Adaptive 2-D Wavelet Transform Based On The

This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been
fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON IMAGE PROCESSING, MIROSLAV VRANKIC, DAMIR SERSIC, AND VICTOR SUCIC 1
Adaptive 2-D Wavelet Transform Based on the

Lifting Scheme with Preserved Vanishing Moments
Miroslav Vrankic*, Member, IEEE, Damir Sersic, Member, IEEE, and Victor Sucic
Abstract—In this paper, we propose novel adaptive wavelet which is the simplest nonseparable sampling [3]. A compre-
filter bank structures based on the lifting scheme. The filter hensive overview of two- and multi-dimensional FIR perfect
banks are nonseparable, based on quincunx sampling, with reconstruction filter banks (FBs) for arbitrary sampling lattices
their properties being pixel-wise adapted according to the local
image features. Despite being adaptive, the filter banks retain can be found in [4] and [5], while multidimensional wavelet
a desirable number of primal and dual vanishing moments. FBs design methods are presented in [6], [7].
The adaptation is introduced in the predict stage of the filter The adaptation of wavelet transforms can generally be
bank with an adaptation region chosen independently for each performed in two ways: globally or locally. An example of
pixel, based on the intersection of confidence intervals (ICI) rule.
a global adaptation approach is the best basis algorithm [8],
The image denoising results are presented for both synthetic
and real-world images. It is shown that the obtained wavelet in which, depending on the criterion (e.g. signal entropy),
decompositions perform well, especially for synthetic images the optimal basis for the whole image is obtained. Local
that contain periodic patterns, for which the proposed method adaptation, on the other hand, is based on the local features
outperforms the state of the art in image denoising. of the analyzed image, and it generally outperforms the global
Index Terms—Wavelets, second generation wavelets, adaptive adaptation methods.
lifting scheme, quincunx sampling, interpolating filters, intersec- A number of authors have used the lifting scheme in order to
tion of confidence intervals, image denoising. build locally adaptive wavelet FBs. Claypoole et al. proposed
the so-called space-adaptive transform (SpAT) based on the
I. I NTRODUCTION lifting scheme, which changes the predictor order for every
In many applications, such as image denoising or compres- signal sample to minimize detail coefficients [9]. Therefore,
sion, transforms are used to obtain a compact representation near the edges present in the image, shorter prediction filters
of the analyzed image. The wavelet transform relies on a set are used to avoid ringing effects. The update step is per-
of functions that are translates and dilates of a single ”mother” formed first, followed by the adaptive prediction. This allows
function, and provides sparse representation of a large class the maintaining of multiresolution properties across different
of real-world signals and images. Wavelet thresholding has decomposition levels in spite of the nonlinearity introduced
been shown to be a very efficient method for image denoising through the adaptive predict step.
[1]. The choice of the threshold determines the compromise A locally adaptive filter bank structure for image coding has
between the noise reduction and the degradation of the original been proposed by Gerek and Cetin [10]. Their FB is based
features in the reconstructed image. on the lifting scheme with adaptation of the prediction filter.
In order to obtain a wavelet transform that gives more The least mean squares (LMS) adaptation algorithm is used to
compact representation of an image, we propose a pixel-wise minimize the signal at the high-pass channel output. However,
adaptation of the analysis functions according to its local the proposed adaptive structures do not retain polynomial
properties. A locally adaptive wavelet transform that is tuned annihilation properties inherent to wavelets.
to the image features results in transform coefficients which An adaptive prediction stage is also employed in [11] to
predominantly contain the noise, i.e. the content that is not improve the image decorrelation efficiently for the purpose
inherent to the original image. In that case, application of a of lossless image compression. Similarly to the previous
rather high threshold reduces the noise efficiently, with lower approach, these FBs lack some crucial wavelet properties, such
degradation of the original image. as polynomial annihilation.
The properties of the wavelet decomposition depend on the The approaches presented in [12] and [13], on the other
subsampling scheme used in the corresponding filter bank hand, use the ”update first” structure with adaptation of the
[2]. To obtain a more isotropic 2D wavelet transform than update step. The update filter is changed based on the local
the usual separable approach, we used the quincunx scheme, gradient information such that sharp variations in the signal
get less smoothened than the more homogenous regions.
M. Vrankic and V. Sucic are with the Faculty of Engineering, Uni-
versity of Rijeka, Vukovarska 58, HR-51000 Rijeka, Croatia (e-mail: Moreover, the choices of update filters can be automatically re-
miroslav.vrankic@riteh.hr; victor.sucic@riteh.hr) produced on the synthesis side, so no bookkeeping is required
D. Sersic is with the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Engineering and for a perfect reconstruction.
Computing, Unska 3, HR-10000 Zagreb, Croatia (e-mail: damir.sersic@fer.hr)
Manuscript received xxxx, 2008; revised xxxxxx In another approach presented in [14], to obtain a multidi-
EDICS category: TEC-MRS (Multiresolution Processing of Images & mensional nonseparable wavelet transform, the prediction step
Video - Wavelets; Filter banks) is designed to minimize the variance of the signal, while the
update step minimizes the reconstruction error.
Copyright (c) 2010 IEEE. Personal use is permitted. For any other purposes, Permission must be obtained from the IEEE by emailing pubs-permissions@ieee.org.
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication.
Recently, many novel wavelet decomposition schemes that transform domain. The sparseness is a desired property for
use directional information from images have been introduced, many applications: feature extraction, denoising, compression,
either adaptive or non-adaptive: curvelets, ridgelets, bandelets, compressed sensing, blind separation of dependent sources
directional lifting-based wavelets, directionlets etc. [15]–[17]. [22], and many others. Another important property of wavelets
Some authors have developed very useful directional algo- is their multi-resolution nature: numerous families of octave
rithms for compression, showing advantages over traditional wavelets (either bases or redundant frames) can be realized
separable non-directional wavelets. Nevertheless, there is a using wavelet filter banks in a numerically efficient way. By
lack of papers that deal with wavelet adaptation in the presence introducing adaptation, we do not want to lose any of the
of noise. In this paper, rather than using directional information winning properties of the wavelets!
from images, we use more isotropic quincunx 2D wavelets, When building the adaptive wavelet FB, one would like to
and pay attention to reducing the influence of noise on the retain a number of dual and primal vanishing moments. They
adaptation. are necessary for convergence of the corresponding wavelet
A milestone denoising method was introduced by Portilla and scale functions across different decomposition levels,
