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INTRODUCTION
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1 INTRODUCTION
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a. Companies are required to ensure that seafarers who are newly assigned to a ship are
familiarized with their specific duties and with all ship arrangements, installations, equipment,
procedures and ship characteristics that are relevant to their routine or emergency duties.
Written instructions are to be issued by the company to each ship to ensure this ship-specific
familiarization takes place.
b. All persons who are employed or engaged on a seagoing ship other than passengers are
required to receive approved familiarization training in personal survival techniques or
receive sufficient information and instruction to be able to take care of themselves and take
proper action when an emergency condition develops. This includes locating and donning a
lifejacket, knowing what to do if a person falls overboard, and closing watertight doors.
c. Officers and ratings who are assigned specific duties and responsibilities related to cargo
or cargo equipment on tankers must complete an approved tanker familiarization course if
they have not had a minimum period of seagoing service on tankers.
d. Masters, officers and other personnel who are assigned specific duties and responsibilities
on board ro-ro passenger ships must complete familiarization training which covers subjects
such as operational limitations of ro-ro ships, procedures for opening and closing hull
openings, stability, and emergency procedures.
e. Masters, officers and other personnel who are assigned specific duties and responsibilities
on board passenger ships other than ro-ro passenger ships must complete familiarization
training which covers operational limitations of passenger ships.
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This course covers the requirements for level 1 and level 2 training required by
STCW 95 Chapter V Regulation V/1 - 1.2, 2.2 and Section A-V/1 regulations 15 - 21
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In the late 1920th transportation of liquefied gases in bulk started. In the very
beginning it was transportation of propane and butane in fully pressurised tanks.
When the steel quality became better and the knowledge about propane and butane
was better they started to carry those liquefied gases under temperature control.
From the mid-1960th we have carried fully refrigerated liquefied gases and now the
biggest gas carriers are more than 125 000 m3.
Liquefied gas is divided into different groups based on boiling point, chemical
bindings, toxicity and flammability. The different groups of gases have led to
different types of gas carriers and cargo containment system for gas carriers.
The IMO gas carrier code define liquefied gases as gases with vapour pressure
higher than 2,8 bar with temperature of 37,8oC.
IMO gas code chapter 19 defines which products that are liquefied gases and have to
be transported with gas carriers. Some products have vapour pressure less than 2,8
bar at 37,8oC, but are defined as liquefied gases and have to be transported
according to chapter 19 in IMO gas code. Propylene oxide and ethylene oxides are
defined as liquefied gases. Ethylene oxide has a vapour pressure at 37,8oC on 2,7
bar. To control temperature on ethylene oxide we must utilise indirect cargo cooling
plants.
Products not calculated as condensed gas, but still must be transported on gas
carriers, are specified in IMO’s gas code and IMO’s chemical code. The reason for
transportation of non-condensed gases on gas carriers is that the products must
have temperature control during transport because reactions from too high
temperature can occur.
Condensed gases are transported on gas carriers either by atmospheric pressure
(fully cooled) less than 0,7 bars, intermediate pressure (temperature controlled) 0,5
bars to 11 bars, or by full pressure (surrounding temperature) larger than 11 bars. It
is the strength and construction of the cargo tank that is conclusive to what over
pressure the gas can be transported.
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2.1 LPG
LPG - Liquefied Petroleum Gas is a definition of gases produced by wet gas or raw
oil. The LPG gases are taken out of the raw oil during refining, or from natural gas
separation. LPG gases are defined as propane, butane and a mixture of these. Large
atmospheric pressure gas carriers carry most of the LPG transported at sea.
However, some LPG is transported with intermediate pressure gas carriers. Fully
pressurised gas carriers mainly handle coastal trade. LPG can be cooled with water,
and most LPG carriers have direct cargo cooling plants that condenses the gas
against water.
The sea transport of LPG is mainly from The Persian Gulf to Japan and Korea. It is
also from the north- west Europe to USA, and from the western Mediterranean to
USA and Northwest Europe.
LPG is utilised for energy purposes and in the petro-chemical industry
2.2 LNG
LNG - Liquefied Natural Gas is a gas that is naturally in the earth. Mainly LNG
contains Methane, but also contains Ethane, Propane, Butane etc. About 95% of all
LNG are transported in pipelines from the gas fields to shore, for example, gas pipes
from the oil fields in the North Sea and down to Italy and Spain. Gas carriers
transport the remaining 5%. When LNG is transported on gas carriers, the ROB and
boil off from the cargo is utilised as fuel for propulsion of the vessel. Cargo cooling
plants for large LNG carriers are very large and expensive, and they will use a lot of
energy. Small LNG carriers have cargo-cooling plants, and can also be utilised for
LPG transportation.
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The sea transport of LNG is from the Persian Gulf and Indonesia to Japan, Korea and
from the Mediterranean to Northwest Europe and the East Coast of USA and from
Alaska to the Far East.
LNG is used for energy purposes and in the petro-chemical industry.
2.3 NGL
NGL - Natural Gas Liquid or wet gas is dissolved gas that exists in raw oil. The gas
separates by refining raw oil. The composition of wet gas varies from oil field to oil
filed. The wet gas consists of Ethane, LPG, Pentane and heavier fractions of
hydrocarbons or a mixture of these. Atmospheric pressure gas carriers and semi-
pressurised gas carriers carry the most of the wet gas.
Ethane can only be transported by semi-pressurised gas carriers, which have direct
cascade cooling plants and are allowed to carry cargo down to –104oC. This is
because Ethane has a boiling point at atmospheric pressure of –89oC. This will
create too high condense pressure if using water as cooling medium. The cargo is
condensed against Freon R22 or another cooling medium with boiling point at
atmospheric pressure lower than –20oC.
Wet gas is transported from the Persian Gulf to the East, Europe to USA and some
within Europe. There is also some transport of wet gas in the Caribbean to South
America.
NGL is utilised for energy purposes and in the petro-chemical industry.
2.5 LEG
LEG - Liquefied Ethylene Gas. This gas is not a natural product, but is produced by
cracked wet gas, such as, Ethane, Propane, and Butane or from Naphtha. Ethylene
has a boiling point at atmospheric pressure of -103,8oC, and therefore has be
transported in gas carriers equipped with cargo compartment that can bear such a
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Chlorine is a very toxic gas that can be produced by the dissolution of sodium
chloride in electrolysis. Because of the toxicity of Chlorine it is therefore transported
in small quantities, and must not be transported in a larger quantity than 1200m3.
The gas carrier carrying chlorine must be type 1G with independent type C tanks.
That means the cargo tank must, at the least, lie B/5 “Breadth/5” up to 11,5 meter
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from the ships side. To transport Chlorine, the requirements of IMO IGC code,
chapters 14, 17 and 19 must be fulfilled. Cooling of Chlorine requires indirect cargo
cooling plants.
The difference of Chlorine and other gases transported is that Chlorine is not
flammable.
Chlorine is utilised in producing chemicals and as bleaching agent in the cellulose
industry.
The chemical gases mentioned here are the gases produced chemically and are
defined in IMO’s rules as condensed gases. Because of the gases’ boiling point at
atmospheric pressure and special requirements for temperature control, these gases
must be carried on gas carriers as specified by the IMO gas code. Condensed gases
are liquids with a vapour pressure above 2,8 bars at 37,8oC. Chemical gases that are
mostly transported are Ethylene, Propylene, butadiene and VCM. Chemical gases
that have to be transported by gas carriers are those mentioned in chapter 19 in IMO
IGC code. There are, at all times, stringent demands for low oxygen content in the
cargo tank atmosphere, often below 0,2% by volume. This involves that we have to
use nitrogen to purge out air from the cargo compartment before loading those
products.
In addition, even though the vapour pressure does not exceed 2,8 bars at 37,8oC
such as, ethylene oxide and propylene oxide or a mixture of these, they are still in
the IMO gas code as condensed gases. Gas carriers that are allowed to transport
ethylene oxide or propylene oxide must be specially certified for this. Ethylene oxide
and propylene oxide have a boiling point at atmospheric pressure of respectively
11oC and 34oC and are therefore difficult to transport on tankers without indirect
cargo cooling plants. Ethylene oxide and propylene oxide can not be exposed to high
temperature and can therefore not be compressed in a direct cargo cooling plant.
Ethylene oxide must be transported on gas tanker type 1G.
Chemical gases like propylene, butadiene and VCM are transported with medium-
sized atmospheric pressure tankers from 12000 m3 to 56000 m3. Semi-pressurised
gas carriers are also used in chemical gas trade and then in smaller quantity as from
2500 m3 to 15000 m3.
Chemical gases are transported all over the world, and especially to the Far East
where there is a large growth in the petro-chemical industry. Chemical gases are
mainly utilised in the petro-chemical industry and rubber production.
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Cargo tanks that are built for fully refrigerated gas carriers, and tanks with MARVS
less than 0,7 bars, must at all times have full or partly secondary barrier. Secondary
barrier is a tank or hull construction built outside the cargo tank itself, either in the
insulation between cargo tank and hull, or in the hull around the cargo tank. If the
hull around the cargo tank is used, it will be the ballast tank, ships side or
cofferdams that is the secondary barrier. When utilising the hull around the cargo
tank as the secondary barrier the vessel is limited as it will not have the capability to
transport cargo colder than –55oC.
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Secondary barrier will prevent cargo liquid from any possible leaks coming from
the cargo tank cooling the environment around the cargo tank, for example the ship
sides. The secondary barrier must have a construction that, at a minimum, keeps the
cargo liquid away from the surroundings for at least 15 days and maintains its full
function at static lurch of 30o.
All cargo tanks on gas carriers are constructed to a given excess pressure and
vacuum. The safety valve’s maximum allowed set point, called MARVS, is stated in
accordance to specification and pressure test, stated by the manufacturer of the
cargo tank. The tolerance of vacuum on the cargo tanks is stated in bars, kg/cm2 or
percentage of vacuum. MARVS and vacuum for each cargo tank must be specified in
the vessels “Certificate of Fitness”.
US Coast Guard has more stringent rules for safety margins for pressure tanks than
IMO, this indicates that cargo compartment on gas carriers have different MARVS
pressures for IMO and USCG.
In hold spaces and inter barrier spaces there are demands for an own bilge system
that is independent from the vessel’s other bilge systems. This is arranged with
independent ejectors or bilge pumps in the spaces and usually one in each side of
the space. Inter barrier space is the space between the cargo tank and the
secondary barrier.
The bilge arrangement is meant to pump out the cargo if there has been a leakage
from the cargo tank. The system can also be utilised to remove water from the hold
space or inter barrier space if there is accumulation of condensed water. If we have
to pump water we must be sure that all connections to the loading system is
disconnected.
On atmospheric pressure tankers, hold space and inter barrier space must at all
times have a neutral atmosphere, either by dry inert or nitrogen when loaded with
flammable cargo.
Nitrogen or dry air must be utilised when the cargo content is Ammonia or non-
flammable cargo. When the cargo is Ammonia one must under no circumstance
utilise inert containing CO2 in the spaces, because Ammonia has a reaction on CO2
and form a material called Ammonium Carbamate
Integrated tanks
Membrane tanks
Semi - Membrane tanks
Independent tanks, type A, B, and C
The characteristics of integrated, membrane and semi membrane tanks is that they
all transfer static stress in the form of tank pressure to the hull around the cargo
tank when this is loaded. Independent tanks only transfer the weight of the cargo
tank and the cargo to the hull fundamentals, but does not transfer static pressure.
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takes up the thermal expansion. Normal excess pressure for such cargo tanks is 0,25
bars, and there are demands for secondary barrier.
We can utilise the hull as secondary barrier for cargo temperatures down to –55oC,
but we must utilise low temperature steel in the hull round the cargo tank.
Frequently ballast tanks or cofferdams form the hull structure around the cargo tank.
For cargo colder than –55oC a tank must be placed into the insulation as secondary
barrier. French Gaz-Transport patent utilise two identical membranes outside each
other as primary and secondary barriers, with 36% nickel steel or invar steel. The
insulation in Gaz-Transport patent is perlite filled with plywood boxes.
Technigaz membrane system utilises stainless steel in the main membrane and
veneer in the secondary membrane. The main membrane is welded together of small
plates by a special shaping so that the tank tolerates expansion, the plate thickness
is about 1,2 mm. The first tanks from Technigaz utilized veneer plates, as secondary
barrier and balsa as insulation. Polyester-coated aluminium foil is now utilised as
secondary barrier, and polyurethane foam for insulation. These tank types are
utilised on large LNG and LPG tankers.
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built in the insulation as secondary barrier. This tank type was designed for LPG
transportation, but no LPG tankers are built with this tank type. In recent years,
Japanese yards have started to utilise this tank type on large LPG tankers.
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Prismatic tanks are produced in aluminium or 3% nickel steel in stiff plates. The
tanks rest on reinforced plywood supports for free expansion. The tanks are normally
provided with centreline bulkhead to reduce the free liquid surface. The tanks are
insulated with polyurethane or perlite. Submerged pumps or deepwell pumps are
utilised as discharging pumps.
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Each of the groups is again divided into ship types dependent on the cargo's
hazardous properties (i.e.: toxicity, flammability, reactivity etc.). It is the ship
owner’s specification of the gas carrier, the international rules determined by IMO,
national rules and class companies rules that decide to which group and ship type
the carrier belongs.
All gas carriers classed according to IMO IGC Code for transportation of gases
mentioned in chapter 19, is given one of the following description types: 1G, 2G, 2PG
or 3G. Ship type 1G is the type that can carry all cargoes mentioned in chapter 19 of
the IGC Code, and has the largest rate of security to avoid pollution of the
environment.
Ship type 1G is a gas carrier that can carry all products mentioned in chapter 19 in
the IGC Code, and requires largest rate of security to prevent leakage from the
product to the surroundings.
Ship type 2G is a gas carrier that can carry the products marked in 2G, 2PG and 3G
in chapter 19 in the IGC Code, and that requires defensible security to prevent
leakage of the product.
Ship type 2PG is a gas carrier of 150 meters or less that can carry the products
marked 2PG or 3G in chapter 19 in the IGC Code, and that requires defensible
security to prevent leakage of the product. Also, where the product is transported in
independent tanks type C, which are designed for MARVS of at least 7 bars. Then,
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the cargo tank system is calculated for temperatures of –55oC or warmer. Gas
tankers of 150 meters or more, but with the same specification, as 2PG ships must
be calculated as 2G ships.
Ship type 3G is a gas carrier that can carry the products marked 3G in chapter 19 in
the IGC Code, and that requires moderate security to prevent leakage of the product.
The ship type is reported in column c in chapter 19 in the IGC Code.
The type of gas carrier is specified in the vessels IMO Certificate of Fitness. On the
certificate, there is also a product list of which products the vessel can carry. The
type description of the gas carrier is given by the year when the keel was laid and
the cargo tanks distance from ship side, damage stability, floating capability and of
what material the cargo tank is made.
As an example on ship type 1G, the cargo tank must lie at least B/5 parts up to 11,5
meters from the ship side. From the bottom plate and up to the tank no less than 2
meters or B/15 parts. B is equal to the vessel breadth. This type of carrier must
tolerate any damage to the ship side along the whole ship’s length. All information of
the demands made for the different ship types is located in IMO Gas Code, and all
gas tankers must have this publication onboard.
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These gas carriers are built in sizes up to about 3000 m3, and are built for an excess
pressure corresponding to an ambient temperature of 45oC. Propane has a saturation
pressure of 17,18 bars at 50oC. IMO has a requirement when building fully
pressurised tanks that they must be able to bear ambient (surroundings
temperature) cargo with a temperature on 45oC. The type of cargo determines the
excess pressure for which the tanks must be built. Normally, fully pressurised carriers
LPG have a relief valve setting at 18 bars, consequently, they can also carry
propylene in tropical waters.
This type of gas carrier is easy to operate, because the cargo does not need to be
cooled down on the sea voyage. To prevent vapour into the atmosphere when
loading, they can remove the excess vapour by having vapour return to shore. Fully
pressurised gas carriers don’t need discharge pumps in the cargo tanks, because the
excess tank pressure will discharge the liquid to shore. Hot gas from shore can be
used to hold the excess pressure in the cargo tank. If there is no utilisation of the
discharging pumps while discharging, the cargo tank’s excess pressure must at all
time be higher than the shore backpressure.
Some fully pressurised gas carriers are equipped with booster pump(s) (auxiliary
pump) on deck. This pump is used to discharge against a higher pressure than the
excess pressure in the cargo tanks. Booster pump is a one-stage centrifugal pump
installed on deck close to the ship manifold. Normally a booster pump manages to
increase the pressure up 9 bars. If the cargo tank’s pressure is 7 bars, then we can
manage 16 bars on the discharge line with the booster pump. We must bear in mind
that when running the booster pump against maximum pressure, the flow through
the pump is very low. We must always prime the booster pump before starting it,
generally by draining the discharge line to the ventilation mast. It is the pressure in
the shorelines that determines the manifold’s pressure and whether we should use
the booster pump or not.
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Fully pressurised gas carriers are equipped with a heat exchanger (cargo heater)
connected to the loading lines with vales and spool piece (adapter). When the heat
exchanger is not in use it is segregated from the liquid line. The heat exchanger is
used when we are loading a cargo with temperature below 0oC, for example,
propane at atmospheric pressure corresponding to –42,8oC directly into the vessels
cargo tanks. Then the cargo has to be heated to above –10oC before we load it down
to the cargo tank.
Fully pressurised gas carriers have a small cargo compressor to produce excess
pressure in the cargo tanks or remove over pressure from the cargo tanks. Vapour is
sucked from the cargo tanks to the compressor, and hot vapour is returned back to
the cargo tanks. These compressors are in general small, and are utilised only for
holding the temperature on the cargo.
Fully pressurised gas carriers are constructed with independent tank type C,
cylindrical or spherical tanks. These are tanks installed on “cradle-like” supports
down in the hold space (the space around the cargo tank), and the ship hull doesn’t
recover dynamic loads from the cargo tanks.
Actual cargo for fully pressurised carriers is LPG and some chemical gases. The kind
of cargo each vessel can carry is stated in the vessel’s IMO Certificate of Fitness.
Fully pressurised gas carriers are most utilised for carrying of ambient LPG and some
chemical gases as propylene, mainly in the Far East, South America, the Caribbean
and The Mediterranean.
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
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Advantages:
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Disadvantages:
They are small tankers, and have thereby low loading capacity.
Expensive to build in proportion to the cargo amount they can
transport.
The tankers are mainly designed for Chlorine.
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Propane, Butane and Ethane. There have been plans to build semi-pressurised
tankers up to 36000 m3, but they are still not built.
Semi-pressurised gas carriers have independent tanks type C either as cylinder or
spherical tank designed for tank pressure between 0,5 – 11 bars. Either nickel steel
or coal-manganese steel is used in the cargo tanks. Semi-pressurised carriers with
spherical tanks utilise the same steel quality as in cylinder tanks. The cylinder tanks
are often a combination of twin tanks that are situated longitudinally of the ship, and
a single situated abeam. The tanks are placed below deck, but some vessels also
have cargo tanks on deck. This information is, at all times, specified in IMO
Certificate of Fitness. In the IMO Certificate of Fitness, there is also a summary of
cargo the vessel can carry.
The tanks are placed in “cradle-like” constructions and are welded to one of the
cradles; the other cradle then functions as cargo tank support by expansion of the
tank. The tanks are either strapped down with steel bands or the brackets are
welded on to prevent the tanks from floating up. Between the cradle and the tank
shell there is a layer of hard wood that acts as a fender to prevent damage to the
cargo tank against the cradle, and acts as insulation against the steel in the cradle.
On some vessels, the cargo tanks are attached to one of the cradles, and free in the
other cradle for free expansion of the cargo tank. The spherical tanks are also
installed in a “cradle-like” construction, and brackets (anti float) are welded on top of
the cargo tank to prevent the cargo tanks from floating up. The support goes
towards a bracket in the hull of the tanker, either up under deck or in the ship side.
Actual cargoes for Semi-pressurised gas carriers are LPG, LEG, Ammonia, Ethylene
and some chemical gases.
Semi-pressurised gas carriers are the type of gas carriers that is most flexible for
change of cargo and cargo handling.
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
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Semi-pressurised tankers with deck cargo tank or some transverse cargo tanks can
have stability problems in loading/discharging. This is specified in the operating
manual and the stability book for the tanker, and the operators onboard must
consider this.
Advantages:
• The tankers are very flexible, can transport both chemicals and gas.
• Tanks and lines are stainless steel.
• Direct and indirect cooling/heating.
• Can load and discharge tempered cargo and fully cooled cargo down
to -104oC.
• Access to many smaller ports/harbours because of relatively little
draught.
Disadvantages:
• Expensive to build.
• Demanding to operate because of complicated cargo handling
equipment.
• Limited cargo volume because of the tanker’s size.
• The stability is a problem when loading/unloading when there are
many transverse cargo tanks or deck cargo tanks. This is specified
in the operational manual and the stability book.
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bulkhead is built to improve the stability on the carriers by reducing the effect of the
free liquid surface when the tanks are loaded.
There are normally one or more valves in the centre bulkhead that is called
intermediate valves. These intermediate valves are installed down in the pump sump
for the liquid to flow from one side to the other. It is important that the intermediate
valves are closed when there is no loading or discharging of cargo. Normally there
are two pumps in each cargo tank.
With the intermediate valves open, one can discharge the entire cargo tank with one
pump.
Fully refrigerated carriers with membrane tanks are without a centre bulkhead. Such
gas carriers are built with a trunk on deck that the membrane tank is formed out of,
and thereby reduces the effect of the free liquid surface.
Fully refrigerated carriers are generally equipped with the same cargo handling
equipment as Semi-pressurised carriers. Some carriers also have coils in the pump
sump that is used for liquid free the tank, hot gas is blown through the coils. Some
carriers are also equipped with strip lines in the tank that either are connected to
ejectors or transportable membrane pumps, this is utilised when loading naphtha
etc. Some atmospheric pressure tankers do not have booster pumps or heat
exchangers (cargo heaters).
Actual cargo for this type of gas carrier is LPG, Ammonia, Naphtha, and some
chemical gases, such as, Propylene, Butadiene and VCM. Information of the type of
cargo the tanker transports is located in IMO Certificate of Fitness.
When atmospheric pressure gas carrier are carrying flammable products, the hold
space or the inter-barrier space must have a content of neutral atmosphere with
either dry inert gas or dry nitrogen. When carrying non-flammable products, one
utilises dry air or dry nitrogen on the hold space.
This gas carrier type carries a lot of LPG from the Persian Gulf to the Far East and
USA. Ammonia is transported from The Black Sea to USA and the Far East.
Advantages:
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Disadvantages:
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LNG carriers have a special procedure for cooling the cargo tanks before loading,
which is specified in the tanker’s operation manuals and certificates. The tankers are
equipped with a spray plant where Methane is pumped into the tank’s spray line
(perforated lines), which is installed inside the cargo tank. Understandably, one must
cool the cargo tanks a considerable amount of degrees to be ready to load. One
must never begin to load a cargo tank before there is –136oC in the middle of the
tank, or by the tank’s equator.
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04- FREIGHTING
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FREIGHTING
The right to charter has an international colouring. This is naturally because the
activity over the world’s oceans is linking countries, nations and traditions closer
together and creates a need of uniformity. That is why common regulations
concerning transporting products is so important, but still there is a long way to go.
Ship trading is risky, and in extreme cases this fact was recognised in the days of
sail-ships. In these days the owners of the ships had a limited responsibility due to
miscalculations, and where held responsible the limitations to the area accounted for
was the value of the ship and the freight.
The rules concerning the responsibility during transport gives the answer to how far,
and to which extend, the owner is responsible to the economical loss the cargo
owner suffers by loss or damage on goods or by delay during the voyage while it still
was in the ship’s owner custody.
4.1 HISTORY
In the last century the ship owners signed off any responsibility due to damages
during the voyage. Clauses were made to liberate the owners from almost
everything. American cargo owners had agreements in the American court of law
saying that many of these clauses had no value, in other words: the clauses
liberating the ship owners responsibility due to miscalculations and negligence was
not valid.
The motion was against the hip owners both in USA and Europe. The ship owners
themselves decided that something had to be done, and in 1924 as a result of
several maritime court conferences, “Bill of Lading” convention was established,
called The Haag-Regulations. The Haag regulations was ratified of most maritime
trading nations, and this resulted in an almost united regulation of the most
important conflicts concerning transporting of goods, as well as the understanding of
what a bill of landing shall contain and the responsibility connected to the
information about the product.
Norway acknowledged the Haag regulations in 1938. Still the need to improve
existed and after the conference in Stockholm in 1963, another protocol was
developed with some proposals to improvements due to the Haag regulations. The
convention changed in constitution and now called the Haag-Visby regulations.
The Haag-Visby regulations represent no longer fully and updated international
accepted regulations, for instance to general cargo transporting.
A new conference was held in Hamburg and the purpose is that the Hamburg rules
shall take over for the Haag-Visby rules when they are ratified by a satisfactory
number of marine trading nations.
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Lading” has to be followed, and the amount the ship owner have to be responsible
to, must be, according to the responsibility rules and not a smaller amount.
On the other hand, the opportunity to commit the shipping company to be
responsible to a higher amount is available. So, there is no way to avoid the
regulations due to the bill of lading and the transport responsibility according to the
conclusions in the international Haag-Visby regulations.
In addition to the decisions by the court of law about the partner’s deal, the
customary practice will play an important role when it comes to how a freight
contract shall be understood.
When the partners implicated have come to an agreement, a contract is established
and ready to sign. This deal is called A «charter party». Such a deal was in the past
considered to be a quit simple document. This is not the case any more. A number of
the larger charterer have today their own charter party formula. It exists a number
of different charter party formulas due to load and trade. It is quit obvious that a
charter party for a load of cattle will have to consist of a number of regulations
totally different from a ship carrying a cargo of gas or a ship carrying crude oil.
