) = I 0 sin(ωt + 0.2π ) = ℜe[( I 0 e j 0.2π )e − jπ / 2 ⋅ e jωt ]
I s = I 0 (e j 0.2π )e − jπ / 2 = I 0 e − j 0.3π
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Example 6-8
Write the instantaneous expression v(t) for the following phasors using a
cosine reference.
a) Vs = V0 e jπ / 4
b) Vs = 3 – j4
Solution :
a)
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6-5.2
Time-Harmonic Electromagnetics
E( x, y, z , t ) = ℜe[E( x, y, z )e jωt ]
∂E( x, y, z , t )
∂t
= jω E( x, y, z ) , ∫ E( x, y, z, t )dt = E( x, y, z ) / jω
∂B
∇×E = − ∇ × E = − jωµ H
∂t
∂D
∇×H = J + ∇ × H = J + jωε E
∂t in a simple medium
∇ ⋅ D = ρv ∇ ⋅ E = ρv / ε
∇⋅B = 0 ∇⋅H = 0
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6-5.2
∇ ⋅ A + jωµεV = 0
1 ρv e − jkR µ Je − jkR
V ( R) =
4πε ∫
V′ R
dv′ , A( R ) =
4π ∫V ′ R dv′
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6-5.2
1 ρv e − jkR µ Je − jkR
V ( R) =
4πε ∫
V′ R
dv′ , A( R ) =
4π ∫V ′ R dv′
Find phasors E(R) and B(R)
E( R ) = −∇V ( R) − jω A( R) , B( R ) = ∇ × A( R )
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6-5.3
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6-5.3
∂ ∂ 2E
∇ × ∇ × E = − µ (∇ × H ) = − µε 2
∂t ∂t
∂ ∂2H
∇ × ∇ × H = ε (∇ × E) = − µε 2
∂t ∂t
∇ × ∇ × H = ∇(∇ ⋅ H ) − ∇ 2 H = −∇ 2 H ∇ × ∇ × E = ∇(∇ ⋅ E) − ∇ 2E = −∇ 2E
0 0
∂ 2E 1 ∂ 2E ∂ 2
H 1 ∂ 2
H
∇ E − µε 2 = ∇ E − 2 2 = 0 , ∇ 2 H − µε 2 = ∇ 2 H − 2 2 = 0
2 2
∂t u p ∂t ∂t u p ∂t
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6-5.3
1 ∂ 2
E 1 ∂ 2
H
∇ E− 2 2 = 0 , ∇ H− 2 2 = 0
2 2
u p ∂t u p ∂t
∂
⇒ jω
∂t
ω2 ω2
∇2Es + 2
Es = 0 , ∇ 2 H s + 2
Hs = 0
u p u p
ω
k=
up
∇2Es + k 2Es = 0 , ∇ 2 H s + k 2 H s = 0
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6-5.3
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Maxwell’ equations, and therefore the wave and
Helmholtz’s equations, impose no limit on the
frequency of the waves.
All electromagnetic waves in whatever frequency
range propage in a medium with the same
velocity u = 1/ µε
¾ c ≈ 3 x 108 m/s in air
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6-5.3
Electromagnetic Spectrum
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6-5.3
Ka K 26.5 – 40
K K 20 – 26.5
K J 18 – 20
Ku J 12.4 – 18
X J 10 – 12.4
X I 8 – 10
C H 6–8
C G 4–6
S F 3–4
S E 2–3
L D 1–2
UHF C 0.5 – 1
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