[18]. Pointwise shape-adaptive DCT [19] is a novel adap- and they contribute to their smoothness and regularity. The
tive image decomposition with applications in denoising that convergence of decomposition and/or reconstruction functions
outperforms in many cases the Portilla’s method. The SA- across different levels is a key link between wavelets and FBs.
DCT changes the shape of the transform’s support at each Moreover, the number of vanishing moments is closely related
pixel of the image, while in our work we change the support to the order of the polynomials that the wavelet FB is able to
of the adaptation region, and, according to the result, the annihilate [23].
base functions. Both approaches rely on the intersection of In this paper, we propose two novel adaptive non-separable
confidence intervals (ICI) rule. We used SA-DCT, as one of 2D filter bank structures based on the lifting scheme and
the state-of-the-art image denoising methods, for comparison. quincunx sampling. By using the lifting scheme, the existing
wavelet transform is made adaptive and further improved with
A. The Lifting Scheme additional lifting steps, while at the same time a desirable
number of vanishing moments is retained. The structures and
The lifting scheme provides an effective tool to build adaptation algorithms are improved when compared to our pre-
biorthogonal wavelet FBs [20]. Moreover, due to its inherent viously reported work in [24] and [25]. In [24], we proposed
perfect reconstruction properties, it is a great tool to build adaptive 1D wavelet FB structures that can be generalized to
second-generation wavelets [21], i.e. wavelets that are not 2D using a well-known separable approach.
necessarily translated and dilated copies of a single function. In this work, the adaptation is introduced through an ad-
An example of the lifting scheme structure based on quin- ditional predict stage with a parameter which is tuned for
cunx sampling is shown in Fig. 1. It is built from three each pixel separately, based on the adaptively chosen pixel
main parts: polyphase decomposition, predict and update steps. neighborhood. Unlike our work presented in [26] and [27],
The image at the FB input is split into M = | det(D)| which is based on changing filter supports for each signal
phases, where D represents the subsampling matrix [3]. For sample, in this paper we do not change filter supports, but
the quincunx case, the image is split in two phases as defined rather change the region on which a FB parameter is being
by the quincunx subsampling matrix: calculated.
" #
1 1 The paper is organized as follows. In Section II, the two
Dq = . (1)
−1 1 adaptive FB structures, named PPaU and PUPa, are pre-
As shown in Fig. 1, the polyphase decomposition is fol- sented, the first of which was proposed in [25]. The proposed
lowed by the prediction step. The filter P predicts the pixel structures can provide any number of vanishing moments or
values of the second (”odd”) phase, based on the pixels from adaptive parameters. In this paper, we have chosen the FB
the first (”even”) phase. The prediction error corresponds to structure PPaU with the shortest possible (i.e. ”canonical”)
the wavelet detail coefficients, e.g. to the output of the high- symmetric support that provides two primal and two dual
pass channel. The subsequent update step corresponds to the vanishing moments, followed by a single adaptive parameter.
approximation coefficients, e.g. produces the low-pass output However, the quest for independent adaptation across differ-
of the FB. ent decomposition levels, with smooth and regular synthesis
The reconstruction is readily obtainable. The synthesis FB functions, brought us to the structure PUPa. The proofs of
is constructed using the same steps but in the reverse order vanishing moment preservation are given in the Appendix.
and with opposite signs. This way, the operations from the In Section III the minimization of energy of detail coeffi-
analysis side are reversed and cancelled on the synthesis side. cients is introduced as the adaptation criterion. The adaptation
is performed for every pixel of the image based on the
neighborhood of a free shape. Assuming an additive noise
B. The Proposed Method model, we show that the adaptation is biased. However, we
An important property of wavelets is their ability to anni- have found a way to make the adaptation almost insensitive
hilate polynomials. Many real-world signals and images can to noise. The proof is given in Section III-D.
be locally viewed as polynomial segments, so the polyno- In Section IV we present a method for obtaining the
mial annihilation is a key to sparse representation in the appropriate adaptation neighborhood for each pixel of the
X ( z1 , z2 ) Xe A
D D
+ -
P( z1 , z2 ) U ( z1 , z2 ) U ( z1 , z2 ) P( z1 , z2 )
Xo- D
+
Xˆ ( z1 , z2 )
z1−1 D D z1
Fig. 1. Quincunx filter bank based on the lifting scheme. Downsampling and upsampling operators are defined with a quincunx subsampling matrix, D = Dq .
TABLE I
image. The method is based on the intersection of confi- Q UINCUNX N EVILLE FILTER COEFFICIENTS [29]. T HE COEFFICIENTS ARE
dence intervals (ICI) rule [28]. The ICI rule provides for the GROUPED INTO RINGS , AS SHOWN IN F IG . 2.
maximum size of local neighborhoods of similar statistical
Ring 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
properties, thus providing for the best unbiased estimation. To
Order
find the confidence intervals’ limits, we used the Monte Carlo
2 1 ×2−2
approach.
4 10 -1 ×2−5
Finally, in Section V the proposed adaptation algorithm is
6 174 -27 2 3 ×2−9
used within the framework of image denoising by wavelet
8 23300 -4470 625 850 -75 9 -80 ×2−16
thresholding. The image denoising results are presented for
both synthetic and real-world images. Our trade-off between
more vanishing moments and local adaptation using the pro- filter bank are called dual, while the vanishing moments of
posed structures has shown to be useful for images containing the synthesis FB are called primal.
periodic components, as expected. It was shown in [29] that in order to have Ñ dual vanishing
moments, the predict filter P of the lifting scheme has to be
II. T HE A DAPTIVE L IFTING S CHEME a Neville filter of order Ñ and shift
A. Quincunx Interpolating Filter Bank τ = D−1 t, (3)
The construction of compactly supported biorthogonal where D represents the subsampling matrix and t defines
wavelets and perfect reconstruction filter banks for any lattice, the shift between the two phases. For the quincunx sampling
in any dimension, and with any number of primal and dual matrix from (1), where t = [1 0]T , the shift is τ = [0.5 0.5]T .
vanishing moments is presented in [29]. As it was also shown in [29], the primal vanishing moments
The filters used to build the prediction step, called Neville are defined with the update filter U of the lifting scheme. In
filters, are based on the polynomial interpolation. Filtering the order to obtain N primal vanishing moments, with P being
polynomial of degree lower than N with the Neville filter P of a Neville filter of order Ñ and shift τ = D−1 t, 2U ∗ has
degree N or higher gives the samples of the same polynomial to be a Neville filter of order N and shift τ . Consequently,
but sampled on the lattice shifted by τ . Following the notation 2U has to be a Neville filter of order N and shift −τ . The
in [29], we define π to be a multivariate polynomial, and π(Z2 ) simplest choice is to make the update filter the adjoint of the
the sequence formed by evaluating the polynomial on the same-order predict filter divided by two:
lattice Z2 . Then, applying the Neville filter P to the sampled 1
U = UN = PN∗ , (4)
polynomial yields 2
where PN is a Neville filter of order N and shift τ [29].
P π(Z2 ) = π(Z2 + τ ), (2)