In freighting, a number of expressions which is important to be fully aware the
meaning of, is used, therefore look at the enclosure list with commonly used
expressions in the end of this part of the compendium.
As mentioned before a «charter party» is a contract about a transport mission.
When the product is taken on board a document shall be issued called a “Bill of
Lading”. A Bill of Lading is a document confirming the acceptance of the cargo
(product) to carry from one determination place to the other.
In bill of lading the ship owner is described as the freighter of the cargo, and the one
who go cargo needed to be transported is called the charter.
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as quit and slow. When the market is active, it is referred to as a lively demand. The
freighting level will rarely be constant. In a n active market with lively demand the
freight rates increase. This due to the fact that both ship owner and the broker
instantly read which way the demand is going. Therefore the freight rate gets higher,
and because there is shortage of tonnage, the oil company has no other alternate
than to pay.
Similarly a quit market will lead the oil companies to acknowledge that there is no
competition in market, and that ships want contracts, and since several is competing,
the oil company can press the market down and have a ship with the lowest freight
rate signed up. How far down the rate is pressed is dependent of the conditions. A
ship owner will probably not choose to lay up the ship until the freight market is so
low that the transporting income does not cover the running costs. In a short period
the owners may choose to sail with loss, reading the market and consider this as a
temporary down period. It is really extremely expensive to lie up the ships and then
break open again. Further on the low rate over a longer period will lead to less
contracting. When the market is strong and active, will on the other hand the
contracting increase. The same is to be said about buying and selling «second hand
tonnage».
Later on we will, when viewing the different types of transport forms, discuss the
different shipping expressions. The shipping language itself is English, but what
make it difficult to understand is all the abbreviations and special expressions. Some
of these special expressions will be found in the loading instructions, so we will try to
get the most important ones with us. Since the wars ended oil tankers have
developed different rating systems, and the one valid these days is called «World
scale».
In world scale (World-wide Tanker Normal Freight Scale) is abbreviated to WS or W,
and we find a number of basis rates for oil cargo voyages between typical
disembarkation ports and receiving ports throughout the world.
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1. The ship owner is the one offering the ship services due to transport of
cargo
2. The charterer is the part who has cargo to transport and need tonnage.
3. The broker is the part negotiating a final contract between owner and
charterer.
The parts have start the negotiations, the picture above symbolise only the
negotiation, not the negotiation form.
Now a few words about the negotiations itself. Naturally no deepen details is
mentioned. Let us go back to the oil company which had a cargo of 4500 metric
tons from Al Jubail going to SE Asia:
The procedure in the negotiations can vary, but in this case the English broker sent
the order to several of his broker connections in countries which he meant had
suitable tonnage in hand, among others several Norwegian brokers. These brokers
passes on the request from the oil company to the different owner
connections.(many owners have their own charterer sections). Only few minutes
after the Oil Company informed the market about the cargo, the order came ticking
into the owners office around the world.
The owner «Transporter Gas» has just the oil tanker available, LPG «Seagull» which
can load about 4500 metric tons of propylene and is found in the right position to be
ready for loading at the requested time. The owner is Norwegian and it is morning,
and no especial time difference between London and Oslo, so the owner is ready to
set up LPG «Seagull». The owner work out the conditions and makes an offer which
the Oslo broker send via London to the oil company. This offer stand on hold for
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about half an hour in our example, «subject reply within 1230 hours», this is
due to the fact that a new opportunity is likely to occur sudden in the market, and
rapid replays is necessary.
Such a primer offer is usually very short , there is no negotiations yet, but it is a way
to check the interest in the market for business, «subj. Details and C/P
conditions».
Ref. your order Ras Tanura - Europe pleased to offer you: Subj. Replay
here 1230 hrs. Oslo time.
LPG «Seagull». 8250 metric tonn dwt. on 8,2 mtrs. Summer draft. (followed by
a short description of the ship).
Loa/beam: 126,1m/17,8m.
Blt: 1982/class GL/flag Norwegian.
Tank cap: 8073 cbm. (98%).
Last 3 cargoes: Propylene.
Cargo: Min. 4500 metric ton up to full cargo.
Segregation. Max. 2 grades within vessel’s natural
segr.
Load: One safe berth Al Jubail.
Disch. One safe port SE Asia.
Laycan: May 17/20 1994.
Rate: 68 USD/mt.
Demurrage: USD 14000 pdpr (per day pro rata)
Haag-Visby: Haag-Visby rules.
GA/ARB: (general average, arbitration) London,
English law to apply.
WSHT: (worldscale`s hours terms)-72hrs.
Laytime.
TTL(total) 2,5% commission on FRT/DEM.
CP form: ASBATANK (Tanker Voyage Charter
Party )
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Naturally, in the cards played one has to compromise, and after negotiating to and
from one agrees that the owner and the charterer commits to a rate on 62 USD/mt
and a DEM 9000.
When the negotiations are completed, the charterer send a rundown, where the
total contract is confirmed. The charter party is written later. The parts involved
have committed themselves on the basis of negotiations and the rundown which
have been read and accepted, but there is always written a charter party , and this is
functioning like a contract between the owner and charterer. Earlier this was a
relatively simple document written in a few lines describing the ship, cargo, freight
and the voyage. Today a charter party is a extensive document with standard
clauses which are supplied with several additional clauses (riders) which are fastened
to the charter party. These additional clauses is regulating the charterer special
needs or other more practical conditions connected to the transport.
Further on it can be clauses concerning responsibilities damaging the cargo, shut
downs, clauses of war, dividing expenses and other information about the ship,
which will be of interest to the charterer.
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The Bill of Lading shall state the day and place where issued along with the shipper’s
name.
In addition, a recipient Bill of Lading will state the destination for cargo delivery.
An Onboard Bill of Lading will provide the ship’s name, nationality and location where
the cargo was loaded.
Further, if the shipper demands, the following will be noted:
The type of cargo and either the cargo weight measure or quantity of goods, based
on the shipper’s written task.
The shipper will deliver the necessary identification marks in writing, before the
loading starts, provided that the marks are clearly indicated on the cargo.
The visible condition of the cargo.
On the receiver Bill of Lading, the day receiving the cargo. On the Onboard Bill of
Lading, the day when the loading ended.
Where to and to whom the cargo will be delivered.
The size of the freight and the other terms related to the transportation and the
cargo delivery.
The owner must be critical and should, of course, in no way avoid controlling the
shipper’s information, if there is any reason to suspect they are incorrect. If this is
the case, he must control the information himself to ensure accuracy.
The shipper is accountable to the owner for the accuracy of the cargo information
regarding his task or as requested in the Bill of Lading.
As receiver, the shipper can in the Bill of Lading suggest a special person, order or
holder. The person standing as a receiver can give this right to another who can
demand the cargo be delivered to him.
A Bill of Lading is issued in as many copies as the shipper demands, but the number
should be referred to in text and the wording should be similar.
The regulations concerning the Bill of Lading responsibility are very strict. This is
because a Bill of Lading is a negotiable document - a document which represents the
cargo (the cargo’s ID card) and which can be negotiable in form of buying and
selling several times during the ships voyage. Therefore, the information in the Bill of
Lading must be correct. The buyer of cargo, which is under transportation or
scheduled for transport, has paid for the cargo and in return was granted the Bill of
Lading. Upon arrival the buyer receives the cargo upon presenting the Bill of Lading.
A Bill of Lading functions as a certificate that the cargo is as described in the
document. Protests from the owner to the shipper cannot be set in force if the Bill of
Lading has been acquired from a credulous third person.
When the person at the receiver location shows a Bill of Lading, he is regarded as
the legitimate receiver of the cargo. It is enough that one Bill of Lading is presented
where several are issued, if the others are delivered to their right owners. (This will
be viewed on the next page, “Indemnity Clause”). If more receivers appear and can
legitimate themselves by presenting examples of the Bill of Lading, the cargo will be
held back until the correct receiver is found.
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We already have mentioned that the Bill of Lading represents the cargo, and that this
is valid as evidence -confirming- that the owner has accepted and loaded the cargo
when no other information is available. Counter evidence cannot be produced if the
Bill of Lading has been acquired in good faith from a third person.
If an owner knew, or ought to have known that information about the cargo was
incorrect, there is no way to be free of responsibility. The Bill of Lading must in such
a case show that this information proved otherwise.
The owner is also responsible to the third person if cargo damage or cargo lack has
been kept hidden without being noted in the Bill of Lading, even when the owner
should have discovered this information.
So, if the third party involved suffers loss when cashing in the Bill of Lading, trusting
that the information stated is correct, the owner will be responsible. This is true
when he has or should have realised that the information in this document was
incorrect, and could have caused misunderstandings for a third party.
Law in its execution forces Haag-Visby regulations. There is no way to avoid any
responsibility for the conditions.
The conditions in the Convention concerning responsibility for loss and damages is
not an impediment for changes in the preserving of the cargo and the handling
before loading and after discharging.
The owner, or someone he answers for, is responsible for losses regarding his
obligation to keep the ship in seaworthy condition at the start of the voyage.
The Haag-Visby regulation’s Bill of Lading paragraph does not apply to freight
contracts. However, if a Bill of Lading is issued under a charter party, it must satisfy
the conditions set in the Convention. The situation will then be to judge, based on
the Haag-Visby regulations for all Bill of Lading issued for transport of a cargo,
between two flag states when:
The Bill of Lading is issued in a country which has ratified the Convention, or:
The transport is from one port in a country using the Convention already, or:
The contract contains information which confirms that the country, according to its
Convention rules or laws, have agreed to use the Convention in the transport
situation.
When a ship is time chartered, the charterer will request that a Bill of Lading is
issued. The same regulations concerning responsibility is valid as long as a document
is issued. Also, the captain must make sure that no Bill of Lading is signed which
could lead to claims of responsibility against the owner which was caused by
incorrect description of the cargo. Here the same sort of difficulties as mentioned
earlier can occur, therefore any remark concerning the cargo and its condition etc.,
must be noted in the document before signing it. A charterer will press a captain to
issue a clean Bill of Lading regardless. Here the time charterer is important. A large
reputable company can accept a “Back Letter” or “Letter of Indemnity” as
satisfactory, but be careful and leave the decision to the owner. Be aware, that P/I
companies do not cover the owner’s loss if something goes wrong. The owner’s
would have to face claims of responsibility as a result of delivering cargo without
having accepted the necessary Bill of Lading from the receiver, as required by law.
When delivering cargo, the captain must ensure and control that the cargo is
exclusively delivered to the one presenting the original Bill of Lading. If another
receiver than the one presenting in the Bill of Lading appears, it necessary to
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examine if the person involved is right according to the transport declarations (notes
added on the back side of the Bill of Lading, will confirm this).
Besides, the ship’s captain must respond similarly due to the Bill of Lading, both
when on time charter party or travel charter party and in the owners regular trading.
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expenses which are specified in the charter party, unless other terms are agreed to.
Read the charter party.
In voyage freighting, the charterer makes an agreement on the freight before each
single voyage. The ship is paid based upon the transported quantity. We will view
the most important facts in the charter party negotiations.
We will look at a typical voyage charter party and go through the most important
content. As you will notice, this is divided in two, Part I and Part II. The
conclusions included in Part I have higher priority than the conditions in Part II.
According to common interpretations practice, the written word is preferred over the
printed, if these should come in conflict to each other. In the end of this chapter you
will find a copy of a voyage charter party “ASBATANKVOY” which we use as the
starting point here.
Preamble: Here is the information about the partners committed in this deal, as
described in Part I and Part II, and which ship this concerns.
PART I
A: Description and position of vessel: The ship’s loading capacity for the cargo
to be transported (on oil tankers it is smart to note the pumping capacity). The
loading capacity can be noted in i.e. m3 or in metric tonnes. Here we should
remember the expression: % MOLOO or % MOLCO. % MOLOO means “more or less
in owner’s option”, in other words, the ship’s captain can adjust the amount of cargo
as specified by a % up or down. % MOLCO means “charter option”. The position of
the ship and when it can be ready in loading port.
B: Lay days/Cancelling (lay/can May 17-20 1994): Lay/can estimates the time
frame (window) when the ship can arrive in loading port and be ready to load. If the
ship appears ahead of time, it cannot demand to start loading before the lay days
start, in this example 17th of May. If the ship arrives later than the cancelling date,
in this example the 20th of May, the charterer may cancel the contract or re-
negotiate.
E. Cargo description: It describes here how much and what kind of cargo the ship
should load. MOLOO & MOLCO are possibly used. If several grades are to be loaded
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F. Freight rate: Here the freight rate is given in World Scale or prize pr unit either
metric ton or cubic meter. World Scale is viewed earlier in this part of the
compendium. The freight incomes in our example should be based on the agreement
in the charter party, as follows: (185000 x 62 x 16,50): 100 = US dollar
1,892,550. For cargoes based on price pr. metric ton as in this example 65 USD/mt.
We then multiply rate with estimate cargo as e.g. 4500 mt x 65 USD/mt = 292 500
USD.
G. Freight payable to: Noted here is the name and address of the receiver of the
freight income. Paying currency is also noted.
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Based on these facts, we now know what the charterer has to pay the owner if all
delays are to be claimed on the terminals.
J. Commission of: Here it is written the percent owner has to pay e.g. 2,5%.
Signatures: Here the owner and the charterer’s broker sign the charter party.
This was Part I in the charter party. We will take a further look at the clauses in Part
II of the charter party.
Before looking at Part II, let us be enlightened on the issue “Subjects”!. Often the
charterer, before the affair is completed, takes into consideration certain
circumstances, i.e. the cargo can be delivered to the loading place (subject stem),
that the shipper accepts the ship, that the confirmation is approved be the
company’s management or that the cargo is being sold. Usually the agreement is a
fact when the agreement is abandoned. Until this is a fact, the owner is bound. If
the cargo is abandoned both parties are free.
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PART II.
Now we will look at some of the clauses written in Part II of “ASBATANKVOY”, you
must read the charter party very closely, this is IMPORTANT.
Warranty – Voyage – Cargo: (Clause 1) The vessel must have all certificates
valid that is required according to PART 1.
Dead freight: (clause 3) This clauses puts a claim on the charterer to come up
with full cargo for the ship, but if he does not, the owner will suffer a freight loss.
Full cargo is determined by what stands in the charter party Part I, A, iii. Therefore,
if the charterer does not deliver full cargo the charterer must pay dead freight costs.
Dead freight is the freight which compensates for the difference between the cargo
the ship could have loaded if the charterer had supplied full cargo versus the real
cargo the ship actually received. If the owner has had advantages like less
load/discharge expenses and shorter time in loading and discharging, then this will
be considered when calculating the dead freight. The owner should not be better off
than he would have been with full load. If the charterer does not deliver cargo at all,
the freight received is called fault freight.
For example, if our cargo is described at 4500 metric tonnes 5% MOLOO, the
maximum cargo the captain can request (4500 : 100 ) x 105 = 4725 metric
tonnes.
The charterer will not give the vessel more cargo than 4725 mt even if the captain
say he can take e.g. 4925 metric ton. When not receiving cargo the ship is booked
for, the captain has to deliver a written protest in the load port, and make the
shipper aware of the ship’s capacity to load more, and at the same time calculate
how much cargo is lacking.
In our example, we will find the dead freight claim based on the charter party.
Received cargo is 4650 metric tonnes. The ship can load 4725 metric tonnes
based the charter party.
The dead freight base will be: (4725 - 4650) = 75 metric tonnes.
Naming loading and discharging port: (clause 4) Charterer have to name the
load port 24 hours before the vessel readiness to sail from previous discharge port,
bunkering port or when the charter party is signed.
Laydays: (clause 5) Commence of laytime does not start before the date and time
stated in Part 1. If the vessel has not delivered NOR before 04:00 PM the cancelling
date the charterer have option to cancel the chart.
NOR is given when the ship arrives and is shown the waiting place. The lay time
starts to run 6 hours after NOR is sent. If the ship goes straight to port and starts
loading/discharging, the lay time starts to run even before the end of the first
mentioned 6 hours.
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This will be specially noted in the charter party. It is important that all hours,
concerning sending and receiving of NOR, is correct.
Running lay time is cancelled in the following situations:
Lay time: (clause 7). The determined number of hours for loading/discharging is
written in this clause. Note specially here “and all other Charter’s purpose
whatsoever”. The lay time only counts as long as the ship’s loading/discharging
capacity is fully used. If an impediment is caused due to the charterer’s
responsibilities, the time is counted.
Safe berthing/ Shifting: (clause 9) The charterer can rightfully shift the ship
within the limit of load/discharging port. The freight does not cover this, but the lay
time continues to run. The charterer must cover running expenses.
Pumping in and out: (clause 10). Cargo is loaded on the charterer account,
when the cargo is received onboard it is on the owners account.
Ice: (clause 14). The ship should not trade in ice or be forced to follow an
icebreaker. The important point here is that the ship's captain follow the nominated
ports at all times. Read this text thoroughly.
Agency: (clause 22). The company in the nominated load/discharging ports must
use the charter agent. These agents should be considered to be the owner’s agent
and is paid by the owner.
Oil pollution prevention: (clause 26) The owner shall ensure that the ship
captain is performing the following:
2. Oil and oily water should be collected in the ships slop tank while cleaning
tanks, and after a maximum settling time the separated water is pumped over
board as stipulated in MARPOL 73/78.
3. There after the charterer should be informed of the amount of oil and water
which is left on board in addition to details concerning slop left over from
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earlier voyages, called collected washings. The charterer has the right to
decide whether this slop will be delivered ashore or be kept on board to
eventually be loaded on top of this (LOT.)
Bills of Lading: This clause is extremely important and comprehensive and has to
be studied carefully. See the section of Bill of Lading chapter 3 in part 4
This was some of the printed clauses in Charter party ASBATANKVOY. The type of
charter party vary from company to company. In addition to the printed clauses we
have option to write specified clauses.
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the business and has, therefore, described the ship as positively as possible, but
since the charterer is paying he will watch the consumption from month to month.
A time-chartered ship is rented fully crewed and equipped, and the time charterer
shall operate the ship. The captain’s position on board can also appear difficult in this
connection. The owner employs him for the responsibility of the ship handling,
navigation and security. He also will take orders from the charterer concerning
loading, discharging and sailing. The charterer will of course be interested in a quick
load, quick sailing, and quick discharging. This can be a heavy load and interfere
both with the safety and the conditions of the ship which may not always be in the
interest of the owner. It is of extreme importance that the ships captain is not
influenced by the charterer on behalf of the owner, but still within reasonable limits
try to maintain a healthy relationship with the charterer. This relationship is very
important.
In voyage freighting the owner pays all expenses connected to the voyage. In a time
charter it is different, and therefore it is important to know whether the expense is
put on the charterer or the owner’s bill.
The owner company is obligated to have crew and a seaworthy ship at the
charterer’s disposal.
The ship is delivered when the owner can present the ship to the charterer, in a port
or out at sea at a determined position and on a determined date. The time charter is
payable from the moment the ship is delivered. If the delivery is executed in a port
the owner will, if nothing else is agreed to, pay the incoming expenses while the
charterer is paying the outgoing expenses. If the ship arrives at delivery port in
ballast, the usual procedure is to charge the charterer all the arrival expenses from
the time the ship embarked the pilot on board, if nothing else is agreed to. Upon
delivery time, it is important to check that all bunkers are surveyed on board. This is
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the owner’s property and must be paid for by the charterer. Usually both parties
sign a delivery certificate.
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Occasionally, the company reserves the right to insure the ship or at least the
charterer. If the charterer will arrange this before hand, then the terms must be
accepted regarding the insurance amount and the conditions. The company has to
make sure that the demise charter insures the ship responsibly and with a first class
insurance company.
Usually only the owner will pay the capital expenditures relating to the ship, but
other arrangements can be made. Some times the charterer reserves the right to
have some of their own senior officers on board the ship. The expenses connected to
this are agreed to before hand.
The demise charter is usually a long-term contract, and often in combination with
special finance and sales contracts. Often the charterer has an option to buy the ship
at the end of the charter party period. In other cases, it can be agreed that at the
end of the charter party period, the ownership passes to the demise charter.
With the demise charter, the demise charterer has bought the ship, paying the
freight in monthly terms. This has two elements - a freight element and a buying
element, which is already included in the monthly hire.
Now the charter party forms are viewed, and here we choose to enlighten you on the
word “Seaworthiness” as a conclusive and very important part of negotiated
contracts.
4.7.1 Seaworthiness
The owner is obligated to make a completely seaworthy ship available, if nothing else
is noted. Seaworthiness cover many areas we do not have in mind daily. The
following will illustrate “seaworthiness”:
If the charterer discovers lack of seaworthiness before a voyage he can demand this
to be improved within reasonable time, or in the worst case, cancel the contract.
When the voyage is started and lack of seaworthiness is discovered, the charterer
can not cancel the contract, but will then claim compensation for losses due to the
lack of seaworthiness. Still the assumption of delivering cargo from the charterer is
that the ship is seaworthy.
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4.7.3 Frozen in
If the ship is icebound because of the charter’s orders to lay in this specific port, the
charterer pays the time loss.
4.7.4 Maintenance
The owner of the vessel pays for classification, etc., all maintenance like docking
period and if the ship goes off-hire.
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The periodic table arranges the 106 elements in increasing number of electron
shells. Each vertical column is one of the periodic table’s main groups. The number
of electrons in the outer shell is always equal to the atom’s main group number. Two
of the main elements in the periodic system are Hydrogen and Helium, and fall under
group IA and VIIA. The atomic models are illustrated as follows:
Carbon falls under group IVA and has 4 electrons in the outer shell.
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It is therefore easy to emit one electron to elements within group VIIA, which has seven
electrons in the outer shell and is “short of” one electron to fill up the outer shell. Such
mutual sharing of an electron is called ion bonding. An example for such a bonding is
when Sodium (Na) and Chlorine (Cl) bond with one another and form Sodium chloride or
cooking salt.
Sodium “emits” the only electron to Chlorine, and is thereby positively charged.
Chlorine “receives” the electron and is thereby negatively charged. We call this
mutual sharing of electrons, covalent bonding. Covalent bonding is common in
both organic and inorganic chemical reactions. When two or more atoms bond
together, they form a molecule.
There are 8 side groups between the main groups IA and IIA. All the elements in
the side groups are metals, and they easily form alloys with one another.
The rows in the periodic chart indicate the periods. The 7 periods indicate the
number of electron shells. Sulphur is located in row 3 (period number 3) and has
thereby 3 shells. We also look at the electron shells as the electrons’ energy level.
The elements in group VIIA are named noble gases. Noble gases occur only in
atomic form.
Most inorganic elements are metals. The metals form metal bonding where the
atomic are organised close together.
The individual element has numbers from 1 to 106. The periodic system’s number is
the element’s atomic number. The atomic number also indicates the total number
of electrons in the atom.
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5.1.1 Carbon
You find the element Carbon in the main group IVA/period number 2, which has four
electrons in the outer shell number 2. The atomic number for carbon is 6, which
means there are totally 6 electrons divided between two electron shells with 4
electrons in the outer shell, and 2 electrons in the innermost.
There are many isotopes of carbon. Isotopes have the same number of protons, but
different number of neutron in the atomic nucleus. There are two natural forms of
Carbon, graphite and diamond. Carbon is not particular reactive in room
temperature. When heated, it will easily react with for example, Oxygen. We say that
carbon is combustible. The different products of the combustion are dependent of
accent to oxygen.
C + O2 = CO2 + 393 kJ (at complete combustion)
C + 0,5 O2 = CO + 113 kJ (at incomplete combustion)
Both reactions are exothermic, that means heat is produced in the chemical reaction.
Both reaction products are also gases. Carbon dioxide, CO2, is the product of
complete combustion of carbon and carbon monoxide, CO, which is the product of
incomplete combustion of carbon.
A partly incomplete combustion produces both less heat and more formation of
carbon monoxide than a complete combustion. Carbon monoxide is odorless and a
very poisonous gas that always is present in a real combustion process. Inert gas
produced in an inert gas generator or flue gas plant onboard will always contain
carbon monoxide due to incomplete combustion, especially when the air excess is
reduced.
Poisoning of carbon monoxide occurs because the hemoglobin in the blood reacts
much easier with CO than with oxygen. When you breathe a mixture of these two
gases, CO is thereby first absorbed in the blood and seizes the absorption of oxygen.
The result of this poisoning is a sort of suffocation at very low concentrations. These
relations are very important to notice. You must always check the cargo tank
atmosphere for carbon monoxide before personnel are allowed to enter the tank.
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Carbon has four electrons in the outer electron shell that can be divided with others.
You may look at the four electrons as four “arms” that can connected to the
hydrogen atom’s single “arm”, and creates hydrocarbon compounds.
Some of the hydrocarbon compounds are naturally created; other are only created in
chemical controlled processes. To simplify the overview of these natural
components, and all new hydrocarbon compounds that is created in the
petrochemical industry, the different hydrocarbon compounds are grouped
dependent of how the “arms” or the chemical bonding are between the two atoms.
The most important hydrocarbon groups are:
· Alkanes, also called Paraffin’s
· Alkyls
· Alkenes, also called Olefins
· Alkynes, also called Acetylides
· Alkadienes, also called Di-olefins
· Cyclo-alkanes
· Arenes
· Alcohol
· Aldehydes
· Ketones
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5.2.1 Alkanes
Alkanes are the simplest hydrocarbon compounds and is the major part of crude oil
and natural gas. The carbon atom’s four arms are united to the hydrogen atoms’
single arm and has this general molecule-formula:
All alkane compounds have the ending “-ane”. The gas methane is the smallest
molecule, and is the main component in natural gas. A methane molecule consists of
one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms.
By adding one carbon atom and two hydrogen atoms to methane, we get ethane,
which is the next component in this group.
By adding carbon atoms and hydrogen atoms, and at the same time maintain the
same simple form of binding, new alkanes are formed. The third component in the
alkane group is propane, C3H8.
When the number of carbon atoms increase, the number of possible bonding
between the atoms increase. You can arrange 20 carbon atoms and 42 hydrogen
atoms in 366319 different ways.
