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  • A Framework of Second Language Acquisition

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    Second language acquisition is governed by five factors: situational factors, input, learner differences, learner processes and linguistic output. In a behaviorist view of language learning, precise and tight control of input from the teacher is regarded as very important. The second language has to be presented in small, highly sequenced doses with plenty of practice and reinforcement.

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    Second language acquisition is governed by five factors: situational factors, input, learner differences, learner processes and linguistic output. In a behaviorist view of language learning, precise and tight control of input from the teacher is regarded as very important. The second language has to be presented in small, highly sequenced doses with plenty of practice and reinforcement.

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    630 visualizações10 páginas

    A Framework of Second Language Acquisition

    Enviado por

    3sra
    Second language acquisition is governed by five factors: situational factors, input, learner differences, learner processes and linguistic output. In a behaviorist view of language learning, precise and tight control of input from the teacher is regarded as very important. The second language has to be presented in small, highly sequenced doses with plenty of practice and reinforcement.

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    BIUNGUALISM AND SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION Bernard Spolsky." + : rey Betnard Spolsky is Projessor and Head of the Department of... Englsh:at Bar-llan University in Ramat-Gan tn sree. He is also, DDrector of; the Language: Policy’ Research Center in. Israel, Bernaid Spolsky was educated at the Universiy of New Zealand fand the University of Montreal eid has’ held, Professorships at _ MeGil Unversity Indiéna University, the University of New Mexico ‘well'as Bar-llan University. His research’ and writing output is luminous in temi of Books, journal artes, conference papers and reports. One of his most famous books isenilled Condions - * for Second Language Learning, Published In 1960, his book won f both’ Modern Language’Association Book Prize and the Brien ~ |.) Associaton of Applied Lingultes Annual Book Prize. The. book comprises a comprehensive and extansive medel of second lan- {guage learning at both the theoretical and the applied level. 2: A Framework of Second Language Acquisition Ellis (1985) summarizing framework of second language acquisition provides a useful overview of research and theory. Ellis suggests that there are five interrelated fac- tors that govern the acquisition of a second language: situational factors, input, learner differences, learner processes and linguistic output Situational Factors Situational factors have an important effect on language production. Situational factors refer to who is talking to Whom, the environment of the Interaction, whether it is in a classroom, formal situation or in a naturalistic setting (e.g. a shop, a café or a basketball game) and the topic of the conversation, Linguistic Input Linguistic input concerns the type of second language input received when listening or reading in a second lan- ‘Buage. For example, how do teachers or native speakers. adjust their language to the level of second language leamers to make it comprehensible? What kind of differ- fences are there in the input from natural settings com- pared with formal classroom settings? In a behaviorist theory of language learning, precise and tight control of, input from the teacher is regarded as very important. The second language has to be presented in small, highly sequenced doses with plenty of practice and reinforce- ‘ment. Individual bricks need to be carefully laid in a precise sequence to bulld second language skills and habits. In contrast, Chomsky’s mentalist view of lan: guage acquisition regards input as merely activating the Ieamer’s internal language acquisition device. Input from a teacher sets the wheels in motion rather than creating the wheels of language. Current research and theory is between the behaviorist and the Chomskyan view point. Learning a language Is ‘ot simply putting bricks in place nor pressing the button to start the machine. Efficient and effective second lan- ‘guage leaming does not occur purely by the building of stimulus-response links. Nor does second language learning occur by merely exposing a child or adult to the second language. Providing input which suits the stage of development of the second language learner becomes important. A second language learner and a native speaker work together to produce purposeful and effi- cient communication. There are strategies and tactics t0 make conversation appropriate and meaningful. For example, finding topics of conversation that can be ‘mutually understood, speaking at a slow pace, repeating Important phrases, stressing the key words In a sentence 637 Day 4 (ophioral) SecTiON Four: BILINGUAL EDUCATION vill help the input factor in second language acquisition. ‘A learner will similarly give signals by verbal and non- verbal communication to indicate understanding, lack of understanding or to Indicate the need to switch topics ot level of language. ‘The input of language learning classrooms varies accord- ing to the type of second language learning occurring. Foreign language and second language classrooms have traditionally tended to focus more on the form of the lan- ‘guage (eg. grammar) rather than on meaning. in con trast, modern communicative approaches have placed the accent on communicating meaning, In genuinely bilingual classrooms, where the second language may be a medium of teaching in the