It is important to note that the prediction filter by itself
where τ ∈ R2 . defines the number of dual vanishing moments, and the update
The construction of such filters relies on solving the inter- filter influences only the number of primal vanishing moments
polation problem. The solution of the interpolation problem in as long as Ñ ≥ N [29].
multiple dimensions is given by de Boor and Ron in [30]. In For example, the FB with 2 dual vanishing moments and
[29] the authors give Neville filter coefficients for the quincunx 2 primal vanishing moments will be constructed using the
case obtained by using the de Boor-Ron algorithm. The predict prediction filter P2 and the update filter U2 = 1/2P2∗ (see
filter coefficients are given in Table I. Coefficients with equal Table I):
values are grouped into rings. The ring numbering scheme is 1
shown in Fig. 2. P2 (z1 , z2 ) = (1 + z1−1 + z2−1 + z1−1 z2−1 ), (5a)
4
1
U2 (z1 , z2 ) = (1 + z1 + z2 + z1 z2 ). (5b)
B. Vanishing Moments 8
An analysis FB has Ñ vanishing moments if its high-pass
channel annihilates polynomial sequences of degree lower than C. The PPaU structure
Ñ . Also, a synthesis FB has N vanishing moments if its syn- The adaptive lifting scheme structure, of which a simpler
thesis high-pass channel annihilates polynomial sequences of version has been proposed in [25], is shown in Fig. 3. It
degree lower than N . The vanishing moments of the analysis consists of a fixed prediction step PÑ that guarantees Ñ
k2 n2
7 7
6 5 4 4 5 6
2 2 5 3 2 2 3 5
2 1 2 7 4 2 1 1 2 4 7
(1,0) 0.5
1 1 7 4 2 1 1 2 4 7
k1 0.5 n1
2 1 2 5 3 2 2 3 5
2 2 6 5 4 4 5 6
7 7
(a) (b)
Fig. 2. Interpolating rings on the quincunx lattice (a) in the original image domain, and (b) in the sampled domain. Samples are marked with the numbers
of rings they belong to. The bold white circle represents the second phase sample whose value is being predicted based on a number of neighboring samples
from the first phase (gray circles).
X Xe A
D D
+ -
PN~ Pa Pa PN~
UN UN
p p
Xo - - D + + X̂
z1-1 D D z1
Fig. 3. The PPaU analysis and synthesis adaptive filter bank structure.
vanishing moments of a dual wavelet. The fixed prediction step above structure it is not possible to realize a level-independent
is followed by an adaptive prediction step pPa . The analysis adaptation. One way one can deal with the problem is by a
FB structure ends with the fixed update step that gives N simple change of signs of the lifting steps: high-pass filter
vanishing moments to the primal wavelet. becomes low-pass, and vice versa. The low-pass filter comes
In order to obtain an adaptive prediction step which does first, we can design it as non-adaptive, so the adaptation of
not degrade a number of dual and primal vanishing moments the update step will not influence the subsequent levels. The
imposed by fixed predict and update stages, we propose Pa to important drawback of this approach lies in the fact that such
be filters result in synthesis functions that are highly irregular.
Pa = PR̃ − PS̃ , (6) This was the reason we introduced the PUPa structure.
where PR̃ and PS̃ are Neville filters of shift τ = D−1 t and
D. The PUPa structure
of orders
R̃ ≥ Ñ , and S̃ ≥ Ñ . (7) The proposed novel adaptive structure called PUPa is shown
in Fig. 4. The analysis FB consists of three stages. After the
With such a choice of Pa , the Ñ dual vanishing moments are polyphase decomposition, the fixed quincunx Neville predict
guaranteed no matter what values the p parameter may take. filter of order Ñ is applied. This results in Ñ vanishing
The proof is given in Appendix A. The overall prediction filter moments of a dual wavelet. Next, the update filter UN is
PÑ + is then obtained as applied, which results in N vanishing moments of a primal
PÑ + = PÑ + p(PR̃ − PS̃ ). (8) wavelet.
The adaptation is introduced in the final lifting stage with
Also, the number of primal vanishing moments N that is
the pPa filter branch. The advantage of such a structure,
fixed with the update filter is not influenced by the adaptive
compared to the PPaU structure, is that the adaptation at one
prediction branch, as long as
decomposition level of the iterated FB structure influences
Ñ ≥ N . (9) only that very decomposition level, and it does not influence
For the proof, see Appendix A. the subsequent adaptation levels. The synthesis functions are
The adaptation of parameter p influences the outcome of the smooth and regular for a wide range of parameter p values.
update step as well, and thus all the sub-sequent decomposition In Appendix B we show that Ñ dual vanishing moments
levels. The vanishing moments are preserved, but using the are still guaranteed, no matter what values parameter p may
X Xe A
D D
+ -
Pa Pa
PN~ UN UN PN~
p p
Xo - - D + + X̂
z1-1 D D z1
Fig. 4. The PUPa analysis and synthesis adaptive filter bank structure.
take, if the Pa filter is chosen as in (6), where III. A DAPTING THE F ILTER BANK PARAMETERS
R̃ ≥ Ñ , and S̃ ≥ Ñ . (10) A. Noise Model
Also, in Appendix B we show that N primal vanishing An input image corrupted with additive zero-mean white
moments are preserved as long as Gaussian noise w can be modeled as
Ñ ≥ N . (11) x(n) = x0 (n) + w(n), (13)
E. The p parameter where the original image x0 will be treated as deterministic,
and the samples of the noise are independent and identically
In this paper, we use FBs that have 2 primal and 2 dual
distributed (IID) random variables, w(n) ∼ N (0, σ 2 ). For
vanishing moments fixed, obtained by the following filter
simplicity of notation, we will use linear indexing of the image
selection:
pixels such that the two-dimensional indexes (j, k) will be
PÑ = P2 , (12a) replaced by a single index n.
Pa = P4 − P2 , (12b) In deriving the method for adapting the values of parameter
UN = U2 . (12c) p we will use the undecimated FBs, since it has been shown
This is a canonical (i.e. simplest possible) structure with that for denoising purposes they outperform decimated filter
symmetric analysis and synthesis 2D functions. As the value banks [31]. The results obtained for the undecimated FB will
of parameter p is changed, the FB properties will change ac- be straightforwardly applicable to the decimated FB structure
cordingly. The magnitude frequency responses of the analysis as well. The adaptation of parameter p will first be derived
high-pass filters of the PPaU structure for different values of for the PPaU structure and then generalized for the PUPa
parameter p are shown in Fig. 5. As shown in Fig. 5, with structure.
the increase of parameter p the zero ditch appears and grows
wider in the resulting magnitude response of the analysis high- B. The Undecimated Filter Bank and Pixel Numbering
pass filters. Therefore, by changing the value of parameter p,
The undecimated analysis PPaU filter bank is shown in Fig.
it is possible to cancel some frequency components present
10(a) and the simplified equivalent of its high-pass channel is
in the input image. Similar results are obtained for the PUPa
shown in Fig. 10(b). In the figures, the upsampling of the
structure as well.
filter’s impulse response is denoted by P2 (zD ), where z =
The limit analysis and synthesis wavelet functions for both
[z1 z2 ]T . For the case of quincunx subsampling matrix D
PPaU and PUPa structures for various values of parameter p
given in (1) we therefore have P2 (z1 z2−1 , z1 z2 ).
are shown in Figs. 6-9. The limit functions are obtained by
setting a single value of parameter p at all decomposition levels The xp represents the image at the output of the filter P42 =
and calculating the impulse response of the 7-level iterated FB. P4 − P2 which is quincunx-upsampled, having the impulse
As shown in Figs. 7 and 9, the limit synthesis wavelet response:
0 −1 0 −1 0
 