Many materials may have the same molecule formula, but the properties (boiling
point, density, etc.) are different because the atom structure is different. Such
bonding is called isometric bonding. Normal-butane and iso-butane are examples of
isomers where both have the same molecule formula, but different properties.
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n-Butane, C4H10
iso-Butane, C4H10
Chemical formulas and names are many times derived from each other. Pentane is
derived from the Greek word “pent”. That means “five”, it refers to the number of
carbon atoms in the material. Other names like methane and ethane are not
following this system. These names are called trivial names.
In the following list, some of the most common alkanes are listed with melting- and
boiling point at atmospheric pressure. Note that melting point and boiling point
increase by the length of chain for the straight-chained hydrocarbons.
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5.2.2 Alkyls
If one hydrogen atom is removed from an alkane molecule, an alkyl molecule is
created. The different compounds are named by the alkane, but with the ending “-yl”
instead of “-ane”.
The general molecule formula for alkyl groups are: CnH2n + 1
The compounds in this group are chemical products where the CH-group is attached
to various alcohol and chloride compounds.
5.2.3 Alkenes
You do not find alkenes in the natural forms. These compounds are produced in a
cracking process within the petrochemical industry. Alkenes are hydrocarbons with a
double bonding between two of the carbon atoms. The general molecule formula for
alkanes is:
CnH2n
The simplest alkene is ethylene, C2H4, that is produced by cracking of for example
propane, ethane, butane or naphtha.
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1-Pentene C5H10 6
1-Butene
Cis-2-Butene
Trans-2-Butene
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5.2.4 Alkadienes
Alkadienes are hydrocarbons with two doubles bonding in the molecule. The general
molecule formula for alkadienes is:
CnH2n - 2
Propadiene
1,3 Butadiene
5.2.5 Alkynes
Alkynes are hydrocarbons with a triple bonding between two carbon molecules.
The alkynes have the same general formula as for the alkadienes:
CnH2n - 2
Alkynes are unsaturated hydrocarbons, and form a homologous serial. The simplest
compound within this group is etyne, C2H2.
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5.2.7 Arenes
Arenes are cyclic, but unsaturated hydrocarbons because of its double bonding. The
compounds are aromatic. Benzene, which is very stabile and frequently used
together with other products in the petrochemical industry, is a well-known product
within this group.
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5.2.8 Alcohol’s
Alcohol are organic compounds where the functional group is the hydroxyl-group –
OH. All alcohol ends with “-ol”. The different alcohol’s are divided in subgroups,
dependent of the form of bonding.
5.2.9 Aldehydes
Aldehydes have one functional group –CHO.
5.2.10 Ketones
Ketones are compounds where the functional group is the carbon-group.
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When unsaturated chemical compounds are heated under pressure, the molecules
react with each other and form large molecules, so-called macromolecules. This is
called polymerisation. To start the reactions or to increase the velocity of reaction,
a catalyst is often used. A catalyst is a material that increases the velocity of reaction
in a chemical process without changing its own state.
Linear polyethylene is a plastic raw material, which is a polymer of ethylene
produced by polymerising ethylene with a peroxide catalyst. Benzol peroxide is an
example of peroxide used as a catalyst for production of polyethylene.
Other types of polymers are made of ethylene or together with other hydrocarbon.
The properties are different, and the plastic raw materials are used alone or together
with others when producing plastic products.
Most plastic raw materials are produced like this. Molecules or mixture of molecules
which is capable of polymerise, are called monomers. The number of monomers
taking part of a polymerisation may be many thousand. A linear polyethylene has a
molecular weight of more than 6000, others are considerably smaller. The molecular
weight is controlled by temperature, concentration of catalyst or amount of ethylene.
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It is not only the unsaturated hydrocarbon compound that may polymerise. In 1907,
Baekeland managed to control three-step polymerising with phenol and
formaldehyde. The product “Bakelite” was the first synthetic polymer that was
produced, and has great significance even today.
The following list demonstrates some of the most common plastic materials today,
and how they are produced:
The above mentioned inhibitors are only present in the liquid phase. In all
probability, dangerous peroxides will be formed inside the lines of the cooling plant’s
“condensate” system. It is recommended that these parts of the system are checked
regularly, when the inhibited cargo is cooled. Further, it is recommended to circulate
some inhibited liquid through the part of the system where “condensates” remains
without the inhibitor.
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Introductorily, we have said that polymerising can occur if the temperature is high
enough. The following restriction of maximum outlet temperatures from the
compressor is required:
· maximum 60 oC for butadiene
· maximum 90 oC for VCM
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A temperature difference has the same measured value in Kelvin as in the Celsius-
scale. Converting from Celsius to Kelvin is:
When a car decelerates, the velocity of the car delerates, the kinetic energy is
reduced. The temperature on the brakes rises simultaneously. An electric driven
compressor, which compresses the gas, increases the temperature of the gas, but
consumes electrical power simultaneously. If we switch on the hotplate, the
temperature rises, simultaneously the hotplate consumes electrical energy. When oil
burns, chemical combined energy falls as the temperature rises. Mutually, for all
these phenomena is that a temperature increase is in progress simultaneously as we
copy energy in one or another form. Mechanical energy, electrical energy, chemical
energy, or heating energy, are all expressions for energy that can be summarised as:
We will mainly go into two forms of energy in this compendium, potential (position)
energy and kinetic energy.
A temperature increase can take place by transfer of heat from one material to
another at lower temperature. It is natural to conclude that heat transfer is also a
form of energy transfer. Heat is often defined as the energy that is transferred from
one system to another, because of difference in temperature. We measure heat with
the same unit as all other forms of energy.
The heat (quantity) required to heat up one gram of water one degree Celsius at a
temperature of 14,5oC, is defined as one calorie (cal).
The SI-system uses the unit “Joule” for heat. If 41855 Joule is supplied to 1 kg water
at a temperature of 14,5oC, the temperature will rise 1K.
Conversion between the units calorie (cal) and Joule (J) is therefore;
One can transfer heat from one place to another in different methods. If an iron bar
is heated at one end, the whole bar will gradually be warm. The heat will spread
through the material and we say that the heat occurs as stationary thermal-
conductance.
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At thermal conducting, the heat is, at all times, deducting from a location with higher
temperature to a location with lower temperature. The speed of the thermal
conductance is a temporary dependent of the material. Metals are good heat
conductors, gases the inferior.
Stationary thermal conductance or heat flow through one level is defined as:
F = l/d x A x (T1 - T2) where:
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One can easily describe the different “pressure” by help of a diagram. The lowest
possible pressure that can exist is vacuum. Therefore one estimate absolute pressure
from this starting point. The pressure of the manometer is pressure above the
atmospheric pressure. As the atmospheric pressure will vary, the logical choice is to
show pressure dependent values as a function of absolute pressure, like for example
in thermal technical charts and diagrams.
On can use a mercury column or a water column, both to indicate atmospheric
pressure and excess pressure. A normal atmospheric pressure is defined as 760 mm
Hg.
The gravity of or the pressure that a liquid column of 760 mm Hg amounts to can be
calculated in this way:
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The cohesion is due to the fact that all substances (elements), including the smallest
parts in a substance, execute a mutual back sweep on each other. We therefore
have the same nature as the force of gravity. It decreases rapidly when the distance
between the smallest parts increases.
The expansion is due to the fact that the molecules in all substances, both solid, fluid
and gas forms execute movements or vibrations and therefore fill-up an entire room.
5.5.4 Fluids
Fluids have a fixed volume, but do not have any fixed form. To squeeze water in a
cylinder with tight-fitting piston is hard without using large power. Similar to the
molecules in solid substances, the molecules in a liquid substance have a certain
mutual distance between each other. The liquid molecules on the other hand have
no fixed positions according to each other. Liquid will always be shaped based on
where the liquid is stored. The cohesion force in liquids is not powerful enough to
prevent the molecules from moving freely according to each other. However, the
force is still strong enough to maintain the distance between each of the fixed
molecules. The expansion force is equal as in solid substances.
5.5.5 Gases
Gases have no fixed volume or fixed form. A gas will always try to fill as great a
volume as possible, and will therefore fill the room, the tank and so on, where the
gas is stored. The cohesion force in gas is too small to prevent the molecules from
changing both the distance and the position in accordance with each other. The
expansion force gets free scope and the gas expansion is total and unlimited. By
exposing gas to forces greater than the expansive force itself, the gas will be
compressed.
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5.5.7 Melting
When a solid, pure crystal substance is continuously supplied with heat, the
substance will melt. For example:
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solid substance, in order to reach the melting point where the change from solid to
liquid form occurs, is called the “melting heat”.
The heat needed to transform a solid substance at a given temperature, into a liquid
substance with the same temperature, is called the “specific melting heat”. The unit
for specific melting heat is Joule/kg.
The heat necessary to evaporate one kilo of a certain liquid substance is called
“specific melting heat”, abbreviated “r”. The unit for specific evaporation heat is J/k.
5.5.8 Enthalpy
A substance’s total energy consists of the external energy (work) plus the internal
energy. Enthalpy is an expression for a substance’s internal energy abbreviated “h”.
This enthalpy is an expression of how much energy is tied up in one kilo of the
substance. The unit for enthalpy is Joule/kg. The comparison of enthalpy to
temperature change of gradients shows how much energy is needed to be supplied
to bring ice through the three different stages.
5.5.9 Evaporation
A liquid change to gas is called evaporation. This may happen by evaporation or
boiling. To achieve evaporation, heat of evaporation is needed. Some liquids
evaporate very quickly, such as gasoline and ether. Other liquid substances
evaporate very slowly, such as in crude oil. Evaporation is vapour formed out of the
liquid surface and occurs at all temperatures.
This is explained by some of the liquid’s surface molecules being sent into the air,
which is strongest at high temperatures, dry air and fresh wind. The specific
temperature calls the amount of heat needed for one kilo of liquid with fixed
temperature to form into one kilo of steam with the same temperature”. The heat
from evaporation is set free when the steam forms to liquid again, or condenses.
The heat necessary to evaporate one kilo of a certain liquid is called “specific heat of
evaporation”, abbreviated as (r). The unit for specific heat of evaporation is J/kg.
5.5.10 Boiling
Boiling is steam formed internally in the liquid. The boiling occurs at a certain
temperature, called “the boiling point”. Water is heated in normal atmospheric
pressure (1 atm), in an open container. In common, some parts of air are always
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dissolved. The rise in temperature is read from a thermometer placed in the liquid’s
surface. When the temperature has reached 100oC, steam bubbles will form inside
the liquid substance, especially in the bottom of the container. With continuous heat
supply, the bubbling will rise like a stream towards the surface and further up into
the air. The water is boiling.
The formation of bubbling steam can be explained as follows:
During the heating, the water molecule’s kinetic energy increases, consequently the
molecules demand more space. During the boiling, as long as there is water in the
container, the temperature will be 100oC.
The boiling point is dependent upon the pressure. If the steam or the atmospheric
pressure increases above liquid substance, the boiling point will also rise. If the
surface temperature is just below the boiling temperature, then the water steam will
evaporate on the surface. The evaporation point and the boiling point will be the
same accordingly.
The pressure from the surrounding liquid is the total amount of pressure above the
liquid, Pa, plus the static liquid pressure.
P = Pa + (ρ x g x h )
P = pressure in Pascal (100 000 Pa + 1 bar)
Pa = barometer pressure
When reducing the pressure above the liquid, the boiling point will also be reduced.
A practical use of this characteristic is the production of fresh water on board (fresh
water generator).
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5.5.11 Condensation
Condensation is the opposite of evaporation. If a gas is to be changed to liquid at the
same temperature, we must remove the heat of evaporation from the gas. A gas can
be condensed at all temperatures below the critical temperature. By cooling a gas,
the molecule speed decreases hence the kinetic speed. The internal energy
decreases, as well as, the molecule units and liquid forms.
5.5.12 Distillation
Distillation is a transferring of liquid to vapour, hence the following condensing of
vapour to liquid. Substances, which were dissolved in the liquid, will remain as solid
substance. With distillation it is possible to separate what has been dissolved from
the substance which was being dissolved. When a mixture of two liquids with
different boiling point is heated, will the most volatile liquid evaporate first while the
remaining becomes richer on the less volatile? On board, for instance, seawater is
distillated by use of an evaporator.
The piston is pressed inwards, and now the manometer should show a rise in
pressure. But, the manometer shows an unchanged pressure regardless how much
the volume is reduced. What’s happening is, the further the piston is pressed
inwards, some parts of the steam is condensed more using less volume. The vapour
from the heating element removes the condensed heat, which is liberated during the
condensation process.
We find that the amount of steam, which is possible to contain per volume unit,
remains constant when the steam’s temperature is equal to the condensation point
at the set pressure. The room cannot absorb more vapour, it is saturated with steam
and called “saturated”. If the piston is pressed outwards, the pressure will still show
constant. The conclusion is:
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This also concerns vapour as saturated steam of other gases. Using the same
cylinder arrangement as before.
The cylinder contains saturated steam, no water. The piston is drawn outward.
When no water exists over the piston no new steam will be supplied underneath. The
manometer will now show reduced (falling) pressure as the steam expands. When
saturated steam expands without supplying new steam, it is called unsaturated
steam. The room has capacity to collect more steam.
The gas laws are laws that describe the basic facts for ideal gases. Many actual
gases under pressure and temperature that we normally get in touch with can not
observe as ideal gases. Calculations based one-sided of the gas laws, will therefore
necessarily often depart from reality.
The gas laws are meanwhile important by that the laws establish simple and clear
connections by the condition changes of the gases.
p x V = constant
One illustrate the law a by thinking a cylinder filled with gas. A well-adjusted piston
closes the gas inside the cylinder.
p1 x V1= p2 x V2
p2 = (p1 x V1) / V2
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The Boyles law agrees to good approach for air and hydrogen up to about 100
pressures of the atmosphere. For other gases as carbon dioxide, the law is only for
lower pressure.
If the pressure is 1 bar and the volume 1 litre before alteration, after reducing the
volume to half, the pressure will be:
Gay-Lussacs 1.law establish that the gas volume varies proportionally in condition
to the absolute temperature of the gas when the pressure is constant. The law can
also express as:
V1 / T1 = constant
The law can illustrate by thinking a cylinder filled with gas. A good adjusted piston
that moves free shuts the gas inside the cylinder.
The pressure in the gas is constant and determined by the weight of the piston. If
you heat the gas so that the temperature alters from T1 to T2, the volume alters
from V1 to V2. The new volume is:
V1 /T1 = V2 /T2
V2 = (V1 x T2) / T1
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One can illustrate the law by thinking a cylinder filled with water. The piston is locked
so that the volume stays the same.
If you heat the gas so that the temperature is altered from T1 to T2, the pressure
will alter from p1 to p2. The new pressure after heating will be:
p1 /T1 = p2 /T2
p2 = (p1 x T2) / T1
When the temperature rises, the volume increases. The read off values for
temperature and volume is close to a straight line. The differences are so small that
they are inside the accuracy. The line that emerges shows how the volume varies
with the temperature under constant pressure. The pressure will at all times during
the experiment be the total amount of the atmospheric pressure and the weight of
the mercury droplet.
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ptotal = p1 + p2 + ………….pn
The Dalton law is logical. Every gas fills all the volume, independent of other gas
molecules that are present. The molecules itself obtains itself an utmost small part of
the volume. Therefore every gas will have a pressure that responds to this.
One can also see the restriction of the law from this explanation. It has no longer
any existence when the pressure is so large that the molecules occupy a perceptible
part of the volume. It has also no accuracy when the gas molecules has influence on
one another, and also not if the gases has a chemical reaction against one another.
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Joules-Thompson effect
The Joules-Thompson effect describes the divergence from the Joules law of an
actual gas. According to Joules law, the temperature will not change if a gas expand
freely without working.
Practical the temperature will fall freely for most gases of hydrogen and helium that
is heated during expansion. When air expand from about 50 bar to the atmospheric
pressure, this is cooled with about 13K. It is the result of this effect one can observe
or feel when air or another gas is let out from an air bottle and the delivery valve
(expansion valve) is noticeable colder.
Cooling plants that are used on board expand the vaporisation of the gas. The
Joules-Thompson effect in such plants is insignificance and therefor not calculated
with.
Diffusion
Bromic gas that has a brown colour is well suited to demonstrate diffusion between
gases. If you fill a glass with bromic gas and a glass filled only with air on top, one
can after a while se that the content in both glasses is gradually brown-coloured.
Diffusion has taken place. In despite of that bromic gas has five times as large
density as air diffuses that gas up in the top glass with air.
All gases can mix at diffusion. As the molecules in the gases are accidental and
unorganised, a precise gas molecule will over time come any where in the room that
is available (according to the kinetic gas theory). From the kinetic gas theory it is
natural to draw the conclusion that the diffusion velocity is faster the larger velocity
the molecules have. At experimental experiments the Englishman Graham reached
following connections:
The diffusion velocity for a gas is converted with the square root of the density of the
gas and directly proportional to the square root of the absolute temperature.
These can mathematical express as:
v1/v2 = √r2/√r1
As equal volume of two gases contain, at the same pressure and temperature, that
same amount of molecules (Avogadros law), the state between the density of the
gases (p) and the masses of the individual molecules and the relative molecule
masses (M) be:
r1/r2 = M1/M2
From above mentioned two expressions, gases diffusion velocity can express as:
v1/v2 = √M2/√M1
This formula can be used to find how fast gases diffuse in proportion to one another.
When the molecule mass to nitrogen is 28 and the molecule mass to hydrogen er 2,
we find the relative diffusion velocity for nitrogen to:
v1/v2 = √M2/√M1 = √32/√2 = 4
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BASIC REFRIGERATION
There is seven different principals for cooling, but we are to concentrate
about the process that has been known the longest and that has the
largest distribution.
The process of evaporation is the process that is used at the most in modern cooling
technique. It is here the cooling medium evaporation heat that is utilised to transfer
heat from one place to another. For a liquid to evaporate one must supply heat to
the liquid. The heat is taken from the surroundings that thereby are cooled. In an air
condition plant on board, Freon liquid is lead into an evaporator, the heat from the
air is transferred to the liquid that evaporate, and the air is cooled.
One must here emphasise that there is always in speak of transport of heat from a
warmer media to a relative colder media. Equal that water flows from a higher level
to a lower because of that the gravity will heat from a higher temperature to a lower.
How can then heat transfer from the relative cold Freon gas that is sucked back to
the compressor and transfer to the relative much warmer seawater?
To elevate water from a lower to a higher level, work has to be done (by help of a
pump) of the water. To transport heat from a lower temperature to a higher or
likewise.
“Heat can only be transported from a body with low temperature to a body with
higher temperature by converting of mechanical work.”
It is this law that is utilised in any cooling plants or condensation plant for cargo on
gas ships. Heat is transferred from the relative cold cargo gas to the relative much
warmer seawater. For this to be possible one must perform a work on the gas by the
compressor compressing the gas to a higher pressure and temperature than the
seawater; and heat can thereby transfer from the gas to the seawater in a heat
exchanger. Since the compressor secures a continuous high pressure and
temperature in the heat exchanger, both the supplied heat quantity under
compression and the evaporation heat transfer to the seawater. The gas condenses
and is allowed back by a regulation valve and back into the tank.
The job of the regulation valve is to secure a liquid lock for thereby to maintain a
high pressure in the condenser, and to distinguish between the low-pressure side
and the high-pressure side in a condensation plant. Without this valve it is
impossible to maintain the condensation pressure and keep the cooling process up.
In many cooling plants thermostatic expansion valves are used at this purpose. A
thermostatic expansion valve is not regulated by the liquid level in a liquid collector
before the valve, but by the overheating temperature inside the evaporator.
Regardless of the valve is a regulation valve or a thermostatic expansion valve, the
job is the same and the valve has no “cooling technical” qualifications in itself. (ref.
Joules-Thompson effect).
On ships that transport condensed gases in bulk, the cargo in the cargo tanks will at
all times be in its boiling point. As the temperature difference between the cargo and
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the surroundings are partly very large, heat will transfer from the surroundings to the
cargo. Isolation will never prevent heat-transfer, only reducing this.
The heat to the cargo will lead to temperature increase with thereby following
pressure increase. This process will unprevented be in progress until the temperature
of the cargo is equal as the surrounding temperature. If the cargo is propylene and
the surroundings ambient temperature is 27oC, the pressure in the cargo tank will
gradually build up to about 11 bar. With exception of fully pressurised gas carriers,
there is no gas ship with cargo tanks that is constructed to resist such a pressure.
To maintain the tank pressure less than the pressure the cargo tanks is designed for
(MARVS), it is necessary to remove the supplied heat. This can be done in three
different ways. We can condensate the vapour back to the cargo tank, we can use
the vapour as fuel or we can blow the vapour out in the atmosphere. LNG ships use
the vapour in the propulsion machinery and that is a part of the chart.
How the cooling plant is constructed depends of the size of the ship and what kinds
of cargo the ship is built to carry. Roughly the cargo cooling plant is divided into in
three main types:
The diagram shows a saturation curve and the critical point for the most actual gas
cargo. It is here drawn a reflected boundary line at a condensing temperature of
37oC. We then suppose that the seawater temperature in the area the ship is trading
will be maximum 32oC and that the highest condensing temperature thereby is 37oC.
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6.2.2 Valves
The most common valves used on the cargo handling equipment on gas carriers are
ball valves, butterfly valves and seat valves. All valves used on cargo lines have to be
installed with flanges, and the valves must be electrically bonded to the line either
with steel wire or steel bands.
Frequently, particles are left between the valve ball and the valve house, and these
particles can easily cause damage to the valve seat and the ball. The valves must
from time to time be opened and the ball and seat have to be cleaned especially the
manifold valves. There is a drain hole on the ball itself. It is of importance to ensure
that when the valve is closed, the drain hole pointing where it is least natural
pressure, then the liquid inside the ball can be drained or boiled off. This prevents
large pressure inside the ball, liquid expansion and wreckage of the sealing devices
around the spherical occurs.
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Advantages:
Ball valves tolerate large pressure and thermal variations due to the shape of the
ball. Tolerates both gases and chemicals. Easy to maintain and overhaul.
Disadvantages:
The valves are expensive, and have costly spare parts. They can be difficult to shut
at temperatures down to –90oC and colder (this can be relieved by adding a thin
packer between the to parts of the valve house). Ball valves are unfavourable as
regulation valves, as it is difficult to adjust to low flow through the valve.
Advantages:
This type of valves has more reasonable price than ball valves. They have lower
weight than ball valves to corresponding pipe diameters. They are better than ball
valves for regulation of flow.
Disadvantages:
They are exposed to cavitation damage on the valve seat and flap when too high
liquid flow through the valve. They are less suitable at low temperatures than ball
valves.
Seat valves
Seat valves are frequently used as one-way valves (check valves) on loading lines, as
the pressure valve on the discharging pump, on condensate return lines back to the
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cargo tank and on the inert gas lines. Seat valves are opening by turn the spindle
anti clockwise and the valve seat can wander freely on the spindle. When the
pressure increases in the line under the valve seat, the seat is lifted up and the valve
is open. When the pressure ceases under the valve seat or the pressure increases
above the valve seat, the valve seat will drop down and shut the valve. Opening or
choking the valve regulates the amount of flow through the valve.
Seat valves that are used as check valves, must be overhauled at regular intervals,
and especially the seat and contact faces must be polished/grounded as they are
expelled for mark and wear and tear when the valve operates often. The seat valves
must also be moved regularly when they are not in use for a long period of time.
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Advantages:
The seal valves are reliable and simple to operate. Have large range of utilisation.
Have few wearing parts. Reasonable to maintain.
Disadvantages:
Require strict inspection. Start leaking if wrongly operated.
Needle valves
Needle valves are used for regulation of cargo cooling plants, both air regulation and
for regulation of Freon in cascade cooling plants. The needle valve is the valve type
that empirically is best suited for regulation of low flow volume.
HEAT EXCHANGER
Heat exchangers are utilised in several different parts of cargo handling on gas
carriers, as heat exchangers (cargo heater), condensers for cargo cooling plant,
vapour risers, super heaters and oil coolers for compressors. In most of the heat
exchangers seawater is used as the medium on gas carriers, which the products are
cooled or heated against.
The heat exchangers that are used for cargo handling must be designed and tested
to tolerate the products the gas carrier is certified for. Heat exchangers that are used
for cargo handling are considered as pressure vessels, and IMO requires one safety
valve if the pressure vessel is less than 20 m3 and two safety valves if it is above 20
m3. All heat exchangers that are used for cargo handling must be pressure tested
and certified by the gas carriers Class Company.
Heat exchangers where water is used as the medium and are utilised for heating
have little or no effect with water temperature less than 10oC. Seawater became ice
at about 0oC and starts to free out salt at about 50oC. So with operating
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temperatures with a larger variation than from 10oC to 45oC, one ought to use
another cooling medium than seawater. Some terminals do not accept water as
medium in heat exchangers, therefore one must either heat the cargo on route at
sea or the gas carrier must have heat exchangers that do not use water as medium.
It is of importance to ensure that the water out of a heat exchanger is never below
5oC. These prevent the water in the heat exchanger from freezing and eventually
damage the heat exchanger.
Tube heat exchangers are produced with tube bundles either as straightened pipes
or u-formed pipes placed into a chamber. The pipes in the tube bundle have an
inside diameter on 10 to 20 millimetres. There is a cover installed on each end of the
chamber to clean the pipes more easily and maintain these. It is, at all times,
important to ensure that the velocity of the liquid that is being pumped through the
heat exchanger is not too high, to prevent cavity damage in the tube bundle or the
end covers.
The tube bundle is made of stainless steel, carbon steel, copper-nickel alloy,
aluminium-brass alloy or titan.
Which choice of material one decides to choose, depends on the product one will
operate and the costs associated with the investment and maintenance.