curriculum, the focus may bbe more on meaning than on form. While the aim in both situations is to ensure the comprehensible input of the second language, input is different from intake. The learer receives ‘input of the second language from ‘outside’. Intake refers to the inner assimilation of that second language. Input does not always result in intake; only when there is intake does second language acquis tion occur Individual Learner Differences ‘An important part of Ellis’ (1985) framework is individual learner differences. Its populatly regarded that the level of proficiency a child attains in the second language Is not only a factor of exposure to various contexts and to classroom teaching methodology, itis also due 10 indi- vidual differences. For example, the age at which some- body leams a second language, their aptitude for learn- ing languages, cognitive style, motivation, attitude, previ cous knowledge, learning style, learning strategies and personality variables, such as anxiety, have variously been thought to influence second language acquisition, It is important to distinguish between variables on which there are individual differences (e.g. anxiety level) and ‘universal capabilities’ which are basic, shared features fof human beings. An example’ is Chomsky’ (1965) ‘dea of an innate, endowed capability for developing grammar. Available to all learners, universal capabilities fare a necessary condition for learning, However, they need to be viewed as a ‘prior assumption’ that will not ‘explain variations in second language leaming among leamers. ‘Variations among individual language learners create two different questions (Ellis, 1985). First, do individual dif- ferences in age and learning style, for example, result in children and adults following different routes in second language acquisition? Second, do individual differences affect the speed or rate at which second language acqui- 638 sition occurs and the level of final proficiency achieved? People who research on individual differences in second language acquisition tend to emphasize the importance of individual differences (Wong Fillmore, 1978). inbuilt into research designs is often the likelihood of finding signif- cant diflerences between learners. On the other hand, second language acquisition theory and research that concentrate on situation, input and process tend to de- emphasize the role of individual differences. While itis possible to list the factors which research has connected with more or less effective second language acquisition, what is unclear is the extent fo which those factors affect both the route and the rate of second lan- guage acquisition. For example, there is some evidence to suggest that extroversion and reduced inhibition may be connected to second language acquisition. In both these cases, the research Is not only methodologically weak (See Ellis, 1985) but also falls to examine, in an overall model, ‘the relative influence of these factors against other individual differences, situational factors and language input variables. Its possible to speciy a list of factors that appear to be related to second language acquisition. Self-esteem and self-concept, competitiveness in the classroom, anxiety that may facilitate or hinder learning, field independence a8 a cognitive style and social skills have each and all been related by research tothe degree of success in sec- cond language acquisition. On the other hand, the sepa- rate and interacting size of influence of each of these ingredients in the overall recipe Is not clear. Learner Processes Another part of Ellis’ (1985) framework is leamer processes. It is clearly insufficient to consider second language acquisition by external input and by second language output. The input that second language learn- ers receive is sifted, processed and organized. The teacher must have some insight Into the processing strategies of the learner in order to give the learner com prehensible input. One three-fold typology of leamer strategy is by Tarone (1980). First, there are learning strategies, that is ways in which the learner consciously and subconsciously processes second language input (c4g. memorization). Second, there are production strate- gies that comprise attempts to use second language knowledge in an efficient way. Third, a learner has com- munication strategies or the means of communicating with others in using the second language when there is a lack of linguistic proficiency. An alternative way of peering Into the black box of the mind is that of Chomsky (1965). Chomsky tends to depart from positing general cognitive strategy devices, claiming instead that there are mental mechanisms that are specifically linguistic. Chomsky describes this as the language acquisition device that contains an innate blue- print for a person to acquire a language. Chomsky thus proposed that between language input and language pro- duction Isa linguistic process that involves the activation. of universal principles of grammar with which the learn- eris endowed, Second Language Outputs ‘The final part of Ellis’ (1985) framework is second lan- guage outputs. The language proficiency of any learner at any one point of time Is best seen as: 1. Evolutionary and not fited. A language competence test as a measure of current language ourput should ideally reveal not just the current ceiling, but also the fittings and floors that need to be added and devel- oped. 2. Variable according to the context where the learner is placed. A learner may appear relatively fluent in @ restaurant or shop situation, yet much less fluent ina business or religious context ‘An important contribution to the idea of language output is by Swain (1985, 1986). Swain argues that the opportu- nity to engage in meaningful oral exchanges (in the clas room or in the community) is a necessary component in second language acquisition. In