functions are regular for smaller values of parameter p. For
absolute values of p greater than 5, the limit functions become −1 0 2 0 −1
 
increasingly irregular. However, for a limited range of p values, 1 0 2 0 2 0 .

p42 = (14)
”well-behaved” analysis and synthesis functions are obtained. 32  
−1 0 2 0 −1

The analysis wavelet functions behave differently for the
two proposed structures. For the PPaU structure, the analysis 0 −1 0 −1 0
wavelet functions change significantly with increasing para- The image denoted as xh , resulting after the first prediction
meter p. Yet, for the PUPa structure, the analysis wavelet step, is obtained by convolving the input image with the
functions are similar for the whole range of p values. The impulse response of the high-pass filter
reason for such behavior lies in the fact that the analysis low- 
0 − 41 0

pass filter of the iterated PUPa filter bank does not depend on  1
h = − 4 1 − 41  . (15)
the value of p, so the iterated analysis high-pass filter changes
only due to the value of p in the last level of the FB cascade. 0 − 41 0
2
1.5 2
1 1
1
0.5
0 0 0
0 3 0 3 0 3
3 0 3 0 3 0
(a) (b) (c)
3 3 3
0 0 0
-3 -3 -3
-3 0 3 -3 0 3 -3 0 3
(d) (e) (f)
Fig. 5. Magnitude frequency responses of the analysis high-pass filters of the PPaU structure with 2 vanishing moments fixed, obtained for different values
of p (first row), and the appropriate zero locations of the responses (second row). p = 1 for the first column, p = 2 for the second, and p = 5 for the third
column.
X A introduce an alternative notation x(n, i). The sample x(n, i) is

located at position i of the constellation in Fig. 11(a), which
+ is centered on pixel x(n). Therefore, a pixel xh (n), as shown
P2(zD) P42(zD)
13 6
Xp D
U2(z ) 12 2 7 2
p
^ 5 1 3 5 1 3
Xh
- Xh - D 11 4 8 4
-1
z1 10 9
(a) (a) (b)

Fig. 11. Filter supports for (a) p42 filter, and (b) h filter are marked with gray
X D Xp circles. The relative pixel numbering starts from the support center (marked
P42(z ) in bold).
in Fig. 11(b), is a weighted sum of 5 pixels from the input

p image x
^ 1
Xh xh (n) = x(n, 1) − (x(n, 2) + x(n, 3) + x(n, 4) + x(n, 5)).
4
- (16)
Xh D The xp (n) and xh (n) from Fig. 10(b) can be expressed in
H(zD)
terms of the original input image x0 (n) and the random noise
w(n) as:
(b)
xp (n) = (x0 (n) + w(n)) ∗ p42 (n) = x0p (n) + wp (n),
Fig. 10. (a) The first decomposition level of the adaptive PPaU filter bank (17)
xh (n) = (x0 (n) + w(n)) ∗ h = x0h (n) + wh (n).
where P42 = P4 −P2 , and (b) the simplified scheme of its high-pass channel.
The signals x0p and x0h , which result from filtering the
original image, are considered to be deterministic components
In order to enumerate pixels from the even quincunx phase of xp and xh respectively. However, the components wp and
relative to the prediction center n located in the odd phase, we wh are stochastic, coming from filtering the input noise.
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)

Fig. 6. The analysis limit wavelet functions of the PPaU structure obtained for a range of p values. (a) p = −1, (b) p = 0, (c) p = 1, (d) p = 2, (e) p = 3,
(f) p = 5.
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)

Fig. 7. The synthesis limit wavelet functions of the PPaU structure obtained for a range of p values. (a) p = −1, (b) p = 0, (c) p = 1, (d) p = 2, (e)
p = 3, (f) p = 5.
C. Minimizing the Energy of Detail Coefficients detail coefficients, by changing the value of parameter p. We
minimize the energy of detail coefficients, which leads to the
The image xh represents detail coefficients resulting from
well-known least squares solution.
a dual wavelet with two vanishing moments. In general, the
The prediction error for the n-th pixel is defined as
filters used in the prediction branch are Neville filters of
degree Ñ . Hence, if the input to the FB is a polynomial of e(n) = xh (n) − x̂h (n), (18)
degree lower than Ñ , the prediction is perfect, leading to zero where
detail coefficients. Our goal is to improve the prediction by x̂h (n) = p(n) · xp (n). (19)
additionally annihilating non-polynomial components, such as
periodic ones. This would lead to smaller detail coefficients The adaptation of parameter p is performed for every pixel
and finally to a more compact image representation. In order of the analyzed image based on an appropriately chosen
to obtain a sparse image representation we minimize the neighborhood. A given pixel and its neighborhood form a
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)

Fig. 8. The analysis limit wavelet functions of the PUPa structure obtained for a range of p values. (a) p = −1, (b) p = 0, (c) p = 1, (d) p = 2, (e) p = 3,
(f) p = 5.
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)