In tube heat exchangers, where seawater is used as medium, the product to be
heated goes in the tube bundle. This prevents remaining seawater from freezing or
prevents
remnants of salt deposits inside the tubes. Tube heat exchangers must at regular
intervals be cleaned to prevent particles from settling inside the tubes in the tube
bundle or in the end covers. One must closely check for cavity damage when
cleaning the heat exchanger. Ensure that the gasket is produced in a quality that
tolerates the products and temperature one operates it with. Also, ensure that the
gasket is correctly placed.
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Plate heat exchangers are more utilised in cold storage plants on shore, for example
in the fish industry and the meat industry. Plate heat exchangers are built with thin
plates with double liquid channels. The plates are installed with the flat side toward
each other. The cooling medium and product are pumped each way in the channels
to achieve the best possible cooling or heating. Water or oil is used as the cooling
medium and is dependent upon the temperature of the product that is to be cooled
or heated. Plate heat exchangers are also used as condensers on newer cargo
cooling plants aboard gas tankers.
Plate heat exchangers must be cleaned at regular intervals to prevent the channels
from clogging with salt deposits or particles from the medium or the product. One
must ensure, after cleaning, that the gaskets are properly placed, and that one uses
gaskets that tolerate the medium and temperatures one operates within the heat
exchanger
Different heat exchangers utilised onboard gas carriers for cargo handling
Cargo heater:
A cargo heater is used to heat the cargo when discharging to an ambient shore tank.
A cargo heater is also used when loading a fully pressurised gas carrier with cargo
with temperature less than –10oC. Seawater or oil is used to heat the cargo in the
cargo heater. It is of importance to remember that the cargo heater is full of water
and have good flow out with water before letting cold cargo into the heater. Fully
pressurised gas carriers are carriers that are designed to transport condensed gases
at ambient temperature, and they normally don’t have cargo cooling plant.
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CARGO CONDENSER:
Cargo condensers in a direct cargo cooling plant condensate the vapour against sea
water, Freon or other medium as propylene after it is compressed in the cargo
compressor. Cargo condensers in a direct cargo cooling plant can on some gas
carriers also be used as cargo heaters and are designed in low temperature steel that
tolerates a minimum of –50oC.
Intermediate cooler
An intermediate cooler is used in a 2-stage direct cargo cooling plant and cascade
cooling plant. Vapour from the first stage on the cargo compressor is pressed down
on the bottom of the intermediate cooler and is condensed against the cargo liquid in
the bottom. The cargo compressor’s 2nd stage sucks simultaneously from the top of
the intermediate cooler to keep the pressure down. Floaters or D/P-cells regulate the
liquid level in the intermediate cooler. The condensate inside the coil came from the
cargo condenser and is under cooled by the liquid in the intermediate cooler before it
is pressured further back to the cargo tank.
Sketch of intermediate cooler
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Freon condenser:
Water is used to condense Freon in the Freon condenser in a cascade cooling plant.
The liquefied Freon is used to condensate the cargo in the cascade cooling plant’s
cargo condenser. Liquefied Freon is also used in indirect cargo cooling plants. The
condensate is then pumped in pipe coils, and cools either directly on the tank steel or
as a cooling medium for ethanol or other mediums.
Vapour riser:
A vapour riser is used to produce vapour from the cargo liquid. Steam or heated oil is
used to heat up and vapour rise the liquid. The liquid is pumped from one of the
cargo tank, deck storage vessel or from a shore tank and into the vapour riser. The
vapour is used to gas up or maintains the pressure in one or several cargo tanks.
Oil coolers:
The cargo cooling plants oil coolers use water as a cooling media. The oil coolers
must hold the oil temperature on the different compressors within the specifications
determined by the manufacturer of the cargo cooling plant.
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The advantage with screw compressors is that they wear few parts and have low
weight in proportion to cooling capacity. Oil free screw compressors are operated by
electric motors with a constant number of revolutions and have a gear transmission
for the compressor, which has approx. 12000 rpm. The high speed prevents leakage
between the pressure and suction side. Screw compressors with oil injection in the
rotor house have a lower number of revolutions, about 3500 rpm. One can also use
electric motors with direct shaft transmission.
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Oil free screw compressors are used on the cargo side. On the Freon side,
compressors with oil injection are used. The oil causes a film on the outside of the
rotors that prevents leakage between the pressure and suction side. This
compensates for the temperature difference inside the compressor. The capacity of
screw compressors is adjusted by a slide, which is inside the compressor. However,
when we reduce the capacity the excess gas flows back to the suction side. Screw
compressors are not destroyed if they suck liquid, as we find with piston
compressors.
Cargo compressors with motors that are installed inside a deckhouse have two parts,
one room for the compressors and one room for the motors. The room where the
motors are installed is gas safe with a constant excess pressure of air preventing
flammable gas from flowing in. If the excess pressure is too low, the power to the
electric motor room will be shut off and the cargo cooling plant stops. The shaft from
the electric motor room to the compressor room is rendered gas-tight. A mechanical
seal device with automatic oil lubrication is normally used. To prevent bearing
breakdown, it is important that electric motors and compressors are aligned
according to specifications from the manufacturer of the compressor and motor.
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6.4.9 Indirect cargo cooling plant with utilisation of Ethanol in coil round
the cargo tank
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Direct cargo cooling plants are operated as one or multistage, dependent upon the
type of compressor, the cargo and the temperature on the seawater. Most gas
carriers that are designed for LPG have direct cargo cooling plants that can be
operated as a one-stage or multistage operation.
With one-stage direct cooling, vapour is sucked by the cargo compressor from the
cargo tanks. The vapour is then pressed to the condenser and assembles in the
liquid collector. The liquid level in the collector is regulated either by two floaters or
the differential pressure above the liquid level in the liquid collector. The condensate
is pressured back to the cargo tank from the liquid collector via a regulation valve
and in the condensate return line. To use one-stage cooling, the pressure difference
between tank pressure and condensate pressure must be less than 6 bars.
With 2nd stage direct cooling without an intermediate cooler the cargo compressor
sucks from the cargo tank with the 1st stage cylinder. The vapour is thereby pressed
to the compressors 2nd stage suction side and then to the cargo condenser where
the vapour is condensed against seawater and collected in the liquid collector. The
liquid is pressured back to the cargo tank via a regulation valve and the condensate
return line from the liquid collector. The pressure in the liquid collector is equal to the
pressure in the cargo condenser, and is at all times higher than the cargo tank
pressure. 2nd stage direct cargo cooling plant is delivered with or without an
intermediate cooler.
Some direct cargo cooling plants are delivered with intermediate cooler
(inter cooler), this achieves lower temperature and pressure on the 2nd
stage suction side.
These cargo cooling plants are used on semi-pressurised LPG carriers and
atmospheric pressure LPG/ NH3 carriers.
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On the cargo side in a cascade cooling plant there is mostly 2nd stage direct cargo
cooling plant equipped with compressor, intermediate cooler, cargo condenser, liquid
collector and regulation valve.
The vapour is sucked from the cargo tank and into the cargo compressor’s 1st stage.
The vapour is then pressured to the intermediate cooler where it is condensed
against the liquid in the bottom of the intermediate cooler. The cargo compressor
sucks vapour with the 2nd stage from the top of the intermediate cooler and press
the vapour to the cargo condenser where the gas is condensed against Freon. The
condensate is then pressured against a coil in the intermediate cooler and further
through a regulation valve to the condensate line, and back to the cargo tank.
This type of cargo cooling plant is used on semi-pressurised LPG and LEG carriers,
and on large atmospheric pressure LPG carriers. A cascade cooling plant must be
used for condensation of Ethane and Ethylene, but can also be used for Propane,
Ammonia and Propylene. Some cascade cooling plants are constructed for use as a
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two or one-stage direct cargo cooling plant. Generally when cooling Butane,
Butadiene or VCM one can also condensate Propane and Propylene directly if the
seawater temperature is low enough.
This type of cargo cooling plant has a lower dependency of the seawater
temperature than a direct cooling plant. The larger volume of Freon, seawater
temperature has less influence on the plant. It is difficult to cool regardless of the
kind of cooling plant’s if the surrounding temperature e.g. seawater temperature is
higher than 35oC.
On gas carriers inert gas is used for different purposes, some are requirements
other is to maintain the ships hull and spaces:
· Elimination of cargo vapour from the cargo tank when gas freeing
If the cargo is Ammonia, one must not use inert gas that contains carbon dioxide,
only dry air or nitrogen, because carbon dioxide reacts chemically with Ammonia. It
is always beneficial to keep spaces around the cargo tanks dry.
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After the scrubber the inert gas is cooled in a dryer to reduce the dew point. With
use of Freon dryer the dew point will be minimum 5oC. Water is condensed out while
the dew point is reduced and we have to avoid temperature to sink below 0oC so we
do not clog the inert channel with ice.
In an absorption dryer the inert gas is compressed with a compressor and pumped
through a material that absorbs water and the dew point sinks to minimum –80oC.
Strict demands are made regarding inert gas plants on gas carriers. IMO makes
demands for maximum content of 5% O2 by volume. Inert gas is produced on gas
tankers by their own inert gas generator. Inert gas produces by consuming gas oil,
diesel oil or light fuel oil. The O2 content in the inert gas adjusts by quantity of air
added to the oil that is injected into the combustion chamber.
To achieve as pure inert gas as possible, very good combustion is required. A rich
oil/air mixture gives a lot of carbon, high content with Carbon monoxide and low O2
content. A lean mixture (more air) gives higher O2%, less carbon and less carbon
monoxide. The air/oil mixture is produced manually or automatically on the control
board.
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6.5.2 O2 Control
O2 analyser is connected to a two-way valve where the inert gas either can be sent
to a ventilation mast or to a consumption unit (dryer, tanker). The limit value is set
manually between 5% by volume O2 and the minimum value for the inert gas
generator for example 0,3% by volume O2. The inert gas then automatically goes to
the vent mast if the O2 content reaches more than 5% by volume or below 0,3% by
volume. O2 content is set to the required O2 volume, for example 1% by volume.
The inert will then go to the dryer and is consumed when the O2 content is between
1% and 0,3%.
6.5.3 Drying
The inert gas is saturated with water when it comes out of the scrubber, that means
100% humidity. The temperature on the inert gas after the scrubber is about 5oC
above the seawater temperature.
The inert gas therefore must be dried before it is sent to the cargo tanks, hold space
or inter barrier space to prevent condensing of water into the tanks or spaces. The
inert gas temperature should be higher than the atmosphere that one will inert. Inert
gas dryer is a Freon heat exchanger, absorption dryer or a combination of both.
Freon dryer are frequently used and require less space in proportion to an absorption
dryer. The principle with the Freon dryer is that Freon flows through small pipes in
the inert gas channel. The inert gas is cooled down and thereby condensate the
water from the inert gas when it passes the Freon pipes. The Freon is condensed in
its own cooling plant. The temperature of the inert gas after the Freon heat
exchanger must not be less than 5oC. The inert gas that comes out of the Freon
dryer has a dew point of about 5oC and a water content of 6,75 gram per m3 inert
gas.
With use of absorption drier the inert gas is then pressed through a medium that
absorbs water, for example silica gel or Aluminium Oxide. The inert gas has a
temperature a bit above seawater temperature when entering into the dryer blower.
The temperature of the inert gas is higher when it emerges from the dryer, from
30oC to 60oC, depending on the required dew point. The result of temperature
increase is that the compressor compresses the inert gas. One can have an inert gas
dew point down to –80oC with an absorption dryer, but the inert gas volume that is
delivered for consumption decreases. The inert gas contains 0,0013 gram water pr
m3 at a dew point of –60oC. Inert gas with temperature of 40oC and dew point at –
60oC has a relative humidity of 0,025%.
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An inert gas heater is a heat exchanger where steam or an electrical coil is used for
heating the inert gas. The dried inert gas can absorb more humidity when it is
heated. Heating reduces the relative humidity on the inert gas. The relative humidity
is 28,72% at a temperature of 25oC with Freon dryer and an inert gas dew point of
5oC. If the inert gas is heated to 50oC, the relative humidity will sink down to
8,13%. It is of importance that one first removes humidity, and thereby heats the
inert gas so it can absorb more humidity.
The inert gas dryer and heater can also be used in connection with venting tanks and
spaces with air.
To maintain the function of the inert gas generator to specification, one must run it
regularly, generally once a week and preferably several hours each time. This is a
good opportunity to refill spaces and lines, which are not used.
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A Drying tower
B Tower that is dried
C Heater
D Cooler
E Fan
F Water separator
S Solenoid valves
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AFETY VALVES
Gas carriers must have safety valves on all cargo tanks, spaces and cargo lines
where cargo liquid residue may remain. Cargo tank’s safety valves are either pilot
(pressure loaded) or spring loaded valves. Spring-loaded valves are normally used on
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fully pressurised tankers and semi pressurised tankers with a tank pressure above
0,7 bars and on cargo lines. The pressure loaded valves are normally used on
atmospheric pressure tankers and semi pressurised tankers.
There must be two safety valves on all kinds of pressure vessels on more than 20
m3. There are also demands that there is a safety valve on all kinds of pressure
vessels below 20 m3. The maximum set pressure on a cargo tank’s safety valves
depends on the cargo tank MARVS. MARVS is maximum allowed safety valve set
point. The pressure required by MARVS is located in the gas carriers IMO Certificate
of Fitness. The cargo tank safety valve must be located on the tank’s highest point
above deck. Each safety valve must be connected to vent mast without impediment
or valves.
The vent mast’s outlet must be at least B/3 or 6 meter above weather deck or
gangway, B is the ships breadth. The distance should at least B or 25 meters from
the nearest air inlet or opening in the accommodation. This distance can be
shortened for gas carriers of less than 90 meters in length, but the flag state
authorities, for example Norwegian Maritime Directorate, must approve it.
All safety valves on cargo tanks must be prototype tested and approved by IMO and
the gas carriers class company. The cargo tank’s safety valves must be tested within
the IMO limits +-10% for 0 to 1,5 bars, +-6% for 1,5 to 3 bars and +-3% for 3 bars
and higher pressure. The tanker’s class company has to seal the safety valves after
authorised personnel have tested and calibrated the safety valves.
Safety valves used on cargo tanks have one or more pilots to hold the valve closed.
The safety valve contains of an adjusting spring, three membranes, two valve seats,
an exhaust pipe and an equalising pipe. The pilot is adjusted by a pilot spring in
order to get the needed pressure, for example 0,5 bars.
The pilot valve’s seat is attached to two membranes and the pilot spring. The pilot
main valve seat is attached to the main valve membrane. The pilot valve is
connected to a pipe on the highest point on the cargo tank.
There is the same pressure below and above the main valve seat and on the below
the boost membrane when the pilot valve is shut. When the pressure in the cargo
tank is higher than the pilot valve’s setting, the boost membrane will lift, pull the
pilot seat up and the pressure above the main valve membrane is ventilated to the
atmosphere. The pressure will now be higher above the main valve seat than below
and the valve is open and vapour is ventilated to the vent mast.
When the cargo tank pressure sinks again, the boost membrane will sink and the
pilot seat will go to the shut position. The pressure above the main valve membrane
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increases to the same pressure as in the cargo tank. The main valve seat will then be
closed and the valve shut.
There are extra setters that are installed on the pilot valve to achieve the right set
point on fully pressurised tankers and semi-pressurised tankers. The setter consists
of an adjusting spring with spring tension equal to the pressure, for example 2,3
bars. When the setter is screwed down on the pilot, the set point will be at 2,8 bars.
The cargo tank safety valves on atmospheric pressure tankers are normally the
membrane type. The principle is the same as with seat valves. When the valve is
shut there is equal pressure under and over the main membrane and under the
boost membrane. When the pressure is higher than the pilot setting, the boost
membrane in the pilot will press the pilot seat up and the valve start to open. When
the pressure sinks, the pilot seat is pressed back and shut.
The valve opens when the tank pressure exceeds the spring tension. When the tank
pressure sinks below the spring tension, the valve shuts again. An adjustment screw
is attached on top of the valve that is used for calibrating the spring tension.
On fully refrigerated gas carriers there is often options to mount extra weights during
loading or change of cargo. The extra weights are mounted on top of the pilot and
increases the set point with approximates 100 to 150 grams.
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THE EXTRA SETTER IS NOT ALLOWED TO HAVE ON THE PILOT WHILE THE
VESSEL IS AT SEA.
Seat valves are mainly used as safety valves on lines. These safety valves are spring-
loaded and must be according to the certified line pressure. The set point and the
number of the different safety valves can be found in the gas carrier valve list. The
safety valves must be overhauled, pressure tested and calibrated by authorised
personnel. Then sealed and by the ships class company.
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A level gauge for cargo tanks is normally of float type or radar type. The float type
can be controlled by a guide-wire or placed inside a perforated pipe. The float’s
movements are transferred to a counter through a steel band. The counter are
normally local, but on new ships it is also remote reading. It is of importance to
check that the counter is at the correct level. On the counter, there are marked
values indicating the reading when the float is at the bottom and on the top. Control
and necessary adjustments are made using these values. To avoid damage to the
float and band, it is of importance that the float is hoisted and locked when the ship
is sailing.
Other types of floats are connected to an arm with a switch, which sets off or on an
alarm circuit when the liquid reaches a given level. This type is used as level alarms
in cargo tanks and in small tanks as liquid receivers. The liquid separator on the
suction side of the compressor is an example of a tank equipped with this type of
alarm. If liquid is carried away with the vapour to the compressor, the liquid will
assemble in the liquid separator on the vapour line. The float in the liquid separator
will at a stated level float up and actuate an alarm and then shutdown the
compressor and liquid is prevented to came into the compressor.
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• · Compressor room
• · Electric motor room
• · Cargo control room unless designated as gas-safe
• · Airlocks
• · Hold spaces for all cargo tanks except for independent tanks type C
• · Other areas in the cargo area where flammable mixtures may
accumulate
• · Sample points at ventilation inlets to the accommodation, in the
engine room and in the forecastle.
It is required that the detector must measure all sample points consecutively and not
exceeding 30 minutes intervals on the same sample point. Both audio and visual
alarms should be activated.
The next page illustrates a flow sheet for one type of gas detector. The pump sucks
continuously from all points, but only one point is measured at a time. When a point
is measured, a precise time purges the instrument before measuring the next point.
If the concentration at a measure-point exceeds 30% LEL, the alarm is released. An
indicator panel on the instrument indicates, at all times, what point is measured and
from where the alarm is released. If restrictions or similar in the suction-line take
place, a “flow-failure” is released.
The gas detector has a fixed connection for sample gas for calibration. Calibrating
and testing the equipment must be done regularly. This is normally a routine that is
executed once a week. It is of importance that calibrating and testing is logged.
The instrument should regularly be calibrated for the cargo carried onboard. This is
used to adjust the difference between the span gas and the cargo onboard.
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The amount of boil-off from a LNG ship lies at about 0,25% per day and night. For an 85
000 m3 tanker this covers about 60% of the fuel need. For a large LNG carrier the boil off
covers a larger share of the fuel needed. The boil-off can be utilised as fuel in boilers,
dual-fuel engines and gas turbines.
Strict regulations are made for control and security when we use LNG as fuel, especially
regarding ventilation. Emergency shutdown and double shut-off valves are essential on
the vapour line. With a stop of the plant, the vapour line is flushed with nitrogen. Boilers
and engines are both made for oil and gas. It is required that at all times we must use
about 5% fuel oil on the pilot burner. This secures that all vapour in the pipe to the boiler
is continuously set on fire.
Example 1:
A loaded LNG carrier of 87 000 m3 has a heat transfer to the cargo tanks of 700kW.
The cargo temperature is -160 0C. How much vapour boils off per day at unaltered
cargo temperature?
The size of the heat transfer to the cargo tanks determines how much methane that
is boiled off. We find specific heat of vaporisation for methane in the heat technical
table to be 506,2 kJ/kg at -160 0C. This indicates that 506,2 kJ must be supplied to
evaporate one kg methane. The total amount that evaporates at a heat transfer of
700 kW is then:
The ship can during the existing condition consume 119,5 MT per day and night for
propulsion. This corresponds to 0,33% boil-off per day.
The ballast journey to the next load port must be planned thoroughly when we use
the boil-off as fuel on the boilers and machinery. The quantity needed of cargo for
propulsion and cooling of cargo tanks must be calculated before commence
discharging. The amount of boil-off from the cargo tanks is regulated with the spray
pumps.
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On shore one operates with different zones of explosive areas, as you found in the
following table:
7.3.1
Zone 2 Explosive gases are rarely present and occur only in short
periods.
If applying these criteria to ships, zone 0 includes cargo tanks with cargo handling
equipment, zone 1 includes the remaining part of a gas hazardous area and zone 2
includes the remaining part of the cargo area. Rooms containing cargo-handling
equipment, for example, cargo compressor rooms must also be treated as zone 1.
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All vessels are issued with a drawing that indicates these areas. The drawing
normally named, “Hazardous Areas”, is posted around the vessel for the crew to
familiarise themselves with these hazardous areas.
The conditions onboard and around operation of gas carriers are special, and the
rules are more restrictive than ashore. The equipment onboard is exposed to hard
strains, the maintenance is often more complicated, and none the less, the
consequences of fire or explosion are very seriously. Ashore there are individual
national rules. For gas carriers and other ships the Flag State, Class Society and IMO
rules apply. Terminals and charterer also have individual rules that have to be
followed.
Special rules exist for pump room, compressor room, pipe tunnels, control room in
the cargo tank area, electric motor room and the area on the forecastle.
Access to electric motor room and cargo control room occurs through an airlock.
These rooms must have a mechanical positive pressure system. The doors must be
equipped with alarms and if both doors are left open too long and the pressure drop,
the rooms automatically render “dead”. This is normally arranged by a DP-cell
(differential pressure cell) that measures the pressure difference inside the room and
the surroundings.
Compressor room, pipe tunnels and pump rooms must be equipped with explosion-
proof lights. Cargo control, monitoring and automation equipment must be
independently secure in a flameproof enclosure. The light arrangement disperses
over at least two switchers, and all switches and protection equipment must be
placed in a gas-safe area. Electrical cables are not allowed to be open exposed
throughout the room.
Explosion-proof and independently secured equipment are approved to be used in
gas hazardous areas on deck. Automation and communication equipment must on
the other hand be of independently secure enclosure.
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Pump room and compressor Electric motor and lighting fixture must
room be Ex d.
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This type of cable inlet is mainly used on English or American equipment. This type
of equipment is delivered finished bored and threaded. There are big problems in
locating the right compensation, if the nipple need to be changed, because the
replacement must be the same type as the exchanged. It is not allowed to make
adjustments for a new nipple, as such a modification may weaken the strength of the
enclosure.
Bulkhead pipes from a flammable to a gas proof area must be compressive. Special
cable boxes filled with a special expanding type compound must be used for this
purpose.
At the indirect cable inlet to explosion proof equipment a connection box of an
intrinsically safe design is used.
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During normal operation or by error, an intrinsically safe enclosure will not be able to
produce spark or heat by such a character that ignition of a flammable gas mixture is
operative. Current and voltage limits by transistor relays or zener batteries maintain
the safety. Intrinsically safe equipment only uses voltage of 8-12 V and current of
about 5 milliampere. Test equipment that produces high voltage can not be used on
intrinsically safe areas. The circuits can be destroyed and at worst form sparks in the
hazardous area.
All intrinsically safe equipment must be delivered with certificate from an approved
test institution. Installation of the equipment must be executed with care. To secure
misconnection or interference of the equipment, the cables must lie in their own
canals, their own terminal blocks and preferably of blue colour. The distance to other
cables should be at least 50 mm to protect the intrinsically safe circuit. Intrinsically
safe relays and barriers must be placed in a gas proof area.
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Flameproof equipment is tested and classified considering the different gases. The
gas ignition energy, spontaneous ignition temperature and explosion progress are
the primary factors.
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For CLC-classes, the maximum surface temperature follows the spontaneous ignition
temperature of individual gas. The former West-German VDE-classes operate with
both a spontaneous ignition temperature and a maximum surface temperature of the
equipment. The surface temperature is stated a bit below the spontaneous ignition
temperature. As an example, a gas that falls under the temperature class G1 is
allowed a maximum surface temperature of 360oC.
From the European Standard, all electrical equipment in hazardous areas must be
marked, for example Eex d IIB T3 where:
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Most classification companies require that equipment on open deck must have a
protection that corresponds to IP 56. As it may be difficult to obtain all electrical
equipment with this protection, exception for equipment used ashore is made. A
minimum protection of IP 44 is required. This equipment must be covered with, for
example, a tarpaulin when the vessel is sailing.
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A flameproof enclosure does not prevent gas, and thereby water, from penetrating
into the equipment. Pay special attention to the accumulation of water in such
equipment in regions with large temperature variations.
Choose Ex e in cable insertion to Ex d equipment if possible. A normal PG nipple is
then sufficient and installation/control/maintenance is much easier.
Deck light in hazardous areas is flameproof, which increases safety. This equipment
is cheaper, easier to maintain, and easier to control than a flameproof lighting
fixture.
All electrical equipment must be grounded. Indirect cable insertion forms no
problems, since all earth connection takes place inside the connection box.
When dismantling equipment, the cables must be disconnected at the feed line end’s
connection box or the exposed ends should be terminated temporarily at the
connection box of the same design as the dismantled equipment.
New installation or changes of electrical equipment demands approval from
classification companies. If the equipment is removed from its area, the same rule is
regarded. Electrical motors that are coiled normally must have new certification.
Seawater is utilised for the following purposes in the cargo tank area:
Seawater for the above-mentioned purpose is delivered from pumps in the machine
room. Dedicated pumps are normally used for the individual groups of utilisation
areas. LPG-pumps deliver water to heat exchangers in the cooling plant and cargo
equipment. All vessels have dedicated pumps for fire fighting.
The seawater wires to the users should be on deck. If these are placed in hold
space, the consequences of leakage may be expensive. Water from the cooling plant
is normally put out through hold space amid ship on both sides. The valve is
operable from deck over board.
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When this happens, it is the management’s first duty to, as soon as possible, activate
the different teams in accordance with the fire instruction plan. Fire resistance
arrangements onboard the specific vessel should be utilised to the fullest extent.