conveying meaning, a person learns about the structure and form of a language ‘Apperson may understand a language (passive, receptive skills) but, through lack of meaningful practice, speak that second language less than fluently. People learn to read by reading, and lear to write by writing. To speak, and to be understood when speaking, requires participa- tion in meaningful and realistic conversations. We learn to speak a second language when given the opportunity to speak It. Such opportunities may be too infrequent In language classrooms. “The danger of the classroom is that students may learn 10 read and write a second language but not to understand and use the spoken form. The classroom emphasis has traditionally been on writen correctness and not on spo: keen language skills. When a student has opportunities 10 use the spoken language outside the classroom (eg. in the street), language skills (eg. grammar, syntax and communication of meaning) may be considerably enhanced (Housen & Baetens Beardsmore, 1987: Baetens Beardsmore & Swain, 1985). [BILINGUALISAS AND SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION Further Reading LUIS, R, 1985, Understanding Second Language Acutton. Of Osi est Press RASHEN, SD. 1981 Second Language Acqiston ond Second LongogeLearing. One: Pepe res KRASHEN, 5. D., 1962, Pons and Prstes of Second Languge ‘Aegon, Oxo Pergamon Pres. MCLAUGHLIN. B, 1987, Teoter of Secont-Longuge Isom London: Edward Amold. oe " SPOLSKY, 8199, Contos fr Second Langage Laing. Oot Ontrd Univer Press STERN, 11H, 1985, Fundamental Conepts of Language Techn ‘Oxioed: Oxford University Press. nee : SWAIN, M._ 1986, Communlstve Competence: Some Ros of Comprchensble. Input and. Comprehenable Outpt in Development In L CUMMINS & A SWAIN Cet) ngusm In Escalon: New Yorks Longman, ‘of second language acquisiion ald appliéd linguistics“ “tin England) slapan andthe ned Ses Currently at “the Temple ‘University Philidelphia,*is prot ‘iting Wi ares ot second language agquli has ‘included major, books which have been inuential and: internationally. ‘widely adopted’ One. thorough review. - {depth of scholarship and, widih'o treatment inakeg 022 refers orbuton the ty. 639 Secrion Four: BILINGUAL EDUCATION 3: Theories of Second Language Acquisition and Learning ‘The topics of bilingualism and second language acquisi- tion are closely related. Becoming bilingual often involves. second language acquisition, either achieved formally (e.g. in the classroom) or informally (naturally, for example, in the sttet and playground, via television and radio). At the same tine, research into bilingualism feeds into the wide topic of second language acquisition. This topic outlines some of the key theories of second language acquisition. The essence of second language theories isto describe the individual and contextual con- ditions for efficient second language leaning to occur. Major theories or models of second language acquisition will now be discussed, highlighting particularly important ideas in second language acquisition. Lambert's Model of Second Language Learning Lambert's (1974) model is valuable because it combines both the individual and societal elements of bilingualism and is presented in a diagram below. It is the Important societal element of the model that is emphasized in the following discussion, ‘The model starts with an individual's attitudes and apti- tude towards a language. Aptitude and attitude are regarded as two major and relatively separate influences, fon becoming bilingual. (See Aptitude and Becoming Bilingual and Attitudes to Languages. pages 174 and oan 655.) For example, aptitude in learning a second tan: ‘guage may be an important factor in second language learning (Skehan, 1986). Similarly, the atitudes of a per son towards a language may be important not only in learning that language but also in retaining the language. ‘The next part of Lambert’ (1974) model is motivation — the readiness to engage in language learning or language activity. These three preceding factors all contribute to the third part of the model which is a person's bilingual Proficiency. Bilingual proficiency in its tum impacts upon a person's self-concept. For Lambert (1974), becoming bilingual or being bilin- {gual has effects on the self-esicem and the ego. Having ‘gained competence in a second language and being able to interact with a different language group may change ‘one's self-concept and self-esteem. An English monolin- gual who has learnt Spanish may develop new reference ‘groups and engage in new cultural activities that affect the self-concept. This suggests that bilingualism usually involves enculturation. Someone who Is bicultural or multicultural may have different aspirations, world views, values and beliefs because of being bilingual or ‘multilingual Lamberts (1974) model finishes with two alternative out- comes: additive or subtractive bilingualism (see page 154). This outcome can be interpreted both in personal and societal ways, When a second language and culture Wallace (Wally) Lambert ‘Wally Lambert was bom in 1922 In -Nova Scotia, in Canada. He. was educated: at Brown University, Cambridge University, Colgate University ‘and gained his PhD from the University of North Carotina, ‘Alor brit teaching posts inthe United States, Wally Lambert has been a Protestor in’ th Dapariment of Psychology MoGill_ University in: Montreal 160 1954, Wally Lambert has a reputation as a'gited teacher and this fs relected in the many publications that are co-authored with his research sludents He has been a visiing. Professor al. ten universities, served on many international committees, acted asa ‘Consultant for many inlerational organizations, has ‘been awarded four honorary doctorates and has.@ pub- lication record which stretches: from 1952.to:1994. In 1991, an

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