Fig. 9. The synthesis limit wavelet functions of the PUPa structure obtained for a range of p values. (a) p = −1, (b) p = 0, (c) p = 1, (d) p = 2, (e)
p = 3, (f) p = 5.
region on which the value of the parameter p is calculated. parameter p(n) is the one for which
For a pixel indexed with n, the appropriate region is denoted ∂F (p(n)) X
as Rn . (Determination of regions Rn is dicussed in Section = 2(xh (i)−p(n)·xp (i))(−xp (i)) = 0, (21)
∂p(n)
i∈Rn
IV). For every region Rn the adaptation algorithm sets the
value of the parameter p(n) in order to minimize the sum of which gives X
squared errors. So, the function xh (i) · xp (i)
i∈Rn
X X
F (p(n)) = e2 (i) = (xh (i) − p(n) · xp (i))2 (20) p̂(n) = X . (22)
i∈Rn i∈Rn x2p (i)
needs to be minimized with respect to p. The least squares (LS) i∈Rn
solution minimizes the energy of detail coefficients. Optimal The numerator and denominator in (22) are functions of
pixels xp (i) and xh (i) belonging to the region Rn . If the
image does not contain the noise, the local adaptation results Using expressions (75) and (79) for the bias compensation,
in a well-adapted sparse representation. Parameter p is usually the improved estimator of parameter p is obtained as
set to cancel periodic components that have remained after the X N 2
xh (i) · xp (i) + σw
fixed polynomial predictor. In the presence of white noise, one 16
i∈Rn
would expect that the estimator (22) is statistically unbiased p̂c (n) = , (28)
X 6N 2
and that a larger region should decrease the variance of the x2p (i) − σw
estimation. 256
i∈Rn
The random variable wp (i), which is a part of xp (i), is a where N represents the number of samples included in the
function of a number of independent random variables of the adaptation region Rn . Acceptable results are obtained as long
additive noise present in the input image from the constellation as the denominator is not close to 0. Fortunately, in that case
given in Fig. 11(a). In a similar manner, wh (i), which is a the adaptation is not necessary at all, since the signal is already
part of xh (i), is a weighted sum of 5 independent random well suppressed by the fixed polynomial part.
variables (see Fig. 11(b)). Therefore, the summations in the The histograms of p̂(n) and p̂c (n), calculated for a single
numerator and denominator of p̂ in (22) are dependent random pixel of a test image, are shown in Figs. 12(a) and 12(b)
variables. Hence, the statistical properties of the estimated respectively. The test image used is composed of a single sine
p are influenced not only by the input noise properties, but wave pattern with period T = 10 and amplitude of 100. As
also by the shape of the adaptation region and the value of can be seen from the figures, the improved estimator has a
the original image, which is generally unknown in image significantly reduced bias.
denoising applications. Unfortunately, the estimator (22) is Similar results are obtained for the PUPa structure as well.
biased, and we need some extra steps to cope with the problem. The adaptive PUPa analysis FB is shown in Fig. 13(a), and
the equivalent simplified structure is shown in Fig. 13(b).
D. Reducing the Bias of the Estimator for p
The bias of p is defined as X A
bias(p(n)) = E[p(n) − p̂(n)]. (23)
If one knew the estimation bias, then an unbiased estimator +
of p could be calculated as
P2(zD) P42(zD)
p̂u (n) = p̂(n) + bias(p(n)). (24)
Xp
Unfortunately, the unbiased estimator is not available, since U2(zD)
there is no closed form expression for the expectation of p̂ p
[32]. ^
The true value of parameter p is obtained as a function of Xh
the original image pixels only, i.e.
- Xh - D
X
xh0 (i) · xp0 (i) z1-1
i∈Rn q(n)
p(n) = = . (25)
r(n)
X
2
x (i) (a)
p0
i∈Rn X Xp
The estimate of p is obtained as a function of the image pixels P242(zD)
corrupted with noise
X
xh (i) · xp (i)
q̂(n)
p
i∈Rn
p̂(n) = = . (26) ^
r̂(n)
X
2
x (i) p Xh
i∈Rn
- D
In Appendix C the closed form expressions for the biases Xh
of the numerator and denominator of p are obtained and it H(zD)
is shown that the values of bias(q) and bias(r) are neither
dependent on the value of the original signal x0 nor on the (b)
shape of the region. The biases depend only on the size of the Fig. 13. (a) The first decomposition level of the adaptive PUPa filter bank,
region on which the estimation is based and the variance of the and (b) the simplified scheme of its high-pass channel.
additive zero-mean noise present in the image. It is reasonable
to assume that the variance of the additive noise is known (or Similarly to the derivation in Section C, the improved
can be easily estimated). estimation of parameter p can be obtained as
Therefore, we introduce an improved estimator p̂c as X 13N 2
xh (i) · xp (i) + σ
q̂(n) + bias(q(n)) q̂c (n) 256 w
p̂c (n) = = , (27) p̂c (n) =
i∈Rn
. (29)
r̂(n) + bias(r(n)) r̂c (n) X 2533N 2
which is not exactly compensating (24), but it gives acceptable x2p (i) − σw
131072
estimates of parameter p. i∈Rn
300 300
200 200
100 100
0 0
0 0.5 1 0.5 1 1.5
(a) (b)
Fig. 12. Histograms of (a) p̂(n) and (b) improved p̂c (n) for a single pixel of an image with T = 10 sine-wave calculated for a square region of size 5 × 5.
The example is given for the PPaU structure. Input noise is white Gaussian zero-mean with σw = 10. The true value of parameter p = 1.106 is shown by
the vertical dash-dot line. The bias of p̂(n) is 0.2273, while for p̂c (n) the bias equals to 0.0031.
E. Adaptation in the Iterated Filter Bank of the image.

For the iterated PPaU filter bank, the adaptation of parame- Let us suppose that a compact representation of an analyzed
j image can be obtained by setting the appropriate values of
ter pj at the j-th level is based on the corresponding P42
j
and H filters, which are based on the j-times quincunx- the FB parameter p in distinct and appropriate regions of the
upsampled predict and update filters. Therefore, pj42 is the image. In the simplest setting, the adaptation of parameter p
impulse response of the j-level FB structure up to the input to can be performed on a fixed-size region. It is important to
the multiplier pj . Also, hj is the impulse response of the j- note that wider adaptation regions lead to smaller variance
level FB structure up to the summation operator at the output of p̂. So, in order to obtain more reliable estimates we want
of the pj multiplier, much as in Fig. 10(b). to have parameter p calculated on a region that is as big as
It is important to note that the adaptation at lower levels possible, but still not incorporating parts of the image with
j different statistical properties. To obtain such regions, we use
affects the P42 and H j filters at all the successive levels. Since
the adaptation is being performed pixel-wise, the impulse a statistical method based on the intersection of confidence
responses pj42 (n) and hj (n) are different for every pixel intervals (ICI) rule [28], [33], which is applied for every pixel
position n. Therefore, the bias correction at level j will have in order to obtain the most appropriate adaptation region for
different values for every pixel of the image, depending on it.
the adaptation at the previous j − 1 levels. The estimation of The ICI rule is based on a number of estimates of some
parameter p at level j and for the position n is obtained as signal-related parameter. The estimates are based on different
q̂ j (n) + bias(q j (n)) window sizes. We define a set of growing window sizes:
p̂jc (n) = j . (30)
r̂ (n) + bias(rj (n)) H = {hk |hk > hk−1 , k = 1, 2, . . . , K}. (35)
The numerator’s bias is obtainedX as h i Window hk−1 is a subset of the next window hk . The K
bias(q j (n)) = − E whj (i)wpj (i) estimates are calculated for K successive windows. Next, we
i∈Rn
(31) define confidence intervals of the estimate x̂k as
X
2
= −N σw hj (n, k)pj42 (n, l), Ck = [p̂c,k (n) − Γσp̂ , p̂c,k (n) + Γσp̂ ], (36)
k=l where σp̂ = std(p̂c,k (n)), and Γ is an empirically-set constant
and the denominator’s bias isX
obtained
as that defines the width of the confidence interval.
bias(rj (n)) = − E (wpj (i))2