If a fire should occur, the management will be confronted with a lot of problems that
all seem to be equal in importance. It is important to prioritise when dispersing the
tasks. This means that those tasks that seem to be most important must be
delegated to the most competent unit or team in the emergency squad. The squad
will have to do their best to solve the problems in a satisfactory way. In many cases,
the first decisions must be made based on few and uncertain pieces of information
about the situation. Any hesitation from the management about which approach to
use, will promote the feeling of fear and insecurity among the crew.
Since the crew has been trained in relevant practical skills, the management must
also be prepared and trained for the problems they are expected to solve. The ship’s
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fire instructions must be considered as a tool. The benefit and effect that this tool
will give depends on how the management decides to utilise it.
There is nothing that can really replace the valuable experiences you will get by
managing extinguishing operations in real fire situations onboard. As this, of course,
is practically impossible to accomplish as part of a training programme, other
methods have to be tried out. Typically the standby crew (e.g. fire brigade, first aid
teams, civil defence) will need to make quick decisions and judgements of the
situation.
This type of responsibility requires special training. Imagine a situation and try to
picture the conditions and based on that try to find out how you can, as best as
possible, use the resources you have available. This is one way to manage a
situation. However, you have to be aware that in a real situation, the approach to
the problem cannot be changed to fit your own perception.
By using similar methods onboard, consider imagined fire situations and at leisure
find out how to handle the situations, so that the management of the ship can
prepare their fire fighting duties. Even though you have worked through a lot of
imagined situations, and one day there is a fire, there will never be a situation similar
in detail to one of the imagined situations. On the other hand there will most likely
be a situation similar to something you had been through before. In any case you
will be better prepared, at least mentally, to manage the situation.
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8.2.4 Tactics
By tactics we really mean line of action. It is a calculated way to act out a plan of
action where we want to use the crew available, in such a way that maximises the
effect achieved.
The intention with tactics is to reach the goal you have set. You have to be aware of
what you want, what is the result you aim for. In a fire situation, it should be easy to
conclude that you want to extinguish the fire, as soon as possible, with as little mess
as possible, without any risks to the fire fighters.
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A crew organised in fire protection and with sufficient and adequate equipment forms
the force. To be able to perform their duties, the force has to master the necessary
skills. Technique is to use the equipment in such a way that a maximum effect is
achieved. Extinguishing technique covers the correct use and handling of the
particular parts of the extinguisher equipment and the fire technical installations. This
also includes practical skills, methods of practice and routines, knowledge of how the
particular equipment works, effect, capacity and limitations.
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8.2.11 Mobility
A well-trained force, which can quickly attack the fire, has a greater chance for
success.
8.2.12 Communication
It is very important to have a good communication because it will make it easier to
manage the operation. The force can easily be re-directed and there is a quicker
determination of how the situation is developing.
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All instructions must overlap one another so that all conditions are covered. The
purpose with the instructions is to eliminate doubts of who does what. At the same
time secure that what is being done is rational and in right time.
One can compare the fire protection organisation to machinery with many wheels
that all must overlap one another in such a way that the machinery is functioning.
The instructions are the force that will run the machinery.
The symbol for teamwork characterises a well drilled fire crew.
The individual links in the fire protection organisation approach by the instructions on
board. This is regarded to the captain, extinguishing leader, extinguishing team,
technical team, engine room team, instruction for engineer on duty, bridge
instruction, instruction for navigator on duty, radio station, security team, first aid
team, life boat team, evacuation team, instruction for officer on duty in port.
In addition to instructions for the individual fire protection organisation, there are
also instructions for special situations. It is important for all those who will operate a
CO2 plant that they follow the instructions clearly and categorically, because before
triggering of the plant can take place, it must be ascertained that no one is in the
area that the plant covers. Get to know the fire alarm on board and follow your
instructions when this sounds, and get to know the CO2 alarm and follow the
instructions. If the CO2 alarm sounds, one should act as though the fire alarm has
sounded, even before the fire alarm.
We will pay particular attention to the advice upon fire discovery, which gives all
of the crew practical advice and directions of how to react if you are the person
discovering the fire. The principal points, in such an instruction, are:
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Alarm instruction layout, crew distribution, layout and content of the special
instructions will vary by the type and size of the ship, the number of crew members,
extent of equipment, plus other relevant conditions. Common for all alarm
instructions is the desire to, as much as possible, have a flexible preparedness plan
that gives the possibility for all to contribute his best in the management of a
number of different situations.
When onboard during fire, it is similar to being “on the roof of the burning building”.
The escape routes are limited and few. Because of the extraordinary conditions on
board, limited retreat possibilities and the great chance of blocking off the rescue
units in a fire situation, it is natural that retreat route security and clarification of
these routes has high priority.
As the conditions on board are extremely special compared to ashore, the manager
must treat the retreat as a very important point in his procedural duty. Further the
fire control officer must observe the four following main tasks:
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1. 1. - Rescuing life.
2. 2. - Extinguishing fire.
3. 3. - Restriction of fire.
4. 4. - Executing the retreat.
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5.1 8.4 FIXED FIRE FIGHTING PLANS & FIRE FIGHTING REMEDY
8.4.1 Manual call point plant
Fixed fire detection’s plants, discovery and alarm equipment should be installed on
vessels that are regulated by SOLAS. Approval type for these detection’s plants takes
place according to a determined procedure by posting the plant’s documentation.
This documentation should contain user instructions, procedures for routine testing
on board, fault location procedures, power supply information, connection of
detector loop, alarm organs, fan failure, door magnet, assembly work, function
description, accordingly all requirements in accordance to the documentation claim.
The plant is tested to determine if it fulfils the regulations required. The manual call
point plant should at all times be according to the regulations in force. Some of the
criteria follow:
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line of the tank area there should be one shut-off valve for each 40 metres. This is,
of course, fitted to the size and type of the vessel.
8.4.5 Main fire extinguishing plants (For gas and chemical carriers)
Dry powder systems utilise N2 (Nitrogen) or CO2 (carbon dioxide) as propellant gas.
The gas is kept in pressure cylinders. A gas pressure regulator reduces N2 –gas or
CO2 – gas (200kg/cm2) to 20 kg/cm2 before it goes via the riser in to the powder
aggregate. The riser’s gas taps are very important, as the powder together with the
propellant gas must be able to “float” as a liquid through the pipe system and the
powder jet.
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Below is an example of this with the following data: 4 stationary and 4 hand stations:
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The system should have the capacity to cover the designated area with at least 10
ltr./m2 pr minute on horizontal surfaces, and 4 ltr./m2 pr minute on vertical surfaces.
If parts of the line are damaged, shut-off valves must exist on the main line so that
the line can still be utilised. This is operable by shutting off the line to the damaged
area. The alternative is that the system is devisable into several sections that can be
operated independent of each other.
The delivery pumps should have such a capacity that they can deliver simultaneously
with full capacity to the whole plant. The plant should contain a material that is
resistant to corrosion.
There has to be a possibility of remote start of the water delivery pumps, plus
remote control of the plants shut valves from a place outside the cargo area.
We recommend studying the plant on your vessel, how it is operated, where the
remote control is, plus the inclusion of this in the fire drill executed onboard.
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Extinguish effect
Foam has a suffocating effect and acts as a cooling extinguishing agent. The
suffocating or the cooling effect can be more or less the dominating effect, but
depends on what material is burning and what sort of foam is used. By extinguishing
a burning liquid with a surface temperature higher than +100o C, the cooling effect is
the dominating force. This is caused by evaporation of the liquid that penetrates into
the surface’s layer of the burning material as the foam collapses. By extinguishing
fire when the temperature in the surface is below +100oC, the extinguishing effect is
connected with the heat-insulating foam and, above all, a differentiation effect.
When the foam cover has spread outward across the liquid’s surface, the heat rays
from other, still burning parts of the liquid surface, is not able to penetrate through
the area covered with foam. Therefore, combustible gases are no longer formed,
evaporation ceases and the fire dies out.
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foam. The valve can also be used to regulate the amount of foam supplied in order
to achieve the right mixture condition between foam and water.
A foam jet pipe is attached to the monitors. Study the plant installed on your vessel,
and understand how this plan is operated. This equipment (the foam plant) is
mandatory for oil tankers.
Mobile foam equipment is also available on many ships, gas and chemical carriers
also. This consists of a fire hose with a foam nozzle unit, small foam containers (20
litre), a foam ejector, a small hose for the transmission of foam from a foam
container to a foam hose pipe, and protection equipment. This equipment is
prepared for use with fire hoses and a foam nozzle unit connected to the fire line. A
foam ejector with a tap for supplying foam liquid is installed between the fire hose
and foam nozzle unit. Water pressure is established, foam liquid is sucked (ejector
function) from the foam container via hose connection between the foam container
and ejector.
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8.4.17 Water
Water must be in direct contact with the fire to gain an extinguishing effect. The
effect emerges when water changes to vapour. Water takes heat from the fire via
evaporation; the vapour displaces air and consequently the oxygen. Since water
does not evaporate, it can add to the object’s damage. To obtain maximal
evaporation, the water must have as large surface as possible when hitting the heat
zone. A scattered jet obtains this, the water comes in shape of drops, the smaller the
drop, the larger the surface. Drops with 1 mm diameter have a surface of 0.126 cm2,
the same water amount in drops of 0,1 mm in diameter have a 1,26 cm2 surface.
The smaller the drops are, the shorter the air throw is needed. With a drop size of
0,2 – 0,3 mm, the most practical proportion between air throw and surface is
obtained. By throwing, as much as possible, atomised water into the warmest part of
the fire zone, the largest effect is obtained.
8.4.18 Powder
To have any effect, the powder must be lead down to the fire object. To obtain an
extinguishing effect, one must reach a position from where the powder can reach the
fire itself. The powder works partly by suffocating and partly by poisoning the flame,
it also has a little bit of a cooling effect. Danger of re-ignition is therefore large until
the temperature is brought down below the self-ignition temperature.
The powder has no direct damaging effect on the object. In sensitivity instruments
and in electronic equipment, powder has a disturbing effect on the functions.
8.4.20 Foam
Foam has both a cooling and suffocating effect. Light foam contains less water than
heavy foam, and thereby the extinguishing agent causes less damage. One can
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utilise light foam to cover larger areas and thereby suffocate the fire. One can also
utilise foam as secondary remedy to prevent re-ignition, or prevent ignition from oil
leakage, etc.
When selecting an extinguishing agent, one must consider the type of fire:
· only a glow, or glow and flames, (fire in solid material), where the
fire core has high temperature.
· only flames (fire in liquids) where gas vaporised from the surface is
on fire, relatively low temperature in the liquid itself.
· fire in alive, electrical components (glow/flame fire in isolation
materials, painting, lubricating oil etc.).
One must also consider the surroundings (as little extinguishing damage as possible),
special circumstances (alive plants), danger of re-ignition (need of cooling), special
material (chemicals, explosives, dangerous goods, swelling), protection of the fire
squad (protect the users).
One must also evaluate the practicality of utilising a combination of mutual
extinguishing remedies. For example, at first extinguish the flames with powder,
thereby cooling with water, and possibly cover with foam to prevent spontaneous
ignition.
WATER
Normally there are 10 litre apparatus placed in different locations onboard. 10 litres
is a very limited amount, and has a period of use lasting approximately 60 seconds.
Some types have a united jet, while others alternate between united and spread jets.
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Powder
There are mostly 12 kg powder apparatus onboard, except for where something else
ahs been determined, for example 25 kg, 50 kg or 6 kg. This is clearly found in the
“safety plan” onboard. A 12 kg powder apparatus has a period of use lasting
approximately 20 seconds; a 50 kg apparatus has a period of use of approximately
60 seconds. The apparatus has good air throw, and will provide the user good
protection. To utilise powder extinguishing equipment at full effect, a well-drilled
technique is demanded. Add this to the training exercises onboard.
Carbon dioxide
There are carbonic acid apparatus of 6 kg stationed on board. These apparatus have
a very limited capacity and no air throw. The protection for the user is poor. The
period of use is approximately 20 seconds. These apparatus are suited for spot
extinguishing of relatively small fires.
One should have high goals regarding knowledge in utilizing, of function and capacity
of the fire extinguishing apparatus on board your vessel.
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The requirement onboard oil tankers, as well as onboard gas tankers less than 5000
m3, are 4 sets of fire fighter equipment. Onboard gas carriers of more than 5000
m3, a minimum of 5 sets of fire fighter equipment is required. Each set consists of:
· One breathing apparatus (BA) with an air capacity of minimum 1200 litres.
· Protection suit including boots and gloves.
· Fire resistance safety line with belt.
· Safety lamp.
· Fireman’s axe.
The equipment is specified in SOLAS, chapter 11-2, rule 17. National, and
classification companies requirements may come in addition. This is of course
considered for each vessel and the equipment is at all times in accordance to existing
requirement and rules.
The breathing apparatus onboard must be of an accepted type, and must fulfil the
requirements in accordance to the regulations. Frequent training exercises on board
will familiarise you with the apparatus and use of a breathing apparatus.
The requirement for the air content in bottles is minimum 1200 litre clean air. Spare
bottles are required for each apparatus, so that each apparatus has a period of use
of 2 hours minimum. If a consumption of 60 litre air pr. minute (equivalent to hard
work) is assumed, one obtains, as follows:
A compressor is also required to fill up the breathing bottles after use. The period of
use for the apparatus is dependent upon the consumption of air pr. time unit, for
light or heavy work and the bottle size.
EXAMPLE
An air bottle of 7 litres and a pressure of 200 bar give (7 x 200) = 1400 litres clean
air. Assume that heavy work is to be carried out with a consumption of 60 litres pr.
minute. Disposal time will then be (7 x 200): 60 = 23,3 minutes.
The apparatus has an audio signal that alerts the user that it’s time to abandon the
area. This audio signal is released at approximately 40 bars, and leaves us with
(40x7) = 280 litres air for retreat. The time for retreat is (280: 60) = 4,66 minutes.
We then have 4,5 minutes to abandon the area.
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It is recommended to train in the use of the apparatus in order to learn the special
breathing technique for such an apparatus. The definition of breathing technique is a
rational way of utilising the air to obtain a maximum safe user time.
The user is dependent upon the state of the apparatus when residing in smoke or
gas filled rooms. Before entering such rooms, the user himself must control the
apparatus.
After strapping the bottle on his back, a special routine must be followed regardless
of the duration and regardless of others. The procedure varies with each apparatus.
It is of great importance to knowledge of the apparatus onboard your vessel. The
control will mainly be, as follows:
1. Bottle pressure: Open the bottle valve 2-3 shifts and read the manometer
pressure. Then put on the mask, the panorama mask is put on with all straps
extended. Set the chin in the mask and lead the straps behind the head. Tighten the
lower strap, then the upper straps and finally the top strap.
2. Retreat signal: Shut the bottle valve and breath carefully until the retreat
signal appears. The manometer indicates approximately 40 bars when the signal
appears. If there is a change over valve on the apparatus, ensure that this is in the
right position. The change over valve is activated when the retreat signal appears
and has an opening effect for spare air to release.
3. Mask’s seal ability: Suck the mask empty of air. The mask will then be
pressed against the face, if not, tighten the head straps. If it is airtight, open for air
again.
4. Pneumonic automatic: The bottle valve is set fully open, breath a few times to
make sure that the pneumonic automatic unit is working.
5. Flushing button: The button on the pneumonic automatic unit is activated and
air will flow into the mask. Sometimes extra air in the mask is needed.
6. Bottle pressure: Control again the pressure manometer to make sure that the
bottle is full. Place the manometer back in the clip.
All tests must be repeated for each exercise, or change of bottle, to make sure of
satisfactory operation at all times.
The fire stations are marked on the safety plan, and also the content of all required
equipment at the stations. In addition to mentioned fire fighting equipment, the
content must include personal protective equipment, fire hoses, jet nozzles that can
switched from jet to fog dispersement, keys to hose coupling and an extra fire axe.
Other equipment included is an electrical drill with 5/8” drill steel together with an
extension cord. It is smart to obtain a smaller drill steel to drill a pilot hole, if this is a
matter of necessity. A portable oxyacetylene torch that renders it possible to make a
quick carving of a manhole or other openings to ease access is also included. This
equipment is marked on the safety plan, where it is placed onboard and at the right
number according to type and size of vessel.
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SOLAS chapter II-2, rule 19, deals with the international “land coupling” that is
required onboard all vessels in accordance to this rule’s specification. The existence
of this is shown in the safety plan. It must be readily available during harbour stay.
It is used as connection between the vessel and harbours equipment, in case of fire
during the stay.
Familiarise yourself with the escape and protection equipment onboard the gas
tanker/chemical tanker, masks with filter for all onboard, appropriate protection
equipment placed for easy availability. This protection equipment contains large
aprons, special gloves with long cuffs, appropriate footwear, coveralls made of
chemical resistant material, tightened glasses or face shields. Clothes and
equipment must protect all body parts.
An escape apparatus with oxygen mask that makes the carrier independent of the
oxygen in the air at a minimum of 15 minutes must be available on all vessels. This
is only for use of escape. Specifications state how much of this equipment exists
onboard. The safety plan informs where it is located.
Before boarding tanks and closed spaces, one must take measurements, make sure
that dangerous gas is non-existent and that the oxygen content is satisfactory. After
tank ventilation, take great care in the measuring and the certainty of the
atmosphere before entering. Ensure that the pump room is well ventilated by
running the fans for awhile before entering. There is monitor supervision of the
pump room atmosphere onboard many vessels today. This takes place by
automatically testing the pump room atmosphere at different sampling points. Then
it is analysed and indicated on the control room monitor. This is also equipment you
need to be familiar with.
When entering tanks, it is very important to prepare equipment and make it easily
available in case of emergency. Preparation includes a complete set of fire fighting
equipment (also an extra fresh air mask in case it is needed for a rescue action),
lines, communication, and crew on deck for supervising. The knowledge of the
number and names of crew in the tank at all times is very important in order to be as
prepared as possible for any rescue action.
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8.6 IN GENERAL
What is health? In short, it is when the physical is in balance with the non-physical,
and the harmonisation here has a natural function. The result is good health. To
maintain this, knowledge about harmonisation is the vital factor in health. Health is
different for each one of us based on individual tendencies and external/internal
influences that mark (or chooses to mark) our life.
All crewmembers that sign on a vessel should have been through a medical check in
order to have a regular status of his/her health condition. Life at sea is a special
place to work, it is important that the general health condition at all times is good.
What can be done to maintain a good general health condition on board? The
answer is built into the safety and protection of personnel on board. You can also
take care of one another in a good manor by being aware of the risks that may have
direct and external effect on health, regarding the special cargoes carried onboard
your vessel.
Primarily, you can take good care of your own machine, the body, by paying
attention to the “fuel”, which contains the nutrients the body needs. It is very
important that the “chef” onboard has basic knowledge about anatomy/physiology,
in order to assemble the right raw material into the right article of food, in the form
of nutrient rich meals. Together with good cleanliness and comfortable surroundings
in the galley, the best basis is given. If the meals are “spiced-up” with a nice
atmosphere, in addition to existence of an inter-human working environment and
well-being, the result is solidarity, well-being at work, increased efficiency, less
sickness absence and saved costs.
A positive mental attitude toward life is also important and, at the same time,
improves or maintains health. This is an important factor of the human’s total health.
For example, one can turn a “I will not, cannot” behaviour pattern into a “I can, I
will” attitude. This will increase co-operation between the people onboard. With an
attitude change based on positive thinking, the result is noticeable onboard, due to
well being, solidarity, better performance, and a healthier atmosphere for the whole
crew. The human resource is the only resource.
The doctrine of how the body is built is called anatomy. The doctrine of the body’s
function is called physiology. This will be roughly illustrated to achieve a synopsis of
how the “machine” functions.
8.5.2 The cell
This is the smallest, independent unit of the body and the basis for all living
organisms. All the processes in the body are caused by the chemical reactions that
take place in the cells. Cells in different tissue and organisms co-operate in their
duties. The cell has a water content of approximately 70% in addition to proteins,
carbohydrates, fat and inorganic material. All the cells have the same basic structure
and a number of mutually basic qualities. Simultaneously each part of the cell has its
function. We all utilise nutrients both to achieve energy and as “building stones”. In
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new cell components, glucose (grape sugar) is the most important energy source. It
is important to have nutrient rich and varying diet.
8.6.3 TISSUE
Cells that look alike remain lying to form tissue. All surfaces of the body are covered
with epithelial tissue (type of tissue that mainly covers all surfaces, the cavity and
channels of the body). Connective tissue and support tissue forms the tissue network
in the body and keeps tissue and organs together. There is an innumerable of
tissues, for example osseous tissue, muscular tissue and nerve tissue. The cell co-
operation is controlled by chemical signals. These signals consist of two types, nerve
signals and hormone signals. These two systems co-operate for an appropriate
reaction. This is fully necessary for our survival. The hormone system controls the
activity of many internal organs, the nerve system controls muscles and glands.
Several organ systems co-operate to keep the composition of tissue fluid constant.
The blood renews this tissue fluid. The blood must circulate the whole time. The duty
of the lymph artery is to drain excess tissue fluid.
These demolish and absorb nutrient material. It is very important that the nutrient
content satisfies the body’s need.
These absorb oxygen and partly carbon dioxide. Respiration is an exchange of gases
between the blood arteries and the air in the lungs. The blood absorbs oxygen into
the body’s cells and partly the excess carbon dioxide that arises. The respiratory
organs consist of the bronchia and the lungs. Gas exchange between blood and air
takes place in the lungs.
These regulate the composition of the tissue fluid. The urinary organs consist of the
kidneys, urinary tract, bladder and the urethra. The kidneys' most distinct duty is to
separate water from waste. The resultant urine is processed in the urinary tract and
bladder then empties via the urethra.
The blood circulation carries materials between the organs in the body. The tissue
fluid is constantly renewed from the blood in the capillaries. The heart is a pump that
makes blood circulate. “Heart valves” help the blood run in the right direction. The
heart musculature sends blood through the coronary artery (the heart’s arteries).
The heart is the most persevering muscle in the body. The blood flows from high
pressure to lower pressure. The pulse is thereby a regulator in the blood. The blood
pressure is the pressure inside the artery, which is part of the blood circulation. The
blood acts, as a sort of, transportation system. Blood sends tissue circulating through
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the artery system. This contains blood cells floating in a protein rich fluid – blood
plasma – with two main types of cells, red and white. The red cells are important for
transportation of oxygen from the lungs to the different body tissues, while the
white, in different ways, participates in the body’s defence against disease. It is
important to remember that one cannot mix different blood types. Blood cells are
formed in the bone marrow.
Our senses tell us about the surroundings. The main senses are sight, hearing,
touch, smell and taste. There are also important senses in the muscles, the joints
and the equilibrium organ in the inner ear. Each sensory organ has its best reaction
to a certain type of stimulation, but has a different reaction to long lasting
stimulation.
The skin forms an essential boundary to the surroundings, and is the body’s largest
“breathing organ”. The skin consists of different tissue with different qualities and
covers the body surface, like an almost impenetrable protective film. The skin is an
important sensory organ with large adaptability.
This system protects the body and consists of several parts. There is no possibility of
living a normal life without this defence, as its duty is to render harmless infective
agents or other strange material. In addition to combating infection from outside,
this defence system also fights against any internal cell changes.
This consists of skeleton and muscles. The skeleton is the body’s framework,
consisting of almost 200 large and small bones tied together by link and ties. The
muscles can move the bones by shortening (contracting) using an impulse from the
nervous system.
This was a short description of the “human machine”. When experiencing something
exciting, frightening, unexpected, stressing, surprising or likewise, energy runs
through us like an electrical blow. In such situations, one experiences the effect of
endocrine hormones.
The part of us that consists of feelings, thoughts, vibrations, intuition, ergo not
physical parts of us, are also an important part of us (in many cases a decisive part).
It is very important to provide stimulation and nutrients to these parts, as discussed
below.
Positive thoughts and attitudes together with a healthy diet form the basis for good
health. We can do a lot ourselves by choosing the right things, as we are free to
choose.
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We now take a look at your work place, onboard a vessel, and the influence this has
on your health. We will also discuss what external influences can be found in the
atmosphere and the injuries/incidents that may occur on board.
Onboard different types of vessels carrying different types of cargo, danger to health
from external influences are considered regarding the vessel’s protective equipment
and routines. This protective equipment is placed practically and can be utilised, as
necessary. Familiarise yourself with the equipment onboard your vessel and use it!
With a sudden injury or illness on board, medical advice and guidance can be
gathered from Radio Medico – the radio medical service for vessels at sea. It is
important to have all the important information when help is needed for a serious
condition onboard, such as:
· Age
· Sex
· Weight
· Duration of the illness
· Extent of the injury
· Symptoms
· Patient's comments (complaints)
· Clinical findings (sign of a specific illness)
· How the injury happened
· Character of the pain (grumbling, stabbing, squeezing)
· Whereabouts of the pain
· Face colour, limpness, drowsiness, temperature, pulse, breathing trouble,
nausea, blood, mucus, urination, etc.
First aid is used with sudden unconsciousness, stopped breathing and lack of air.
(Call for help, but do not abandon the patient, immediately start helping.)
A Air: Try to free the air flow, lie the patient on a flat surface, bend the head
backwards, remove any dentures, vomit, etc.
B Breathing: If the patient is not breathing, start resuscitation with 3-5
breaths/insufflations. Use the “Pocket Mask” as an option. Hold the head curved
backward, check the pulse on the neck. If pulse is felt, continue with 12 respiration’s
per minute
C Circulation: With deadly paleness and no pulse, give 2-3 powerful knocks over the
heart. If this has no effect, start external heart compression once per second.
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One respiration for each heart compression. When compressing; press the
breastbone down 4-5cm.
8.6.16 ABC
Heart problems can be suspected if sudden, strong pain behind the breastbone is
experienced. For cardiac arrest, use the ABC.