The ICI algorithm starts with the smallest window size
i∈Rn
X (32) and calculates the appropriate confidence interval C1 . Then
2
= −N σw (pj42 (n, k))2 , the second estimate is calculated, and its confidence interval
k C2 is obtained. The intersection of confidence intervals for k
where N is the number of pixels included in the region. successive estimates is
j
In contrast, in the iterated PUPa structure the P242 and
j Ik = ∩ki=1 Ci . (37)
H filters at level j do not depend on the adaptation at the
lower decomposition levels. The p parameters at level j are One wants to obtain an estimate that is based on the biggest
calculated by using (30), but the numerator and denominator possible window size but still statistically related to the previ-
biases are independent of the pixel position: ous estimates. In terms of confidence intervals this means that
X the closest-to-optimal scale, which will be denoted as k + , will
bias(q j (n)) = −N σw2
hj (k)pj242 (l), (33)
be the largest of indices for which Ik 6= ∅. Therefore, the ICI
k=l
X algorithm consists of the following steps:
bias(rj (n)) = −N σw
2
(pj242 (k))2 . (34) First estimate. Obtain the estimate p̂c for the smallest window.
k
Calculate L1 and U1 as the lower and the upper bounds of the
IV. T HE ICI RULE first confidence interval obtained from (36).
So far, we have not discussed a way of determining the Successive estimates. Calculate successive estimates based
neighborhoods of similar statistical properties for every pixel on the growing windows. Track the value of the highest
lower confidence interval bound Lmax and the smallest upper the results of the previous smaller window hk−1 , which is
confidence interval bound Umin . included in the current window hk . Therefore, in step k, the
Stop enlarging the window. If Lmax > Umin , there is previously stored values of q̂c and r̂c from step k − 1 are
no intersection of confidence intervals. The closest-to-optimal reused, so only the calculations for the difference pixels need
window index k + is the one from the previous step. to be performed.
Select the estimate. The final estimate will be the one In image denoising applications, the standard deviation
obtained with window size hk+ . An example of intersecting of the input noise is usually unknown. However, a robust
confidence intervals is shown in Fig. 15. In the figure, k + = algorithm can be used to calculate it, such as median absolute
17, since for k = 18 there is no intersection of confidence deviation (MAD) of wavelet detail coefficients [34].
intervals. The numeric complexity of the proposed FBs (PPaU and
The wider estimation regions result in an estimator with a PUPa described in sections II-C and II-D) is of the same order
smaller variance. On the other hand, if growing regions enter as the non-adaptive FBs with more vanishing moments. As
an area of different statistical properties, the bias will start to described in sections III-C and III-D, the numerical complexity
increase and the ICI rule will stop the region growth. of the least squares adaptation at every pixel depends on the
We use wedge-like regions of angular width 2π/8 that are size of the local neighborhood (O(Rn ) times the number of
grown from the central pixels in 8 distinct directions (see pixels in the image). It can be significantly reduced due to the
Fig. 14). When each wedge grows to its maximum allowed fact that neighboring regions overlap. Appropriate bookkeep-
size, the overall region will be obtained as a combination ing can reduce the numerical complexity of the adaptation, but
of all wedge-like regions. The angular width of each region, it does not lie within the scope of this work.
and the corresponding total number of regions are chosen Finally, the ICI rule realized using the Monte Carlo ap-
as a compromise between performance and computational proach is the most numerically demanding part of the proposed
complexity. algorithm. However, it can be avoided by using adaptation over
fixed regions, which is good enough for many applications.
V. R ESULTS
To test the ICI rule we have used the SineCircle image with
two distinct regions containing different sine waves, as shown
in Fig. 16(a).
The ICI graph for p̂c for a single direction at the first
decomposition level of the PPaU structure is shown in Fig.
(a) (b) 15. The resulting wedge-shaped region is shown in Fig. 16(b),
and the overall region obtained as a union of 8 wedge-shaped
Fig. 14. The wedge-shaped regions (a) h6 and (b) h8 for the same direction.
regions is shown in Fig. 16(c).
The width of the confidence interval is central to implement- The Barbara image, part of which is shown in Fig. 17(a),
ing the ICI algorithm. The confidence interval is proportional contains several periodic components, mostly present on the
to σp̂ with the constant Γ. In general, higher values of striped robe. Fig. 17(b) shows detail coefficients for a part
Γ give wider confidence intervals that result in smoother of the Barbara image obtained with fixed wavelet decom-
p parameters. Conversely, smaller values of Γ give sharper position with two vanishing moments. The adaptation of the
transitions among regions with different p parameters. FB parameters has resulted in canceling most of the periodic
It is important to note that the distribution of p̂c is usually components from the detail coefficients, as shown in Fig.
asymmetrical, so the corresponding confidence intervals are 17(c). Therefore, the periodic components locally present in
asymmetrical as well. the image are captured with the FB parameters and eliminated
In image denoising applications, the standard deviation σp̂ from the wavelet detail coefficients.
is unknown. Therefore, the estimate of the confidence interval Fig. 18(a) shows a part of the Barbara image with a
width will be obtained empirically: dominant periodic pattern from Barbara’s striped robe. The
Pilot estimate. First, a pilot estimate of the original image image was corrupted with zero-mean Gaussian noise with
is obtained by denoising the input image by using wavelet σw = 10. As shown in Fig. 18(b), the adaptation, using a
thresholding [31]. For that purpose we use separable undeci- window of fixed 5 × 5 size, was influenced by the presence
mated wavelet decomposition. of the noise, and resulted in p parameters with a rather spread
Monte Carlo simulation. The confidence interval for p̂c is histogram. In contrast to the fixed-size window, the ICI method
estimated based on a Monte Carlo simulation which uses the gave p values that are more concentrated around a single value.
pilot estimate instead of the original image. The confidence Fig. 18(c) shows the histogram of p values which reveals
interval width will depend on the input noise variance and the the presence of a single dominant periodic component. This
predefined confidence level. In order to make the algorithm example illustrates an important advantage of the ICI-based
computationally less demanding, we use 20 noise realizations. adaptation method: the periodic components locally present in
Also, to make the ICI calculation of p̂c computationally the image can be isolated more efficiently when compared to
more efficient, the p̂c for window hk is calculated by reusing the adaptation over a fixed region.
pc = 1.099 pc = 1.12
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 16. (a) The test SineCircle image. The test image was additionally corrupted with Gaussian white noise with σw = 10. (b) Adaptive wedge-shaped
region and (c) the overall region obtained for the PUPa structure with 95% confidence level are shown by black dots. The origin pixel is shown by the white
circle. The regions are plotted over the noisy test image to outline the true region borders. True values of p (obtained for the original image without noise)
are 1.111 and 1.742 for the inner and outer sine waves respectively.
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 17. (a) Part of the Barbara image and (b) the corresponding detail coefficients obtained for the first decomposition level of the fixed P2 U2 structure,
and (c) for the adaptive PUPa structure with 5 × 5 window adaptation.
As mentioned earlier, for denoising purposes we have used Results from Figs. 19(d) and 19(e) show that the adaptation
the undecimated FB. The denoising results are given for 4- introduced in the FB significantly improves denoising results.
level adaptive wavelet decomposition based on the quincunx The adaptation transferred the information on the harmonic
PUPa filter bank with 2 dual and 2 primal vanishing moments. components to the filter parameters, and the noise present
Therefore, in each decomposition level, fixed P2 and U2 stages in the image was more efficiently suppressed by the wavelet
are applied, followed by the adaptive P42 branch in which the thresholding operation. Fig. 19(f) shows the result obtained
value of parameter p is calculated based on the 5x5 pixels by using the state-of-the-art pointwise shape-adaptive DCT
wide neighborhood of each pixel. Since undecimated FB is method (SA-DCT) [19]. It is clearly visible that our method
employed, we have used j-times quincunx-upsampled predict more accurately restores the periodic pattern in the image.
and update filters, where j stands for the decomposition level. Note that the SA-DCT method was used for comparison since
The synthetic test image used was the 512x512 SineCircle it also uses the ICI rule to obtain appropriate adaptation
image. The sine wave inside the circular region has period regions.
T1 = 9 and angular orientation θ1 = π/8, while for the outer
sine wave T2 = 5 and θ2 = −π/4. The obtained denoising results are summarized in Table
II. For comparison purposes we have added denosing results
A part of the noisy SineCircle image, and the images obtained with BLS-GSM denoising method [18] and wavelet-
obtained with the three denoising methods are shown in domain Wiener filtering (WDWF) [35], which uses separable
Fig. 19. The resulting detail coefficients obtained with the db2 and sym6 wavelets. For the synthetic SineCircle and
adapted p parameters are shown in Fig. 19(c). When compared Ripples image, the improvement in terms of peak signal-to-
to the detail coefficients obtained with nonadaptive wavelet noise ratio (PSNR) when using adaptive wavelets is signifi-
decomposition (Fig. 19(b)), it is obvious that the adaptation cant, hence indicating that the proposed method would be of
introduced significant improvements, setting the detail coef- particular interest in the analysis of images with dominant
ficients to zero in the whole image except at the circular periodic components. All the test images are available at
boundary of the two sine-wave patterns. http://www.riteh.hr/∼mvrankic/images.
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)

Fig. 19. (a) Part of the noisy SineCircle image with σw = 10. (b) Corresponding detail coefficients for the first decomposition level of the unadapted P2 U2
structure, and (c) for the PUPa structure with adaptation using a fixed 5 × 5 window. Denoising results for (d) 5 × 5 window-based adaptation, (e) ICI-based
adaptation, and (f) the result of the point-wise SA-DCT method from [19].
VI. C ONCLUSIONS p. While it is computationally demanding, the ICI method

In this paper, we have presented a novel design technique for significantly improves the estimation of parameter p. We
locally adaptive wavelet decompositions based on an adaptive have shown that, for synthetic images composed of localized
lifting scheme structure. The main purpose of the adaptation periodic components, the proposed adaptive wavelet FBs give
was to obtain a more compact representation of an analyzed high-quality image denoising results, even outperforming the
image when compared to the nonadaptive wavelet transform. current state-of-the-art pointwise SA-DCT method.
The adaptation involves a modification of the predict stage A PPENDIX A
in the lifting scheme, and two new schemes, named PPaU and P RESERVATION OF VANISHING M OMENTS IN THE PPAU
PUPa have been proposed, both of which retain a desirable STRUCTURE
number of dual and primal vanishing moments. The main
The analysis polyphase matrix for the general lifting scheme
advantage of the PUPa structure over the PPaU structure
structure from Fig. 1 can
" be written
# " as: #
is that the adaptation at one level does not influence the
following levels, leading to its computationally less demanding 1 U 1 0
Hp = · . (38)
implementation. 0 1 −P 1
The adaptation of the filter bank parameters ensured the Therefore: " # " #
minimization of the squared prediction error on the neighbor- H0e H0o 1 − UP U
hood of a given pixel, which then led to the minimization of = , (39)
H1e H1o −P 1
the energy of the wavelet detail coefficients. The influence of
the additive zero-mean Gaussian noise on the estimation of the where H0e , H1e , H0o , H1o respectively denote even and odd
adaptive filter parameter p has been also studied. To reduce polyphase components of the low-pass and high-pass H0 and
the bias of p we have proposed the improved estimator p̂c , H1 filters.
The dual vanishing moments (DM) condition requires that
whose bias is significantly reduced.
[29]
In order to obtain an appropriate adaptation region for every
(↓ D)H1 π(Z2 ) = 0, for π ∈ ΠÑ , (40)
pixel, we employed a statistical method called the intersection
of confidence intervals (ICI) rule. The ICI method gives re- where ΠÑ denotes the space of all polynomial sequences of
gions of similar statistical properties for estimating parameter total degree strictly less than Ñ . By using the filter polyphase
TABLE II
D ENOISING RESULTS IN TERMS OF PSNR. P2 U2 STANDS FOR NONADAPTED QUINCUNX WAVELETS WITH 2 DUAL AND 2 PRIMAL VANISHING MOMENTS .
Image name σ P2 U2 PUPa BLS-GSM Pointwise SA-DCT WDWF

SineCircle 5 34.35 41.97 40.40 36.03 36.66
10 28.43 36.46 35.30 31.37 32.15
20 22.74 30.40 30.05 26.75 27.53
40 17.10 21.98 23.78 23.54 20.99
Ripples 5 35.20 43.29 41.27 35.32 38.03
10 29.02 37.36 36.49 30.22 33.12
20 24.12 31.74 31.27 26.04 28.98
40 17.23 25.93 25.74 22.42 25.27
Barbara 5 35.48 35.73 37.60 37.42 37.28
10 30.26 30.98 33.51 33.58 32.87
20 25.87 26.68 29.22 29.88 28.24
40 20.34 23.45 25.41 26.25 24.33
Textile 5 33.01 34.12 33.95 25.34 34.09
10 27.93 28.21 28.54 24.02 28.12
20 22.14 22.57 23.35 21.49 22.56
40 16.05 18.58 18.88 18.42 18.15
Brick wall 5 33.05 34.14 33.98 27.11 34.18
10 27.89 28.25 28.74 25.19 28.30
20 22.08 22.96 23.67 22.24 22.91
40 16.35 19.21 19.60 19.38 18.87
0
(a)
-1 25 25
20 20
-2 15 15
10 10
0 5 10 15 20
5 5
(a)
0 0
1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8
2 (b) (c)
Fig. 18. The histograms of p̂c parameters for the part of Barbara’s scarf,
1.5 noisy with σw = 10, which is shown in (a), for the first decomposition
level of the undecimated PUPa structure. The histograms are shown for (b)
adaptation using a fixed 5 × 5 window and (c) the ICI-based adaptation with
1 95% confidence level.
0.5 sublattice of Z2 , which transforms the DM condition to