Description of shock is acute circular failure. This may be caused by reduced blood
volume from bleeding, shock by drop of blood pressure or reduced pump functions
from a cardiac infarction. If a big incident occurs, shock must be calculated. The
symptoms are fast pulse, coldness, pail and difficulty in breathing. Supply oxygen,
warm blankets and fluids.
All knocks against the head must be taken seriously. The symptoms are headache,
nausea and dizziness. Flat bed rest for 2-3 days. Limited fluid intake and be sure to
supervise.
Refer to the IMCO’s book “Medical First Aid and Guide for use in accidents involving
dangerous goods”. This refers to the data sheets on the different cargo onboard.
(This is illustrated later on in this part). Poisoning and etch injuries appear in
connection with cargo contact, as air absorption, swallowing or skin absorption (skin
contact). The symptoms are pink coloured skin, smell of almonds on the breath,
headache, dizziness, nausea and vomiting. Remember that in connection with cargo
contact, the emergency squad should efficiently use protective equipment, gloves
etc. Supply oxygen and follow the instructions on the data sheet for the cargo in
question.
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In fire injuries, ensure a stabile lateral position for the patient, if possible. Supply
oxygen and fluid. With fire injuries, quick help is double the help. Quickly cool for at
least 20 minutes. Estimate the extent of the injury. The patient mustn’t freeze.
Provide warm blankets and abundant fluid. The patient should rest, be under
supervision, and have their pulse checked. Check the medical box for proper use of
medication and bandages.
Localised frost injuries on the skin’s top layer begins with a prickling feeling, then
ascends to white spots on the skin. Careless handling of pipeline and cranes
onboard vessels, which carry strongly cooled gases, can lead to localised frost
injuries. Important: Frozen hands and feet must not be warmed up actively with
warm water. Cover frozen skin parts with a soft woollen garment. Do not massage
or rub. It helps a lot to warm up frozen skin with warm skin
A lot of injuries are sprains, fracture and soft part injuries. Use the ICE method, as
the proper first aid, in such injuries. ICE means ice, compression and bandage, and
elevation.
I – stands for ice. Ice the injury in order to lower the injured spot’s temperature. By
doing so, the bleeding is reduced in the underlying tissue. Swelling and pain will also
be reduced.
8.6.24 INFECTIONS
Poisonous materials can be taken in by inhaling (gas, dust), skin penetration, skin
absorption (gas and liquid) and swallowing (gas and fluid). If any of this occurs,
different reactions will occur depending on the kind of material, how much, etc.
Refer to the material’s data sheet regarding treatment. Blood is most important,
since it is the higher brain centre that is first affected from lack of oxygen.
A poisonous material emerges quickly to the brain cells and deprives them of oxygen.
This may cause unconsciousness, at worst death. By inhaling small concentrations,
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we are exposed to localised effects (nasal, throat, and lung) or poisonous gas
absorption into the blood.
Through skin penetration, gases and fluids are quickly absorbed into the blood and
the effects depend on the characteristic of the material, the velocity of the
penetration and poisonous elements. If material is swallowed, this is easily absorbed
by the mucous membrane in the mouth.
The eyes are very exposed to any spill or contact to cargo. There is normally
irritation, burns and tears from harmful exposure. It is of utmost importance with a
very fast first aid and abundant rinsing with water.
With all injuries and illness it is of the utmost importance to administer first aid and
contact competent medical help if any doubt of the outcome exists.
Enclosed is a data sheet for Propane, which illustrates the layout and the content of
information. There are such sheets for all types of dangerous cargo, which are made
readily available and visible onboard.
The data sheets tell us about the cargo’s character, the emergency procedure for a
cargo fire or cargo spill. There is also information about health hazards, fire,
explosion, chemical data, reaction data, physical data and the condition of the
material in freight. Information regarding the quality of material is required with the
freight of the material.
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History
Pollution is not a problem recently discovered. When people settled down in small
towns and gathered in communities they experienced, as time went by, the
difficulties in getting rid of garbage and so on. Civilisations dumped all sorts of waist;
garbage, dead animals and so on, in open ditches just outside the small towns.
This can be directly connected to large epidemics and disasters, which have arisen
during different époques throughout history.
Around year 1800, the first attempts were made to make simple constructions of
drain arrangements and some kind of garbage removal arrangements. During this
period of time the rate of illness and disease showed to be higher in the crowded
small towns compared to the countryside. When the Industrial Revolution ended -
large crowds of people gathered in proportionately small areas. The local
environment was extremely loaded because of this. The development of new
substances and materials increased rapidly - and lack of knowledge concerning the
effect and damages to the environment due to these new substances and so forth -
led to free flow of the new substances both into the sea and the air.
In some cases, both cause and result of these uncontrolled outlets almost
immediately appeared. Even today, the reasons for these damaging effects on the
environment are questioned. In later years, people really have become aware of the
environmental effects this pollution causes. A media focus on oil pollution disasters,
industrial leakage, and so on, has contributed to the development of very strict
regulations and demands to preserve security that protects us from environmental
pollution. However, there is still a long way to go.
Note that pollution is usually related to human activity. Phenomena, such as radiation
due to natural radioactivity in the earth, volcano eruptions and the like, are not
usually considered as pollution. They exist, however, in areas where the environment
is burdened. This is nature’s own way to balance and renew itself.
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Any pollution has a main source and a receiver. The main receivers are air, sea, and
soil. The most effective way of spreading pollution is through air. But eventually the
pollution always falls to the ground and into the sea. The earth is most resistant to
pollution as a receiver, but the problems appear because this pollution almost
without restrictions has free flow to pollute sea and waters. Compare the human
body with its own immune system to the environmental system (Eco-system), and
you will find that all basic “building blocks” are linked together in some way or
another with the same influence and with the same purpose. Every part is equally
important in obtaining the ability to function as a whole unit.
Substances and materials spread through air - sea - and soil that cause damage and
malfunction due to human activity.
Many factors contribute to pollution, such as the chemical, physiological or biological
characteristics. Life on earth is dependent on solar energy. Plants turn solar energy,
water and carbon into plant tissues. This is called the first tropic level. The
herbivores (vegetable-only eating animals) cannot exploit solar light directly in their
growth or tissue change. Herbivores use the plants to produce tissue. This is called
the second tropic level. The energy loss caused by transmission from the first level to
the second level is calculated to be at approximately 90%. An even greater loss
appears at the next level, which is the third tropic level. This level includes the
humans and the animals, which survive by eating animal meat. The demolishing link
in this process is the carrion eaters and small organisms, which demolish dead plants
and animal materials into simple organic and inorganic compounds, which the plants
need to grow.
An Ecology System appears as a result of developing and adapting to each other as a
species in nature throughout millions of years. Accurate balance and stability is
obtained and smoothly functioning. This system is an everlasting process and is
continuous throughout time and space. An Ecology System can endure huge changes
and variations in nature, but faced with artificial factors and synthetic substances
spread by human actions, important parts (areas) in this process can be demolished.
The reason is simply that no natural mechanism exists to keep the process active
and in balance. In numerous cases, these unwanted non-natural substances are
spread throughout the nature process creating disharmony and malfunctions both
geographically and ecologically.
Heavy metals are basic elements. These elements exist in some relation or another
in nature, and further on in raw materials used by Industry. Some of the most
polluting heavy metals are lead, quicksilver, cadmium, nickel and vanadium. Heavy
metal is supplied to water, partly by natural flow, through human activity, through
the atmosphere, directly to water and spreading on the ground. These heavy metals
affect not only single organisms, but also the Ecology System using their ability to
function with the other organisms to obtain and keep harmony and balance.
Therefore pollution of heavy metals can influence and lead to direct malfunctioning
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and cause changes in the composition of a species. This creates disharmony in the
Eco-system.
Natural, clean and nutrient-rich water demonstrates a well-adjusted and balanced
Ecology System.
Burning sulphurous fossil fuel forms sulphur-dioxides and compounds of this gas.
The gas responds to air and transforms into sulphur acid.
Nitrogen oxides are also formed by combustion of fossil fuel, and release nitrogen
mono oxides, which again transforms into nitric acid and nitrogen oxides.
Carbon mono oxides formed by uncompleted consumption of organic material can
further react to air and transform into carbon dioxide.
Further, a number of gases are released with the gas freeing of cargo tanks and
cooling plant. These are CFC – gases (chlorous fluor carbons).
Carbon dioxide and CFC - gases function as a glass roof in a hothouse, the heat
radiation from the sun is easily received and is harder to let go. This is the hothouse
effect in a nutshell.
Sulphur and nitrogen oxides in outlets (pollution) cause huge destruction of soil and
sea. The consequences of this are recognised in areas where the forest is dead and
fishing lakes are empty.
Below is a bird, which represents just one of the many members of nature, well
worth fighting for. Protect and preserve all parts of our Ecology System.
Below are some figures, which show the outlet/pollution from internal combustion
engines in the Norwegian coasting trade.
In accordance to the investigations performed by the Governmental Pollution
Inspection and representative figures were presented in 1985:
8.9.2 THE FIGURES IN THIS INVESTIGATION REPRESENT ONLY NORWAY AND ITS COASTAL
TRADE.
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The outlet of NOx from the coastal trade represents 45% of the outlet from the
mobile sources and 38% of the total outlets/pollution in Norway.
In all these fields with intense investigation, new solutions in future engines and
maximisation of already existing engine types is put in priority.
Concerning economical views, the investigation has shown increase in costs
calculated to be 0,1 % - 0,9% regarding the cargo trade, when the actual reducing
actions are executed.
The total pollution from the fleet world wide is enormous and represents one of the
greatest threats to the environment today. The world’s great oceans are continuously
exposed to pollution. This causes tragic consequences to animals, fish and all life at
sea. The consequences for mankind will be just as tragic, unless this development is
reversed. The Ocean has, is and will always be an important food supply and
reservoir for human life. If life at sea comes to an end, this will of course lead to the
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increase in lack of food and then starvation for millions of people. Various species are
threatened of extension as a result of the pollution.
The most “significant” oil disasters caused by oil tankers that caused damages and
destruction of coastlines and the oceans are: “Tory Canyon” (Southern England
1967), “Amoco Cadiz” (Normandy 1978) and the “Exxon Valdez” (Alaska 1989).
These disasters influenced the public opinion and led to new laws and regulations.
The last mentioned accident was the direct event leading to new strict American
regulations, OPA.
In USA, the accidents involving “The Exxon Valdez” and “Mega Borg” were in focus
and were well covered by the media and press, which influenced public opinion. This
resulted in the OPA90. The media distributed pictures of the rich animal life and the
magnificent coastline in Alaska covered with oil and showing the suffering of dying
seals and seabirds. This presentation made a strong impression, which made the
U.S. Congress realise that the existing International Conventions had to be reviewed
and bettered, in order to protect and take care of the American interests. American
lawyers developed the OPA90 and the Congress supported the proposed Act.
4. Higher graded demands meant for the crew regarding narcotics and alcohol
testing.
The IMO Convention to prevent pollution from ships of 1973, with The Amendment
Protocol of 1978 - came in force October 2nd, 1983.
The Convention is named MARPOL 73/78 and is introduced in the Norwegian
Shipping Control Regulations, section 21 (page 757 and in 1996 edition).
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This is the most important pollution agreement ever adapted and it has been of great
significance contributing to pollution prevention regulations from ships.
The amount of oil pumped from an oil tanker on a ballast voyage in open sea, is set
to be 1/30 000 of the loading capacity for all “new ships” (ships contracted later than
31.12 1975 or delivered later than 31.12 1979).
Ships older than these can pump as much as 1/15 000 of the loading capacity.
Nevertheless - no rule allows discharging more than 30 litres pr. nautical mile during
the voyage.
Several exceptions exist other than the before mentioned dates, but it is too
extensive to view in this text. In the MARPOL regulations 73/78, which should be on
board all ships, you can find a complete definition of what “new” and “old” ships are.
As mentioned before a “new” ship of 200 000 dwt could legally discharge a total of
(200 000 : 30 000) = 6,67 tons of oil during a ballast voyage- if a maximum limit 30
litres pr nautical mile is in compliance.
In respect for the maritime environment, there are some areas regarding Prohibition
Law for Oil Pollution.
These areas include among others, the Eastern Sea, the Mediterranean, the Black
Sea, the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea and have the definition as follows:
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“The Baltic Sea” area means the Baltic Sea proper with Gulf of Bothnia, the Gulf of
Finland and the entrance to the Baltic Sea bounded by the parallel of the Skaw in the
Skagerrak at N57o 44,8`.
“The Mediterranean Sea” means the Mediterranean Sea proper including the gulfs
and seas therein with the boundary between the Mediterranean and the Black Sea
constituted by the N41o parallel and bounded to the west by the Straits of Gibraltar
at the meridian of W5o 36`.
“The Black Sea” area means the Black Sea proper with the boundary between the
Mediterranean and the Black Sea constituted by the parallel N41o.
“The Gulfs” area means the sea area located north west of the rhombi line between
Ras al Hadd (N22o 30`, E059o 48`) and Ras al Fasteh (N25o 04`, E061`).
“The Red Sea” area means the Red Sea proper including the Gulfs of Suez and
Aqaba bounded at the south by the rhombi line between Ras si Ane (N12o 08,5`,
E043o 19,6`) and Husn Murad (N12o 40,4`, E043o 30,2`).
The definition of clean water means a content of maximum 15 ppm (parts pr. million)
of admixture consisting of water/oil. This “clean water” can be pumped over board -
even in the special areas.
Oil tankers should be equipped to load a new cargo on top of the saved oil deposits
after tank washing and so forth. The system is known as LOT, Load On Top.
IMO agrees tithe commitment of air pollution regulations for ships, but not the
stringent demands of the rules. Norway, for instance, has the attitude that the
presented environment regulations allow for too large sulphur outlets. After seven
years of negotiations, IMO probably will adapt regulations concerning pollution from
ships in the autumn 1997. The dispute will concentrate on how restricted these
regulations will be. This will mainly concern the introduction of upper limits in the
sulphur content in bunkers. Sulphur contributes to acid rain. A limit of5% has been
proposed and Norway has proposed a limit of 3,5%. An analysis done by DnV proves
that bunkers for sale worldwide contain hardly more than 4,2%sulphur. Average
level is 2,7% sulphur. Norwegian dealers believe realistic limits to be around 4%.
During the negotiations the Baltic countries suggested that the Baltic should be a
special area and should have even stronger demands and regulations to sulphur
pollution than these presented by IMO regulations. The same proposition will be
requested concerning the Northern Sea area. Here, the sulphur limits in air is
suggested set to 1,5%. The ship owners will then have the opportunity to select for
themselves what type of oil to use that contains low sulphur values or rinse purifiers
for the outlet of sulphur. The NO pollution will be evaluated in this conference as
well. Even if IMO in autumn should vote for enforcing pollution regulations, it will still
be an open question when these regulations will be set in force. The term for this to
happen is one of the disagreements yet to be resolved. Keep yourself updated in this
field concerning air pollution and the regulations enforce in the nearest future!
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All new crude oil tankers (20 000 dwt or more) and already existing ships (ships
delivered before 1.6. 1982 with 40 000 dwt or more) have to be supplied with crude
oil washing equipment, described as COW (crude oil washing). Existing ships
between20 000 dwt and 40 000 dwt do not need to have this washing equipment,
but should have inert gas equipment for use in cargo tanks during operations. These
demands are noted in the MARPOL protocol of 1978 to MARPOL 73/78 and are useful
in reducing oil pollution at sea.
The National Governments have the obligation to put this in force and check that the
regulations presented by IMO are in compliance. The Norwegian Maritime Directorate
will perform inspection on the Norwegian trading fleet to control that these
regulations are executed. When it comes to COW, classification companies are
elected to evaluate the documentation and reports after inspection and testing of the
equipment on board.
8.9.13 ODME
On board all ships carrying oil there are demands for the installation of Oil Detection
Monitoring Equipment that will survey all pumping of ballast and slop water over
board.
The equipments simply described:
An analysis instrument, which analyses the content of oil in the ballast water before
pumping it over board.
A control unit that calculates the received information and records this on a printer.
A sampling pipe from the high over board line.
A flow meter on the high over board line.
To operate headmen some information has to be manually programmed. This is the
ship’s speed, flow rate, year, month, day and time. Study this manual for the specific
ship and note that the manual must to be available at all times.
Ships constructed for SBT (segregated ballast tanks) have the advantage of already
minimised oil pollution. Ships without have CBT (clean ballast tanks) where the cargo
tanks are used both for departure and arrival ballast. IMO’s regulations on the tanks
used for departure and arrival ballast state that the tanks must be crude oil washed.
(COW).
Before arrival at discharging port, a discharging plan including crude oil washing
should be worked out and it should also contain departure condition that shows the
loaded departure ballast. The amount, the quantity and where the departure ballast
is placed are viewed in part 10 in the compendium. This departure ballast is called
dirty ballast.
After departure and in waters allowing water washing of tanks used for arrival
ballast, this washing operation should be executed according to regulations in force.
Arrival ballast tanks must be crude oil washed beforehand according to the
regulations in force. This procedure is done at the last discharging port. The water
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washing is performed using the specialised washing system on board meant for
crude oil washing - the only difference is that the medium now is water.
Set pressure on the line system with water from the sea, and via crude oil washing
machines, arrival ballast tanks are water washed. Supplied water is stripped from the
actual tank and into the primary slop tank. Via the balance line, the liquid is
transferred over to the secondary slop tank, and further the separated water is
pumped over board via ODME.
To finish water washing of arrival ballast tanks, lines and pumps have to be
thoroughly washed. Here the same washing procedure from primary to secondary
slop tank is performed and pumped over board via ODME. Now it is time to change
ballast. In other words, clean ballast should be pumped in arrival ballast tanks, while
dirty ballast should be pumped out from departure ballast tanks. The dirty ballast is
pumped over board via ODME.
The last oil deposits are stripped into the primary slop tank and after a settling time
(when oil and water separates completely), the clean water is pumped over board via
ODME. At last the secondary slop tank is pumped into the primary slop tank. This
way the ship arrives at the loading port with slop in one of the slop tanks. This saved
slop contains the oil deposits from stripping and water washing and the load on top.
This is available if it is requested from the charter.
This is specified in the charter party for the present voyage. Note: The line system
has to be properly cleaned before arriving at the loading port, where the clean
ballast is pumped over board.
When the ballast changing, line washing and slop handling is completed, the ship
contains only the arrival ballast. The arrival ballast is the so-called “clean water”,
which is a mixture of water/oil containing a maximum of 15 ppm. This arrival ballast
is pumped over board via ODME.
This is an extremely important book and must be recorded with accuracy, in order to
comply with the regulations in force. All ships should have one oil record book or
more in order to record operations, which involve pumping, transferring, ballast
handling, bunkers, slop handling, any kind of cargo handling whatsoever. All items
mentioned must be recorded in the oil record book.
The oil record book must be available at all times to show authorities when arriving
at any ports. Remember to keep this book updated and in necessary order at all
times.
Be environmentally conscious in all aspects on board
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9 GAS MEASUREMENTS
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· Mineral oils with a flash point below 61oC, such as kerosene, benzene, gasoline and
crude oil or other flammable liquids with a flash point below said limit.
· Mineral oils with a flash point of 61oC or higher, such as marine gas oils, fuel oil,
diesel oil, lubricating oil, which give off flammable gases when heated.
· Oils and fats of animal or vegetable origins, such as whale oil, groundnut oil,
linseed oil etc., which give off flammable gases when heated.
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Burning point in
Product
degree Celsius
Asphalt +204
Benzene -50
Benzene -11
Butane -35
Crude oil -10/+30
Diesel oil +70
Ethan -125
Fuel oil (no. 1&2) +38
Fuel oil (no.4&5) +54
Fuel oil (no.6) +65
Hexane -28
Methane (LNG) -175
Mineral oil +193
Naphtha (mixtures) +38/+60
Paraffin wax +320
Pentane -40
Propane -105
Lub.oil (motor oil) -149/+232
Propylene -108
Ethylene -150
For refined products, the flash point increases from light to the heavy hydrocarbons,
for gasoline it is about –50oC and for kerosene over +60oC. The flash point for
liquids is used in rules and regulations for transportation and storage.
Crude oil from various sources may have quite different flash points, usually between
–10oC and +30oC.
9.1.5 Flammability
The burning process means that hydrocarbon gases react with the oxygen in the air
to produce carbon dioxide and water. This reaction gives enough heat to form a
flame which goes through the mixture of hydrocarbon gas and air. When the gas
above a liquid hydrocarbon is ignited, the heat that is produced is usually enough to
evaporate sufficient fresh gas to maintain the flame and the liquid is said to burn. In
fact, it is the gas that is burning and continuously being replenished by the liquid.
9.1.6 Flammable Limits
A hydrocarbon gas mixture and air cannot be ignited and burned unless its
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The lower limit of this range is known as the “LEL” (lower explosive limit). The “LFL”
(lower flammable limit) is also used. This level means that hydrocarbon
concentration has an insufficient amount of hydrocarbon gas to support and
propagate combustion. The mixture is “too lean”.
The upper limit of the range known as the “UEL” (upper explosive limit), or also
known as “UFL” (upper flammable limit). This level means that the hydrocarbon
concentration has an insufficient amount of air to support and propagate
combustion. The mixture is “too rich”.
Between these two areas, the mixture is flammable and results in a fire or explosion,
if ignited. With hydrocarbon gases from crude and sediments, it is usually assumed
that the upper explosion limit lies at about 10% by volume of hydrocarbon gas-in-air
and the lower explosion limit at about 1% by volume of hydrocarbon gas.
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9.1.8 Air
The mixture of gases found in the atmosphere is given the name air. The ratio of
mixture between various gases is the same, independent of time and place, except
for the water vapour content, which can have great variations.
ELEMENTS in air
Nitrogen, N2 78,09%
Oxygen, O2 20,93%
Argon, A 0,93%
Carbon dioxide, CO2 0,03%
Other gases 0,02%
AIR 100%
There may be a significant amount of water vapour in the air. Different results are
measured depending on whether water or moisture is removed or not. The amount
of water vapour, which the air may contain, will depend very much on the
temperature. The air is saturated with water vapour when the air contains a
maximum amount of water vapour at a certain temperature. Saturated air being
cooled will release the excess water in droplets.
At high humidity and high temperature, there will be a reduction of oxygen and other
gases that is caused by the increased water vapour content.
The atmospheric pressure will influence the measurement result when using gas
measure instruments. For example, when using a portable oxygen analyser that is
calibrated to read 21% oxygen by volume in clean air at atmospheric pressure, the
reading will increase as the atmospheric pressure increases.
To compensate for the changes in atmospheric pressure, the instrument has to be
calibrated with clean air from time to time. The instruments used for measuring
hydrocarbon gases will also be influenced by the atmospheric pressure, depending
on the instrument’s measuring principle.
WATER VAPOUR
TEMPERATURE
CONTENT
-200C 0,1 volume %
00C 0,9 volume %
200C 2.3 volume %
400C 7,3 volume %
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The risk of fire or explosion is drastically increased if air is replaced by pure oxygen.
As known, oxygen leakage during welding has resulted in several fatal accidents.
However, when reducing the oxygen below 21% by volume, the fire and explosion
hazard is reduced. When reducing the oxygen content to below 10,8% by volume,
fire and explosion cannot take place even though both hydrocarbon gas and ignition
sources are present.
9.1.9 Hydrocarbon gases
Crude oil is formed from plants and animals residues and contains several thousand
different chemical compounds. Most of these materials consist of only the element
hydrogen (H) and carbon (C) called by the common name hydrocarbons.
The simplest hydrocarbon is methane, which is the main element of natural gas.
Butane, propane and ethane are also composed of hydrogen and carbon atoms and
they are all called hydrocarbon gases. For example butane, C4H10 means that this
gas contains a total of 4 carbon atoms and 10 hydrogen atoms. Hydrocarbons with
up to 4 carbon atoms are liquefied gases at room temperature and atmospheric
pressure. From 5 to 16 carbon atoms the hydrocarbons are liquids, and above 16
carbon atoms, the hydrocarbons are solid materials such as wax and asphalt.
When the crude oil is taken out of a well, hydrocarbon gases and solid materials are
dissolved in the oil. When reducing the pressure, gases will bubble out. To separate
these liquefied gases the crude must pass through one or more processing units
(stabilisers). The crude oil is called “stabilised crude”, but even stabilised crude oil
will give off hydrocarbons from the surface.
Methane gas is lighter than air. Ethane gas has approximately the same density as
air. The gases butane and propane from higher hydrocarbons are heavier than air.
The gas mixtures given off from crude oil, sludge and sediments are all heavier than
air. Until such gas mixtures have been mixed with air inside inert gas, the highest
hydrocarbon concentration will appear near the bottom.
“Spiked crude oil” (also called “enriched” or “tailored” crude) is crude oil, which has
had hydrocarbons, added in gas or liquid form. The spiked crude may contain rather
large amounts of added hydrocarbons and therefore emit heavy gasses under certain
conditions (during loading, crude oil washing, discharging).
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TLV (Threshold Limit Value) has been in use within the industry for a number of
years, and is often expressed as a “Time Weighted Average” (TWA). The use of the
term “PEL” (Permissible Exposure Limit) is becoming more commonplace and refers
to the maximum exposure to a toxic substance that is allowed by an appropriate
regulatory body.
The PEL is usually expressed as a Time Weighted Average, normally averaged over
an eight hour period, or as a “Short Term Exposure Limit” (STEL), normally
expressed as a maximum airborne concentration averaged over a 15 minute period.
The values are expressed as parts per million (ppm) by volume of gas in air.
List of TLV (PEL) are adjusted from time to time, so take into consideration the
experience gained. Keep the list up to date at all times.
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9.2.1 Ingestion
There is a very slight risk of swallowing significant quantities of liquids during normal
tanker operations. The oral toxicity from petroleum is low, but if swallow it causes
acute discomfort. Liquid petroleum may be drawn into the lungs during vomiting
resulting in serious consequences.
%
Concentration Effects
LEL
0,1% vol. Irritation of the eyes within one
10%
(1.000ppm) hour.
Irritation of the eyes, nose and
0,2% vol. throat, dizziness and
20%
(2.000ppm) unsteadiness within half an
hour.
0,7% vol. Symptoms as of drunkenness
70%
(7.000ppm) within 15 minutes.
Rapid onset of “drunkenness”
1.0% vol. which may lead to
100%
(10.000ppm) unconsciousness and death if
exposure continues.
2,0% vol. Paralysis and death occur very
(20.000ppm) rapidly
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9.2.4 Benzene
Aromatic hydrocarbons include benzene, toluene and xylene. These substances can
be found in varying amounts, in many typical petroleum cargoes, such as gasoline’s,
naphtas, special boiling point solvents, turpentine, substitutes, white spirits and
crude oil.
For handling cargo that contains benzene, use the described operation procedures
for this kind of hydrocarbon.
A lot of crude oil comes out of the well with high levels of hydrogen sulphide, but is
usually reduced by a stabilisation process before the crude oil is delivered to the
vessel. This stabilisation may, however, decrease over time.
The nose has no trouble detecting the smell from hydrogen sulphide at low
concentrations, which is like the smell of rotten eggs, but the sensory cell in the nose
is immediately put out of function if higher concentrations are inhaled.
The effects of the gas at concentrations in air in excess of the TWA (Time Weighted
Average) are, as follows:
Concentration Effects
Eye and respiratory tract
50 - 100 ppm irritation after exposure of
one hour.
Marked eye and respiratory
200 - 300
tract irritation after
ppm
exposure of one hour.
Dizziness, headache,
nausea etc. Within 15
500 - 700 minutes, loss of
ppm consciousness and possible
death after 30-60 minutes
exposure.
Rapid unconsciousness,
700 - 900
death occurs a few
ppm
minutes later.
1000 - 2000 Instantaneous collapse and
ppm cessation of breathing
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Persons over exposed to H2S vapour should be taken to clean air, as soon as
possible. The adverse effects of H2S can be reversed and the probability of saving
the persons life improved, if prompt action is taken.
For handling cargoes containing hydrogen sulphide follow the operation procedures
described for such a cargo.
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recognise the danger until they were too weak to be able to escape without help.
This is especially so when escape involves the exertion of climbing.
Entry into spaces with oxygen less than 21% by volume must never be permitted.
Before After
Inert gas
scrubber scrubber
Approx. 80% Approx. 80%
Nitrogen, N2
vol. vol.
Carbon
Approx. 14% Approx. 14%
dioxide,
vol vol.
CO2.
Oxygen, O2 2 - 5% vol. 2 - 5% vol.
20oC:
approx. 2%
vol.
Water Approx. 5%
vapour, H2O vo
40oC:
approx. 7%
vol.
Carbon CO Approx. Approx.
monoxide, 0,01% vol. 0,01% vol.
Nitrous Approx. Approx.
gases, NOX 0,02% vol. 0,02% vol.
Sulphur
Approx. Approx.
dioxide,
0,3% vol. 0,005% vol.
SO2
Ash and
300mg/m3 30mg/m3
soot
Density 1.044 1.044
When hydrocarbon gas burns in air, the oxygen in the air reacts while the nitrogen
gas is inert and does not take part in the reaction. Examples of inert gases are
nitrogen, carbon dioxide or combustion gases.
On a crude oil tanker, the production of inert gas is done with flue gas from the
ship’s boilers or by a separate inert gas generator. The flue gas being produced,
before being transferred to the cargo tanks, is first cooled and cleaned of soot and
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corrosive gases. This prevents fire and explosion. The maximum permissible oxygen
content in the inert gas delivered to the cargo tanks is 5% by volume (all kinds of
tankers).
Approximately the content of carbon dioxide in the inert gas is 14% by volume
depending to some extent on quality of the oil being burned and on the air supply.
The carbon monoxide contained in the supplied inert gas is approximately 0,01% by
volume, but if the excess air is reduced too much in hopes of reducing the oxygen
content, the concentration of carbon monoxide could increase significantly.
The concentration of nitrogen in inert gas will more or less be the same as for the
concentration in air, broadly speaking, about 80% nitrogen by volume.
A small amount of Nitrous Gases (NO and NO2) is formed, following the reaction
between nitrogen and oxygen in the air at higher temperatures. It will be
approximately 0,02% NOX by volume.
The concentration of sulphur dioxide in the inert gas depends on the sulphur content
of the oil being burned. It will be approximately 0,3% by volume in the flue gas.
After passing the scrubber, depending on the efficiency of this, the content is
reduced to approximately 0,005% by volume.
Flue gas contains soot as high as 300mg/m3, but is reduced to below 30mg/m3 after
passing the scrubber.
The oxygen concentration in flue gas will be different, before the scrubber, than in
the inert gas, after the scrubber. Some ships use the same fixed instrument for
measuring the oxygen content in the flue gas, before passing the scrubber, and the
inert gas, after the scrubber. This is done by providing a choice of sampling lines
from two different places into the same instrument. The main problems are in the
flue gas measuring with greater reading and guarding against instrumentation error.
It is strongly recommended to have a separate oxygen-measuring instrument for
inert gas, after the scrubber.
When recalculating inert gas through the scrubber beware of the oxygen content
increase due to the evolution of oxygen from the seawater.
The figure to below shows an example of design of a scrubber for cooling and
cleaning of the flue/ inert gas.
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9.4.2 Pumps
The hand pumps used are often in a rubber form with a volume of 40cm3 or more.
When using long hoses, it is important to know the number of pump strokes from
the sampling point that are necessary for the gas to reach the instrument. The
number of strokes depends on the hose length, as well as, the inside diameter of the
hose.
The number of strokes may vary from 6 to 15 for a hose length of 30 metres,
depending on the inner diameter. The numbers mentioned are based on a pump
volume of 40cm3. Some types of instruments are fitted with built-in pumps. Follow
the user instruction for such a pump.
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Carry out measurements with and without the sampling hose to check that the hose
does
not influence the measurement by absorbing or releasing gases. For this purpose use
clean air and a calibration gas, depending on the type of gas measuring instrument
being checked.
Also carry out a leakage test on the instrument, and if applicable, on a drop catcher
or other optional equipment that has been fitted. See the illustration to your right.
9.4.5 Maintenance
Make it a rule to always purge the hose by pumping clean air through it after use.
And blow the measuring hoses with compressed air from time to time to remove
water droplets and dust. As the analysers are of vital importance, they must be
carefully maintained and tested strictly in accordance with the manufacturer
instructions.
9.4.6 Filters
Normally used in hydrocarbon gas meters are cotton filament type filters, catalytic or
non-catalytic. Additional filters are not normally needed. In extremely moist or wet
conditions, for example during tank washing, excessive water can be removed from
the gas sample using materials that retain water, but do not affect the hydrocarbons.
Materials for this purpose are granular calcium chloride or sulphate. If required, soda
asbestos will selectively retain hydrogen sulphide without affecting the hydrocarbons.
However, it also retains carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide and must not be used in
tanks, which are inerted with scrubbed flue gas.
The use of water retaining filters is essential when using an oxygen analyser,
especially the analysers based on the paramagnetic principle. This is because the
presence of water vapours in the sample can damage the measuring cell. Use only
manufacture recommended filters.
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9.4.8 Attention
Those using the measuring instruments on board must have sufficient knowledge
about the instrument, and all such instruments must have the operating instructions
attached to the instrument. Also keep a log for each instrument, where records are
made of the calibration performed, replacement of parts or other repairs, faults and
irregularities. Always have additional spare parts in supply, which may have to be
replaced from time to time.
If the instrument not is in use for a long period of time, remove the batteries; even
the leak proof ones.
Warning
For the sake of safety, all instruments must be operated and serviced by qualified
personnel only. Read and make sure you fully understand the instruction book before
using or servicing the instrument.
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Interferometer Type 17HC, with the measuring ranges 0-5% by volume and 0-30%
by volume HC, was developed in collaboration with Riken Keiki Fine Instrument Co.,
Japan. At this time, only a few ships had an inert gas system on board. The
instrument was used for measuring hydrocarbon concentrations in air, which were
higher than the lower explosive limit, to check for freeing gas with air before tank
washing in a “too lean” atmosphere. Later on, the instrument also came to be used
for the measurement of hydrocarbon gas concentration in an inerted atmosphere.
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Previously a method was used whereby carbon dioxide was removed from the gas
mixture before the introduction to the interferometer. The gas mixture was passed
through a tube filled with soda lime, as an absorption material. Experience has
shown that the absorbent often is not very efficient, so that measurements with the
interferometer have given too high values. It is therefore recommended to correct
for the difference between zero setting in clean air and in inert gas by using a
method, which does not include the use of the external filter. Inert gas contains 12-
14% CO2. To remove such a large concentration by means of the external filter has
proved difficult. Instead of using the filter the measurement is read directly and the
values read are reduced by 2,5%. If there is a risk of sucking in water
vapour/condensate, one can use a moisture collector (which usually accompanies the
instrument) and install it between the suction hose and the instrument.
When measuring hydrocarbon gases in an inerted tank atmosphere with an
interferometer without the soda lime, the reading must be corrected by subtracting
2,5 from the values read. For example, the correct value will be 2,5% by volume HC
for a reading of 5,0.
Optical diagram
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Function of parts:
1. Inlet port to which the sampling tube is connected.
2. Outlet port to which the aspirator tube is connected.
3. Push button switch to illuminate the scale.
4. Screw off cover to protect zero setting from any disturbance in handling the
instrument during tests.
5. Zero adjusting knob for setting interference fringe to zero position in fresh air.
6. Cock to change the sampling route either HIGH RANGE or LOW RANGE.
7. Eyepiece lens and protecting push on cover (on chain) to the right. The lens can
be focused for personal vision by turning in either direction.
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8. Aspirator bulb.
9. Screw on covers, replaceable moisture absorbent cartridge and single cell
flashlight battery.
10. Cover for electric bulb for the light source.
9.4.10.3 Preparation:
1. a) Secure auxiliary filter in leather strap. Connect rubber tube to gas inlet port (1)
through auxiliary filter.
2. b) Connect rubber aspirator to gas outlet port (2).
3. c) Place cock (6) in position 5 and squeeze aspirator (8) at least five times in fresh
air to clean gas chamber.
4. d) Press the switch (3) and observe interference fringe through eyepiece.
5. e) Remove protective cover (4) of zero setting knob (5). Adjust the right one of
two black lines, just on the zero position of scale, by rotating the zero setting knob.
6. f) Put the cover back on, in order to protect the knob from any accidental
movement.
Reading:
1. Suck the gas to be examined into instrument by squeezing aspirator about 5 times
or more if extension tube is used.
2. Press the switch and examine amount of shift of marked black line through
eyepiece, which gives percentage of gas on 0 - 5% scale.
3. If the marked black line or fringe is beyond scale, gas concentration is higher than
5%. In such case, change cock position to 0 - 30% scale.
4. Suck clean air into instrument by squeezing aspirator 3 to 5 times.
5. Press the switch and examine amount of shift of marked black line through
eyepiece, which gives percentage of gas on scale 0 - 30%.
After reading:
Place cock position to 5 and clean gas chamber with fresh air.
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The flammable gas to be measured is burned on the surface and the heat generated
results in a temperature increase. The electrical resistance of the metallic wire
increases with the temperature. The change in resistance is proportional to the
increasing temperature and to the concentration of flammable gas in the air. This
applies only to a lean mixture below the lower explosive limit.
The instruments are usually designed in such away that they first have to be
adjusted to zero with clean air. Then the atmosphere that should be measured is
sucked into the instrument where the sensor is located and a reading is made.
Finally, clean air is sucked in again and the zero setting checked. Some types of
instruments are intended for monitoring and are designed so that the sensor is
located at the spot where the measurement is to be performed.
Explosimeters are calibrated with a certain gas, for example butane. It should be
marked on the instrument, which gas is used for calibration gas. To some extent the
explosimeter will also be suitable for measurement of other flammable gases, and
many manufactures of instruments quote the correction factors for various gases
other than the calibration gas. The most frequently used calibration gases for
commercial explosimeters are methane, propane, butane, pentane, hexane or
nonane. For ships carrying crude oils, it is recommended to use butane in air or
alternatively propane in air.
Theoretical calculations of the sensitivity of an explosimeter for various flammable
gases show that the reading for 100% LEL of the gas mixture is proportional to the
heat of combustion, to the diffusion coefficient of the flammable gas and to the gas
concentration at the lower explosive limit. The diffusion coefficient is an expression
for the speed at which the molecules can move to the catalyst surface where the
reaction takes place, and the lighter molecules move faster than the heavy ones. For
example, the methane molecules move faster than the propane molecules.
Theoretical calculations of sensitivity have been performed for nearly 100 different
flammable gases, and the value for hydrocarbon gases are given in the table below:
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Type of
Sensitivity
HC gas
Methane 100
Ethane 68
Propane 55
Butane,
59
n
Butane,
52
i
Pentane,
46
n
Hexane 37
Heptane 38
Octane 38
Nonane 31
In practice there will not be the same conversion factors for different types of
Explosimeters, since the details of how the instruments are designed are of great
importance. There may also be a large difference from one instrument to another
instrument of the same type, which is greatly dependent on how good of a control
the manufacturer has over own production.
From what we have seen so far, explosimeters calibrated with butane should show
higher values for methane, lower values for pentane, hexane and the other heavier
hydrocarbon gases.
There is a complicating factor, however, in that methane is a gas, which requires a
more efficient catalyst and/or a higher catalyst temperature. On the market there are
some types of explosimeters with low sensitivity for methane and several types of
explosimeters which have been investigated showing that the sensitivity to methane
may drop after a short period of time of using the instrument. However, it still gives
a correct reading for the heavier hydrocarbon gases.
For explosimeters being used on board LNG-carriers, methane must be used as the
calibration gas. Explosimeters to be used on ships carrying crude oil, butane is
recommended to be used as calibration gas, alternatively propane. This is because
the gas mixture given off by crude oil contains relatively small amounts of methane
gas and the gas given off from sediments and oil residues contain quite negligible
concentrations of methane. Be aware that the exsplosimeter will give somewhat
misleading low values for the hydrocarbon gases that are heavier than the calibration
gas.
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The catalyst will, when used gradually, lose its ability to bring about combustion, and
all types of explosimeters have, to a greater or lesser extent, the regrettable
characteristic that the sensitivity is reduced.
All explosimeters must therefore from time to time be checked with its calibration
gas.
Certain gases may poison the catalyst, and it is known that hydrogen sulphide from
sour crude may act in this manner. A poisoning will lead to the properties of the
catalyst being temporarily or permanently damaged so that the sensitivity of the
instrument to flammable gases is greatly reduced or vanishes altogether. The best-
known catalyst poisons are silicones and vapours from leaded gasoline, which give a
solid deposit on the outer surface of the catalyst.
We have mentioned that the reading of the explosimeter depends on the
concentration and diffusion coefficient of the flammable gas. This only applies when
we have a lean mixture of flammable gas in air. For high concentration of flammable
gas, the reading will instead depend on the concentration and diffusion coefficient of
oxygen. Very high concentrations of flammable gas, in relation to oxygen, at the
catalyst surface may result in the combustion reaction being completely prevented,
so that the explosimeter gives reading of close to zero for such a high concentration.
High concentrations of flammable gas and/or low concentrations of oxygen give
misleading, ambiguous readings and may also damage the catalyst in that a sooty
layer is formed.
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Samples of air , which may contain flammable gases or vapours, are sucked through
the instrument by means of a suction bellow.
The content of flammable Gases effects a heated platinum filament (D = detecting
element) which forms part of a Wheatstone bridge measuring circuit as shown in the
circuit diagram on the right hand side. Besides the measuring filament “D”, this
circuit includes a compensating filament “C” and two fixed resistance’s “R1 & R2”.
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The flammable gases or vapours in the air are oxidised and burn at the surface of
the measuring filament “D”, and the evolution of heat causes a change in the
resistance of the platinum wire which gives rise to an imbalance in the Wheatstone
bridge. This corresponds to the content of flammable gases in the sample.
9.4.12.2 Operation
In a gas hazardous area the instrument should always be in the carrying case and
strapped to this.
Before taking the instrument to the hazardous area, check the battery voltage. To
check the voltages, put the switch in “VOLT ADJ:” position. Meter should rise to the
“check” position near top of the scale. Lift and turn VOLT ADJ. Control clockwise to
determine maximum voltage setting. If the needle cannot be set beyond the VOLT
ADJ mark, batteries need recharging or replacing for full capacity. Do not attempt to
use instrument at all if reading cannot be set up to the mark or beyond the mark.
Do not replace batteries in a hazardous area; bring the instrument to a safe area
before changing taking place.
If the voltage is satisfactory, continue with the next steps of preliminary adjustment,
as follows:
1. Confirm operating of pilot light/meter illuminating lamp.
2. With sample inlet in fresh air, squeeze bulb several times to flush out any
remaining gas from the instrument.
3. Check zero setting by turning the switch in “ON” position. Meter should read close
to zero. If not, lift and turn the “ZERO” knob to bring the reading exactly to “0”.
4. Couple the sampling hose to the instrument’s inlet pipe, which is located on the
left-hand end, and also connect the probe to the end of the hose.
5. Admit a sample of some combustible gas to the end of probe and confirm that the
meter rises upscale.
Instrument is adjusted and ready to use. Now it may be turned off and carried to the
job area. To run a gas test, proceed as follow:
9.4.12.3 Interpretation
Meter readings are taken on a scale graduated 0 – 100% LEL. The abbreviation LEL
stands for Lower Explosive Limit and represents the lowest concentration which can
be ignited by a source of ignition, hence the lowest concentration which can produce
an explosion. This quantity is also spoken as the LFL – Lower Flammable Limit.
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The mode GP – 204 is calibrated before shipment to read directly in percent of LEL of
iso-butane in air, based on the known LEL for iso-butane of 1,8% by volume. This
1,8% by volume will produce a reading of 100% LEL and lower concentrations will
be read in proportion.
9.4.12.4 Maintenance
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similar but enclosed reference filament, should be replaced if zero cannot be set
within range of “ZERO ADJ.”, or if reading cannot be set high enough on a calibration
gas, using calibration potentiometer.
1. Loosen the two panel hold-down screws, remove and invert top panel.
2. With switch off, loosen (do not remove) the three screws holding the terminals for
red, black and white wires. Pull wires from terminal.
3. Remove the two Phillips head screws holding cross-shaped element retainer in
place. Pull out both filaments and replace with new ones in same position.
4. Check that gaskets are in place on element before installation. Be sure that the
active (black wire) filament is in the cavity with the flame arrestor. Install wires on
terminals as before.
5. Turn instrument on and adjust zero.
6. If a calibration gas is available reset span.
9.4.12.5 Batteries
The model GP-204 is furnished with two standard size “D” dry cells. These dry cells
(UM-1/1,5 size D/R 20 Maxell 100) will give 3 hours (maximum) of operating time.
When meter cannot be set as high as the “Check” line with switch in “VOLT ADJ:”
position and “VOLT ADJ.” knob all the way clockwise, batteries require replacement
or recharging.
To replace batteries, remove instrument from hazardous area. Take the instrument
out of the leather case, and loosen the coin slotted captive screw found in centre of
bottom plate. Remove bottom plate, exposing batteries in their spring contact
holders. Pull old batteries out and install new ones in the same position. Observing
polarity as marked on holder.
Flame arrestor
The active filament is installed within a sintered bronze porous metal cup, which acts
as a flame arrestor to retain explosions that may occur when sampling explosive
gas/air mixtures. The flame arrestor may be removed by taking out the four screws
that hold the plate in which the elements are installed. If flame arrestor is dusty,
wet, oily or corroded, it must be cleaned or replaced.
Preferred cleaning method is by washing in detergent solution, rinsing from the
inside out, and drying thoroughly in air. Before re-installing flame arrestor in
instrument, be sure that the reaction chamber cavity and incoming lines are clean
and dry.
Meter Lamp
The meter lamp is on whenever the instrument is on, and provides illumination to
permit reading meter in dark places. If lamp fails, replace it as follows:
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1. Remove four screws holding top plate to the top panel. Take off top plate
exposing lamp. Loosen set of screws, which lock lamp wires to terminal and pull the
lamp out. Install new lamp in the same position.
· Mixtures between LEL and Upper Explosive Limit (UEL) readings at top of meter.
· Mixtures above UEL – When a sample is introduced, the meter is sent to the top of
scale, then comes back down on scale or below, depending upon concentration. Very
rich mixtures will give a zero or negative reading. The alarm circuit thus insures that
a very rich sample will not be overlooked, as it could otherwise be with a simple
indicating instrument.
4. Oxygen deficient mixtures - Samples, which do not have the normal proportion of
oxygen, may tend to read low if there is not enough oxygen to react with all
combustible gas present in the sample. As a general rule, samples containing 10%
oxygen or more have enough oxygen to give a full reading on any combustible gas
sample up to the LEL.
5. Oxygen enriched mixtures - Samples having more than the normal proportion of
oxygen will give a normal reading. However, they should be avoided because the
flame arrestor used is not dense enough to arrest flames from combustible gas in
oxygen, which can be much more intense than those in air can. Do not attempt to
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Instruments up to serial no. 2983 are approved by “Factory Mutual” for use in class
1, division 1, groups B, C and D hazardous locations. Report 25243 dated August
30th, 1975 applies.
Seaworthiness - Lloyds has approved the analyser as suitable for shipboard use.
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Specification Specification
0-10%, 0-25%, 0-
100% O2. Selected
by front panel
Oxygen ranges
switch. Indication
on front panel
meter.
Range:
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“dumb-bell”, which seals the gas surrounding it. The dumb-bell is suspended in a
symmetrical non-uniform magnetic field, and being slightly diamagnetic, it takes up a
position away from the most intense part of the field. When the surrounding gas
contains oxygen, the dumb-bell spheres are pushed further out of the field by the
relatively strongly paramagnetic oxygen. The strength of the torque acting on the
dumb-bell will be proportional to the paramagnetism of the surrounding gas: it can
therefore be used as a measure of the oxygen concentration.
The only common gases having comparable paramagnetic susceptibility are NO, NO2
and CO2. A magnetic oxygen analyser cannot therefore be used where these gases
occur in the mixture other than in trace amounts. It is important to note, however,
that in the direct method of measuring susceptibility no other physical property of
the gases has any significant effect.
The heart of the Servomex analyser is a measuring cell using these principles, but
having a rare metal suspension in place of the delicate materials used in earlier
designs. The “zero” position of the dumb-bell is sensed by a split photocell receiving
light reflected from a mirror on the suspension. The output from the photocell is
amplified and fed back to a coil wound on the dumb-bell, so that the torque, due to
the oxygen in the sample, is balanced by a restoring torque, due to the feedback
current. The measuring system is thus “null-balanced”, and has all the inherent
advantages of this type of system.
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Because of the extremely linear relationship between the feedback current and the
susceptibility of the sample, a proportional output voltage can be developed, and
various ranges can be obtained by means of a switched attenuator. Linearity of scale
also makes it possible to calibrate the instrument for all ranges by checking at two
points only. For example, accurate calibration is obtained by using nitrogen for zero
and air for setting the span at 21%
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A battery strap is provided for easy removal of old batteries. The batteries must be
installed with the correct polarity, as indicated by + and - signs moulded into the
plastic holder.
The stud of a 1,5V battery is “+” and the base “-”. These batteries will not make
contact if fitted the wrong way round. The 9V battery has a terminal clip that can
only mate when the battery is correctly positioned.
Care must be taken, when fitting new batteries, not to damage the gasket sealing
the edge of the battery compartment. If the analyser is to be stored for a longer
period of time, remove the batteries.
Do not replace batteries in a hazardous area
9.4.13.6 Calibration
Frequency of calibration - Check the zero adjustment weekly. If there is a large
difference in ambient temperature between the point of measurement and the last
calibration, it is advised that calibration should be rechecked.
The span adjustment should be checked daily when in use, due to variance in
atmospheric pressure.
Set Zero - Switch the control to 10% range. Introduce oxygen free nitrogen into the
instrument at a pressure between 1 to 2 psig. (7 to 14 kPa). Stop the gas flow.
Adjust the screw for zero adjustment so that the meter reads 0% oxygen.
9.4.13.7 Span
Switch the control to the 25% range. Introduce dry air into the instrument at a
pressure between 1 and 2 psig (7 to 14 kPa).
The hand aspirator and a drying tube are convenient for this. Stop the gas flow.
Adjust the screw for the span adjustment so that the meter reads 21% oxygen on
the 0-25% scale.
When changing from air or oxygen to nitrogen or vice versa, ensure that the filter,
cell and sample lines have been purged thoroughly. One minute with the standard
hand aspirator should be enough. With long sample lines a pump is recommended.
When using the instrument for higher concentrations of oxygen it is recommended
that pure oxygen is used on the 0-100% range for optimum accuracy.
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To prevent possible damage, it is not recommended that air or pure oxygen be put
into the analyser when it is switched to the 0-10% range.
CAUTION.
The drying tube must always be used, unless the sample is known to be dry. The
analyser will be damaged if water or liquids are allowed to get into the instrument.
However, the crystals can be regenerated by removing from the drying tube and
drying in an oven at about 110-1200C.
9.4.13.9 Maintenance
WARNINGS
Only qualified personnel who are familiar
with good workshop practice should do
maintenance of the analyser.
Replacement parts should be to the
quality specified by Servomex in the part
lists. The use of inferior replacement
components may degrade the
performance of the analyser and
invalidate any certificates, which may
apply.
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6. Withdraw the measuring cell and replace it with a new cell type 286. When fitting
a new cell, ensure that the ball of the dumbbell, which is nearest to the cell window,
is nearest the front panel.
7. Tighten the remaining screws in the reverse order described for the removal of the
cell.
8. Solder the electrical connections to the solder pins on the cell. Black to the pin
with a black spot near it and yellow to the pin with a yellow spot.