H1e π(DZ2 ) + H1o π(DZ2 + t) = 0. (41)
0
By using (39), the DM condition becomes
0 5 10 15 20
−P π(DZ2 ) + π(DZ2 + t) = 0, (42)
(b)
Fig. 15. (a) The ICI graph and (b) its magnified view for p̂c calculated
which yields
for σw = 10 and 95% confidence level, resulting in the final wedge-shaped P π(DZ2 ) = π(DZ2 + t). (43)
region in Fig. 16(b). The dashed horizonatal line in (b) represents the true
value of p (which is unknown to the ICI algorithm).
As given in [29], (43) can be expressed in the downsampled
domain as
P π(Z2 ) = π(Z2 + D−1 t), for π ∈ ΠÑ . (44)
representation, the output of the analysis high pass filter can Now, introducing the overall prediction filter from Fig. 3,
be obtained with each polyphase component affecting one which consists of the fixed part PÑ and the adaptive part pPa ,
we obtain since
(PÑ + pPa )π(Z2 ) = π(Z2 + D−1 t),
(45) p(PR̃∗ − PS̃∗ )π(DZ2 + t) = 0. (59)
PÑ π(Z2 ) + pPa π(Z2 ) = π(Z2 + D−1 t).
Since PÑ is a Neville filter of order Ñ and shift τ = D−1 t,
Therefore, the PM condition from (57) becomes
we have
∗
2UN π(DZ2 ) = π(DZ2 + t), for π ∈ ΠN , (60)
PÑ π(Z2 ) = π(Z2 + D−1 t), for π ∈ ΠÑ , (46)
∗
which combined with (45) gives which is always true, since 2UN = PN , as stated in (4).
π(Z2 + D−1 t) + pPa π(Z2 ) = π(Z2 + D−1 t), (47)
which further simplifies the DM condition to
A PPENDIX B
pPa π(Z2 ) = 0, for π ∈ ΠÑ . (48)
P RESERVATION OF VANISHING M OMENTS IN THE PUPA
So, in order to keep Ñ dual vanishing moments introduced STRUCTURE
with PÑ , the filter Pa must cancel polynomials of degree lower
than Ñ . As stated in Section II-C, we propose filter Pa such
The polyphase matrix of the analysis PUPa filter bank from
that
Fig. 4 is
Pa = PR̃ − PS̃ , (49) " # " # " #
1 0 1 UN 1 0
where PR̃ and PS̃ are Neville filters of shift τ = D−1 t and Hp = · ·
−pPa 1 0 1 −PÑ 1
orders " # (61)
R̃ ≥ N , S̃ ≥ N , (50) 1 − PÑ UN UN
= ,
respectively. Applying the filter to a polynomial sequence π ∈ −pPa (1 − PÑ UN ) − PÑ −pPa UN + 1
ΠÑ gives where filter Pa is given as in (49). Therefore, the polyphase
p(PR̃ − PS̃ )π(Z2 ) = 0, (51) components of the analysis high-pass filter are
since H1e = −pPa (1 − PÑ UN ) − PÑ ,
(62)
PR̃ π(Z2 ) = PS̃ π(Z2 ) = π(Z2 + D−1 t). (52) H1o = −pPa UN + 1.
The DM condition can be stated in the polyphase form as
Therefore, with the choice of the Pa filter from (49), the Ñ
dual vanishing moments are guaranteed no matter what values H1e π(DZ2 ) + H1o π(DZ2 + t) = 0, for π ∈ ΠÑ . (63)
the p parameter may take. Since, as stated in (48), it holds that
Now, we will show that for the PPaU filter bank the number Pa π(Z2 ) = 0, for π ∈ ΠÑ , (64)
of primal vanishing moments N that is fixed with the update
using (62) the DM condition from (63) becomes
filter is not influenced by the adaptive prediction branch as
long as Ñ ≥ N . The synthesis polyphase matrix follows PÑ π(DZ2 ) = π(DZ2 + t), for π ∈ ΠÑ , (65)
directly from the analysis polyphase matrix as Gp = H∗−1 p which is always true, and therefore the Ñ dual vanishing
Therefore," # " # moments are guaranteed for any value of parameter p.
G0e G0o 1 PÑ∗ + The synthesis polyphase matrix of the PUPa filter bank from
= ∗ ∗ ∗ , (53)
G1e G1o −UN 1 − UN PÑ + Fig. 4 can be obtained from the analysis polyphase matrix (61)
where G0 and G1 denote synthesis low-pass and high-pass as " #
∗
−pPa UN +1 pPa (1 − PÑ∗ UN∗
) + PÑ∗
filters respectively, and PÑ + is the overall prediction filter as Gp = . (66)
∗
given in (8). The primal vanishing moments (PM) condition −UN 1 − PÑ∗ UN∗
states that in order to have N vanishing moments of the Therefore, the polyphase components of the synthesis high-
synthesis FB, the following relation must be satisfied pass filter G1 are
G1 (↑ D)π = 0 for π ∈ ΠN , (54) G1e = −UN ∗
,
(67)
where ΠN denotes the space of all polynomial sequences of ∗
G1o = 1 − PÑ∗ UN ,
total degree strictly less than N . Stated in terms of polyphase which are the same as those for the PPaU structure; so,
components, the PM condition becomes based on the proof in Section A, we conclude that N primal
G1e π(DZ2 ) + G1o π(DZ2 + t) = 0, (55) vanishing moments are preserved as long as Ñ ≥ N .
which combined with (53) gives
∗ ∗ ∗
−UN π(DZ2 ) + (1 − UN PÑ + )π(DZ2 + t) = 0, (56)
∗ ∗ ∗
UN π(DZ2 ) + UN PÑ + π(DZ2 + t) = π(DZ2 + t). (57) A PPENDIX C
N UMERATOR AND D ENOMINATOR B IAS FOR THE
If Ñ ≥ N , R̃ ≥ N , and S̃ ≥ N , then E STIMATOR OF p
PÑ∗ + π(DZ2 + t) = (PÑ∗ + p(PR̃∗ − PS̃∗ ))π(DZ2 + t)
= PÑ∗ π(DZ2 + t) (58) The bias of the numerator q from (26) is
2
= π(DZ ), bias(q(n)) = E[q(n) − q̂(n)] = q(n) − E[q̂(n)] (68)
where " # be expressed as

X 6 2
bias(r(n)) = − E[wp2 (i)] = −N
X
E[q̂(n)] = E xh (i)xp (i) σ , (79)
256 w
i∈Rn i∈Rn
"
X
# where again N is the number of pixels included in the region
=E (x0h (i) + wh (i))(x0p (i) + wp (i)) Rn .
i∈Rn (69)
X
= (x0h (i)x0p (i) + E [wh (i)wp (i)]) R EFERENCES
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Adaptive 2-D Wavelet Transform Based On The - Lifting Scheme With Preserved Vanishing Moments

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fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication.

X A introduce an alternative notation x(n, i). The sample x(n, i) is

(a) (a) (b)

in Fig. 11(b), is a weighted sum of 5 pixels from the input

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

E. Adaptation in the Iterated Filter Bank of the image.

(a) (b) (c)

(a) (b) (c)

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

VI. C ONCLUSIONS p. While it is computationally demanding, the ICI method

Image name σ P2 U2 PUPa BLS-GSM Pointwise SA-DCT WDWF

0.5 sublattice of Z2 , which transforms the DM condition to

where " # be expressed as

[21] ——, “The lifting scheme: A construction of second generation

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