9. Reconnect the cell gas connections.
10. Adjust the zero and span of the analyser.
Should the analyser not zero or the adjustment is at one end of its travel, readjust
the photocells. It may not be possible to span the analyser, in this case change R23
on the printed circuit board 00262905, to a value, which gives a reading with air
between 20 and 22 % oxygen. For circuit diagram, see the instruction manual.
Any doubts about the analyser or its equipment, contact the manufacturer or any of
the manufacturer's agents.
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1. Summary
Riken portable oxygen indicator, Model OX-226 and OX-227 provide a quick,
convenient method for determination of oxygen content of any atmosphere. It is
intended primarily as an indicator of oxygen deficiency, with good readability from 0
– 25%. The instrument is routinely calibrated on normal atmospheric oxygen
concentration (21%). These models are most suitable and recommended for testing
tanks, manholes, vessels and other spaces to determine safety from the standpoints
of oxygen deficiency before entering and while work is in progress.
2. Principle
The oxygen cell operates by an electro-chemical process in which a voltage is set up
between two electrodes. Under a test where one electrode is exposed to the
atmosphere, a change in oxygen concentration on this electrode produces a
proportional change in the cell’s output voltage.
Therefore, an increase in oxygen concentration will “speed up” the electro-chemical
process, producing a higher output voltage, and a decrease in oxygen concentration
will “slow down” the process, lowering the output voltage. The centre electrode is
exposed to the atmosphere by means of a Teflon membrane placed directly in
contact with the polished top surface. This Teflon membrane serves two functions
simultaneously. First, it has the ability to pass oxygen molecules freely, thus placing
the electrode in direct contact with the atmosphere and secondly, it keeps the
electrolyte contained in the cavity between the two electrodes.
3. Measurement procedure
a). Preparation - Connect the sampling hose (6) to the gas sampling probe (7) and
then connect it to the gas inlet of the instrument.
b). Voltage checks of battery - Turn the control switch (1) to “Batt” zone and check
the meter needle marks inside of “Batt” zone. If the case of model OX-226, the
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4. Measurement
After finishing the above procedure items 1, 2 and 3, the instrument is ready to run.
Introduce the sampling probe to the source and start measurement. In the case of
Model OX-226, when the oxygen concentration is less than 18% by volume, alarm
light (4) illuminates and it gives us the warning of oxygen deficiency by buzzer
sound.
Caution
1. Check the flow pump by the flow monitor during operation.
2. Operate the instrument in leather case when in use.
3. The replacement of batteries and recharging procedure must be done in non-
hazardous areas.
5.Maintenance procedure
The replacement of batteries and recharging procedure.
a). Take off the leather case from the instrument and turn the battery box knob (11)
to “open” position.
b). Pull out the whole battery box and replace the batteries with new ones.
c). When the replacement of batteries is finished, put back the battery box in correct
position and turn the battery box knobs (11) to “Lock” position with finger press.
Replacement procedure (Ni-Cd battery).
When Ni-Cd batteries are used for the instrument, detach the label (12) of charging
inlet and insert the exclusive charger to the charging jack, and plug the charger into
AC 100V. The recharging takes 15 hours.
Replacement of sensor.
When the meter needle can not be adjusted to 21% by turning the span adjusting
knob and the indication of meter needle gets unstable, this is the sign to replace the
sensor. In this case, take off the bottom screws of the instrument and remove the
cover. The cover comes off by sliding it sidewise. Turn the sensor to left and adjust
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the mark to “open”. Now the sensor can be removed. Insert the new sensor and turn
it in clockwise direction to the mark “lock”. Place the cover back.
Replacement of filter
The filters are filled in the gas-sampling probe and in instrument. When they appear
dirty, replace them with new ones.
Take off the tip of the sampling probe by turning the metal part of roulette and
replace the cotton filter with a new one.
Pull out the filter holder (10) of the instrument’s flank and take out the filter. Replace
it with a new one.
Zero adjustment
As the zero adjustment is factory set, there is no need of zero adjustment procedure
in normal operation. But, when it is high sensitive type instrument such as Model OX-
227A with 0-5 and 0-25% etc., make zero adjustment. Induct 100% clean nitrogen
and turn the adjusting screw to bring the needle to zero.
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Various chemical substances are used for tube fillings, depending on the gas to be
analysed. For some gases there are several types of tubes, so that there are tubes
for measuring very low concentrations and for measuring larger concentration
ranges. In some cases two scales will be marked on the tube, corresponding to
different numbers of pump strokes.
It is important that the pump is checked to see if it is tight before it is being used,
sealing the opening with an unused detector tube does this. The bellows should then
use more than 10 minutes to expand for the pump to be satisfactory. Cleaning the
valves, according to the instructions accompanying the instrument may usually
eliminate any leakage that has arisen.
To avoid corrosion, the pump must be purged with air by performing a number of
pumping strokes each time after use.
To perform measurements with difficult accessibility, an extension hose may be
used. The detector tube is placed in the suction of the hose.
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Features
1. Quick and inexpensive to use.
2. A reliable method of testing more than 120 hazardous gases and vapours.
3. Kwik-draw pumps offer accurate one-handed automatic stroke counter and unique
end of stroke indicator on deluxe version.
4. Tubes are printed with easy-to-read scales.
5. Specialised kits are available for use in HAZMAT work and underground storage
tank applications.
Description
SA’s Kwik-Draw and Kwik-Draw Deluxe Pumps can be used with an assortment of
MSA detector tubes to spot-test the atmosphere for a wide variety of toxic
substances. Kwik-Draw Pumps are designed for one-hand operation and consistent
delivery of a sample draw volume of 100 millilitres (ml). The pumps are constructed
with a shaft-guided compression system for a more consistent and replicable flow
rate and volume per stroke than may be available with hand-guided pumps. MSA
offers detector tubes for measuring more than 150 gases and vapours.
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handle. To obtain a precise (100ml) sample volume, the user simply grasps the
handgrip and pushes the knob. The pump’s compression system provides the guiding
action to drive a spring-loaded bellow pump.
An internal easy-to-read stroke counter shows the exact number of strokes
performed and provides a positive stop when the stroke is fully compressed.
A second model, the Kwik-Draw Deluxe Pump has a unique end-of-stroke indicator
that “winks” after the precise volume of air is drawn, confirming that enough air has
been sampled for a successful reading.
Detector tubes.
MSA/Auer detectors are made of glass, have break-off tips and are filled with treated
chemical granules for sampling a variety of substances. Most MSA/Auer detector
tubes are packaged 10 in a box.
For ordering information, see the Detector Tube Summary Chart which follows the
Detector. After selecting the appropriate tube, the user would break off the tubes’
end tips and attach the tube to the sampling pump. After air is drawn through the
tube by the pump, the chemical layer in the tube changes colour if the test gas or
vapour is present in the air.
The length or shade of the colour-change, indicates the concentration of the gas or
vapour in the air. A scale is printed on each tube for interpretation of data.
Controlled Interchange ability of MSA/AUER Detector Tubes and Pumps with Other
Manufacturers’ Tubes and Pumps.
As long as a pump meets the following criteria, it may be used with any detector
tube designed for use with that kind of pump. Pumps meeting these criteria are
interchangeable.
1. The characteristics of the pump- volume per stroke, sampling time and flow –
must be within the same accuracy range.
2. The detector tubes must have an outer diameter of 7 mm and be factory-
calibrated with a pump that meets the criteria of (1) above.
3. The manufacturer of tubes and pumps must operate under a certified quality
assurance program.
Based on these criteria, the following pumps are interchangeable:
· MSA's Kwik-Draw Pumps.
· AUER's Gas Tester II H Pump.
· Dräger's Model 31 Bellow Pump.
· Dräger's Accuro Pump.
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Filter Disc - This porous plastic disc mounted in the rubber tube holder protects the
pump from dirt and dust particles, which may alter the flow or damage the pump.
Exhaust Valve - Located under the valve cover, this valve closes as the bellow re-
inflates, and readily opens on the exhaust stroke so that blow-back through the tube
holder is negligible.
Stroke counter - For convenience, a stroke counter is incorporated into the pump
handle.
End-of-stroke indicator - As the bellow begins to re-inflate, and after the knob is
released, the indicator eyeball turns high visibility green. As the vacuum decreases,
the eye begins to roll back to black. The stroke is over when the eye is all black.
Note! - Kwik-Draw Pump (part no. 488543) does not have an end-of-stroke indicator.
Operation
· Using the breaker on the pump, break off both tips of the detector tube.
· Using a twisting motion, insert the tube into the rubber tube holder. The arrow on
the tube should point toward the pump.
· With all four fingers on the handle, depress the knob with your palm.
Note! Watch the stroke counter to ensure proper sample volume, the counter will
only advance if a full pump stroke is taken.
· Release the knob.
Note! If your pump does not have the end-of-stroke indicator, wait 30 seconds after
full bellow inflation to ensure that all 100cc of the sample has been drawn through
the tube. The detector tube must be held in the sampling area during this period.
· To evaluate the stain, follow the instructions provided with the detector tubes.
Remote sampling
Remote sampling is accomplished by putting the pump, connecting tube, remote
sampling line and detector tube together, in this order.
Maintenance
Under conditions of normal use, this pump should require little maintenance.
Depending on the frequency of use, periodic cleaning and checks for correct
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performance as recommended.
Tube holder - Replace tube holder when it shows signs of wear or loss of elasticity. If
filter is not clogged or cracked, save the filter discs for re-use in new tube holder.
Filter disc - Periodically remove the filter disc for cleaning or replacement.
Remove filter disc from tube holder by rolling flange part of tube holder down and
away from the disc.
Gently tap or blow on the surface to remove any foreign matter.
Replace disc so previously exposed surface is once again facing away from pump.
Shaft
If shaft becomes dirty or if bellow inflation is jerky, remove shaft by unscrewing,
then clean with auto wax.
Valves
1. With the valve cover removed, check the valves for dirt or debris.
1. Plug pump inlet by inserting an unbroken detector tube into tube holder.
2. Deflate pump fully, release, and wait 10 minutes. The pump is leak-free if the
distance from the bellow to the frame is ½ inch or greater after 10 minutes. If the
pump leaks check the tube holder and, if necessary, the valves (see Maintenance).
After repair, re-test for leakage.
Warning! Use of a pump that leaks may result in the under-estimation of a hazard
and could result in property damage, injury or death.
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In point “E”, the measurements are HC= 1% and O2= 15,3%. The hydrocarbon gas
concentrations are now below LEL and the explosimeter can be used. It is also
possible to calculate the explosimeter reading ahead of the measuring by using the
formula where measured HC gas is multiplied by 100 and divided by LEL. In our
example, the explosimeter in point “E” will show (1 x 100): 1,5 = 66,67% of LEL.
After sufficient venting the measuring in point “B” will be HC= 0% and O2= 21%.
The tank is ready to enter.
After inspection/repairing, the tank(s) must be re-inerted before arrival at loading
port in order to achieve the required tank atmosphere according to the regulations in
force.
Example “2” .
The above example is based on propane cargo. In the example, nitrogen and air are
used for tank purging and air venting. Follow the diagram for propane.
After some time purging with nitrogen, a measurement is taken at point “A”: HC=
12% and O2= 0%.
Just like in example “1”, a line is drawn from point “B” toward point “C” on the left
side of the diagram by keeping sufficient clearance from the flammable zone.
Continue to purge with nitrogen until reaching point “C” where the measurements
are HC= 3,75% and O2= 0%.
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Stop purging with nitrogen at point “C”. Start dilution with air. All measurements will
now follow the straight line toward point “B”.
Take a measurement at point “D” which is HC= 2,4% and 02= 8%. When the LEL
for propane is 2,1% by volume, it is too early to use the explosimeter.
At point “E”, the measurements are HC= 1% and 02= 15,25%. The explosimeter will
in point “E” show (1x100) : 2,1 = 48% of LEL.
After sufficient dilution, point “B” end up with measurements of HC= 0% and 02=
21%.
After inspection/repairing etc., the tank must be treated according to routines and
regulations.
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10 Cargo pumps
10.1 Classification and selection of pumps
There are a number of different pump types. Each type has its own special quality
and therefore certain advantages and disadvantages. The selection of pumps is
determined by a thorough study of the capacity needs and under which operational
conditions the pump will operate. The following factors are important when you
evaluate these conditions:
· Capacity requirement
· Capacity range
· Suction terms
Selection of the right pump for a determined purpose qualifies a close co-operation
between the customer and the producer of the pump. The customer has a special
responsibility to clarify all conditions concerning the pump installation, so the
producer can choose the best pump from his product range with the best match.
When you choose a pump you must find out how much the pump needs to deliver
under a specific condition. Definition of capacity range is important. Demand for
capacity or capacity range and expected discharge pressure must be specified. The
capacity requirement is determined by the intended use of the pump. The discharge
pressure is determined by various conditions where the pump’s delivery pipeline
design, the capacity of the pump and the liquid’s characteristics, is the essential.
Alternative installation locations of the pump are limited due to special demands from
Class and Shipping Authorities and also from lack of space.
The liquid’s properties and which other arrangements you have to consider, often
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limits the options. Density, viscosity and boiling point are important properties to
consider. The liquid temperature and corrosive properties are important factors when
pump material is selected.
The pump’s suction condition is determined from where the pump is located in
relation to the liquid to be pumped. A given suction pipe creates a certain resistance
that will have influence on the pump capacity. The main principle is to minimise
resistance on the suction side by decreasing the suction pipe length, have the largest
diameter possible and few as possible restrictions in form of bends, valves and so on.
The different types of pumps are divided into two main groups, displacement and
kinetic pumps. The displacement pumps displace the liquid by reducing the volume
inside the pump. An example is a piston pump where the piston is moving up and
down inside a cylinder or when the screws revolve inside a screw pump. Kinetic
pumps (kinetic energy is equal to “movement” energy) increase the liquid’s velocity
through the pump.
The diagram below gives a brief view of the different available groups and types of
pumps. The diagram would be more comprehensive if the pumps were divided in all
details according to number of rotors, design of pump inlet/outlet and flow
directions.
A kinetic pump like the centrifugal pump increases the liquid’s velocity in the pump
by means of a rotating impeller. A displacement pump, like the piston pump,
mechanically displaces the liquid in the pump, either by help of a piston or screws.
Resistance on delivery side gives a liquid pressure rise (pump delivery pressure). One
should be aware of this difference for these two pump types.
The pressure rise on a kinetic pump is restricted by the increase in velocity over the
pump, which is controlled by the pump design. All kinetic pumps therefor have a
designed or built-in limitation for maximum discharge pressure. The displacement
pumps limitation depends only on available power and the constructional strength. In
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contrast to a kinetic pump, such a pump will operate against resistance with all its
available power. A closed-delivery valve on a displacement pump is damaging. The
same closed delivery valve for a kinetic pump will not bring any immediate danger.
Piston pumps and screw pumps have good suction capacity and are used where
these characteristics are required. The weakness of these pumps is the complex
construction and the relatively low capacity.
Centrifugal pumps are simply constructed with few parts and no valves. There are no
immediate problems if the outlet of the pump is closed. These qualities result in
relative low purchase and servicing costs. Operation at high speed makes the pump
small in proportion compared to the capacity and flexibility in relation to the pump’s
location.
The most negative side of using a centrifugal pump is the lack of self-priming
capacity. This weakness is improved by constructional efforts and positioning, which
consolidate the free flow of liquid. Location of a pump, for instance below the liquid
level, can reduce the flow resistance. High viscosity liquids are therefore particularly
difficult to pump due to this condition.
A centrifugal pump’s efficiency is high only within a small range. This is the reason it
is especially important to have a clear understanding of what capacity range the
pump will operate under, in connection with the selection of a centrifugal pump.
The differential pressure over each impeller is relatively low. Using so-called
multistage pumps where several impellers are mounted in serial, increase the pump’s
capacity to deliver against higher backpressure.
A centrifugal pump will, without a non-return valve on delivery side, give complete
back flow at the time the pump stops. For all operators of centrifugal pumps, this
relationship is important to know
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The propellant (driving water), is forced through a nozzle into a mixer tube. The
velocity of the propellant will naturally increase as it passes through the nozzle. Due
to the propellant’s velocity and direction, plus the friction force between the
propellant and the liquid, the surrounding liquid will be sucked into the ejector’s
mixer tube. The mixer tube is connected to an expanding tube, the diffusor. Here
some of the kinetic energy supplied to the liquid in the mixer tube is transformed
into potential energy. The capacity depends on the friction force between the two
mediums, suction head, delivery head and the propellant’s velocity. The ejector has
the advantage that it does not lose the suction capacity even if it sucks air or vapour.
The ejector’s efficiency is between 30% and 40%. Even if the propellant’s efficiency
is up to approximately 70%, the total efficiency for the whole ejector system is far
less than compared to a pump system, such as a centrifugal pump. Another
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drawback with ejectors is that the propellant is mixed with the pumping liquid. This
implies that if the ejector is to be used in cargo transfer operation, the cargo itself
must be used as propellant liquid.
Tips
· Be aware that the ejector has a limitation on the propellant’s pressure. Higher
pressure than recommended by the supplier may result in reduced suction capacity.
· Start the ejector by opening all valves on delivery side first, and then adjust the
correct propellant pressure. The ejector’s suction valves should be opened last, which
will prevent the propellant’s flow back into the tank that is to be stripped.
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As the drawing shows the ejector is positioned 3 meters above the liquid level. The
liquid level in the slop tank is 15 meters above the ejector and the propellant's
pressure is 8 bars. The ejector’s capacity can be found by use of the performance
curve for the specific ejector.
In the performance curve the ejector capacity is set as a function of the propellant
pressure. Observe that this curve has curves for different suction lifts. The different
performance curves are marked with different suction lifts. The ejector’s suction lift
in this example is 3 meters; this specific curve shall be used.
You can find the capacity of the ejector by drawing a vertical line from 8 bars on the
scale for a delivery head of 15 meters and up to the performance curve with a
suction lift of 3 meters. From this point of intersection, draw a horizontal line to the
left and over to the ejector’s capacity side. The found capacity in this case is 600
m3/h.
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The inlet at the end of the blade will have a precise velocity and direction, marked
ua. The direction is the key to the circle of the point. The size of the vector is given
by the angular velocity of the rotor-blade wheel, w. The connection between the
sizes, can be expressed as:
ua = w x r when w = 2 x p x T
The liquid particle will, at point A, be affected by power, from the blade marked Fua.
The energy works in the same direction as the velocity vector ua. It means that the
particle performs power F that is equal, but in the opposite direction as Fua, which is
toward the blade housing.
When the blade influences a liquid particle, the particle achieves a certain velocity.
The velocity is causing the particle’s centrifugal force, F, which has a direction
leading straight out from the centre. This force gives the liquid particle certain
acceleration, a., the relation between proportions may be expressed as:
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Fsa = m x a or a = Fsa/m
As we see from the sketch, the energy forces Fsa and F1 to produce energy, marked
F.
When the rotor-blade wheel is rotating, the liquid particles will move lengthways
along the blade because of the centrifugal force. Since the blade governs the liquid,
the relative velocity will have the same direction as the blade. The relative velocity
factor will try to accelerate the particle, but the liquid’s inner friction (viscosity)
resists and reduces the centrifugal force influence. If the only consideration is the
liquid’s viscosity, the relative velocity will achieve a certain proportion when the inner
friction compensates for the centrifugal acceleration. The system is in balance and a
certain relative liquid velocity is achieved. The relative velocity is a direct expression
of the flow through the rotor-blade wheel (the pump).
The liquid particles are influenced by the relative velocity vector (V) and the blade’s
velocity vector (U). The resulting velocity vector gives the particle’s absolute velocity
(C). This vector (C) determines the particle’s track through the rotor-blade wheel.
In the point “D” the liquid particles leave the rotor-blade wheel. As a result of the
relative velocity vector (Vd) and the rotor-blade wheel’s velocity vector (Ud), an
absolute velocity (Cd) has been achieved with direction and proportion.
The blade’s deflection will determine the relative direction of the liquid that comes
out of the rotor-blade wheel. When it is the blade that set the liquid in motion, you
see that the liquid’s absolute velocity can never exceed the rotor-blade wheel’s
peripheral speed.
The rotor-blade wheel sets the liquid in motion; i.e. the liquid is supplied with kinetic
energy, Wk. This energy is transformed to potential energy, Ws, and/or pressure
energy, Wt. The connection between these energy forms may be expressed as:
or:
Wk = Ws = Wt
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If the pump is connected to a high riser, the liquid will stabilise at a certain level. All
kinetic energy is transformed to potential energy. The centrifugal pump’s lifting
height, H, is then:
½ mv2 = mgH
H = v2/2g
The pump’s lifting height is dependent on the liquid’s mass and consequently, the
liquid’s density.
If a centrifugal pump is running against a closed valve, all the kinetic energy will be
transformed to pressure energy. The pressure after the pump is then:
½ mv2 = mp/r
p = ½ v2r
Also, the pressure after the pump is proportional with the liquid’s density.
Ht1 = Cd2/2g
Ht1 = Ud2/2g
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The volume flow is determined by the liquid’s density. When the lifting height is at a
minimum, the volume flow will be at a maximum. The theoretical pump
characterisation, QHt1, which emerged, will be linear.
But in our example, we only have one rotor-blade wheel. The liquid’s absolute
velocity will be less than the peripheral speed. A new pump characterisation, which
has adapted real velocity, is shown on the diagram to you right (marked QHt2).
In all pumps a certain loss will always occur. The friction between the liquid, the
rotor-blade wheel and deflection loss can be empirically set to:
h1 = k1 x Q2
In addition, it is entrance loss and shock loss, which are theoretically set at:
h2 = k2 x (Q - Qs)2
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This will occur when the liquid’s relative velocity into the blade has the same
direction as the inlet blade. The loss curves h1 and h2 give a resultant loss curve, h3.
From the theoretical pump characterisation QH1, 2 and the resultant loss curve, h3,
a theoretical calculated pump curve emerged, marked QH.
If the delivery pipeline from the pump is open to the atmosphere and has sufficient
height, the liquid will adjust itself to a precise level given by the energy, which was
added to the liquid through the impeller. Here, all kinetic energy is transformed into
potential energy.
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The difference in liquid level is called net delivery head. A pump’s delivery head is
dependent on the individual pump’s construction. If the level in the tank is lowered,
the liquid level in the delivery pipeline will be correspondingly lower. Net delivery
heads (H1, H2, H3) will be equal for the same pump provided that flow disturbance
does not occur on the pump’s suction side.
However, the pump’s delivery pressure is dependent on the liquid’s density and
delivery head. In this case, the liquid is water with a density (r) of 1000 kg/m3 and
the head (H) is 100 meters, the manometer pressure (pm) after the pump will be
read at:
pm = 9,81 bars
One can see from the previous example that the delivery head of the pump is
obtained from the pump itself, and that the delivery head is independent from the
pump’s position or location. It is therefore natural that the centrifugal pump’s
capacity always is given as a function of the pump’s delivery head.
If you bend the discharge pipe from the previous example, like the illustration below,
the liquid will flow out of the pipe. Only a part of the added energy in the pump will
“lift” the liquid. The rest of the energy is still in the form of kinetic energy. From the
previous taught experiment, one can predict that the capacity of a centrifugal pump
will be highest at minimal delivery head. The capacity curve (Q-H curve) will, in
practice, follow this assumption, but the curve is not linear due to loss of energy in
the pump.
If you ignore the pipe resistance, the capacity Q in this situation is determined by the
delivery head (H). The delivery head here is the static height or the static
backpressure, which the liquid has to lift.
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In a real pipe system, bends and valves will create a resistance due to friction
against free liquid flow. This resistance varies with the velocity and viscosity of the
liquid, and is called the dynamic backpressure. The total pipe resistance, composed
by the static and the dynamic backpressure, is called a system characteristic curve.
The intersection point between the system characteristic curve and the capacity
curve is called the actual operation point.
It was previously mentioned that disturbances on the pump’s suction side would
have influence on the capacity.
The conditions on the inlet side are very important for the centrifugal pump’s
operation. A centrifugal pump has normally no self-priming qualities, meaning that
the pump is not able to suck liquid from a lower level. Additional vacuum equipment
connected to the pump will, however, improve the pump's self-priming qualities.
When the inlet pipe and impeller is filled with liquid, the pumping process will be able
to continue without this equipment. The liquid’s viscosity may ensure a continual flow
into the pump. Too high resistance in the inlet pipe will cause the same operational
disturbance. If the flow into the pump is less than the outlet flow, due to too high
pipe resistance and/or too high viscosity, these factors will have considerable
influence on the pump’s capacity.
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If you start a pump, submerged in water like the sketch indicates, the pump will
have a specific capacity at a specific delivery head. If you gradually lift the pump, the
pump will, at a specific height, have a perceptible reduction in the capacity. When
this occurs, the height of the pump above liquid level is called Net Positive Suction
Head or NPSH.
The explanation of this phenomena is that when the pump is lifted up out off the
water, the pipe length and the resistance at the inlet side increases. The increased
resistance creates constant negative pressure on the inlet side of the pump. The
liquid that accelerates from the centre of the impeller and out to the periphery
increases this negative pressure. When the negative pressure reaches the liquid’s
saturation pressure, the liquid starts boiling and a large quantity of vapour is created
in the pump. The output from the pump become irregular, and will stop at huge
vapour volumes. We say that the pump cavitates.
· Reduced efficiency
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done by constructing the pipeline as short as possible, limiting the number of bends
and selecting a maximum diameter on the pipeline. The pump should be positioned
at the lowest possible level, and preferably below liquid level at the suction side.
A pump’s NPSH is variable and dependent on the flow. When the flow increases, the
negative pressure generated inside the pump increases. A reduction of the flow will
reduce the negative pressure. Reducing the pump’s capacity may therefore control
and reduce the cavitation.
The capacity may also be adjusted by changing the revolution on the pump.
Adjustments of the pump’s revolution move the capacity curve up or down.
Reduction of the revolution moves the curve parallel downwards, an increase in
revolution, upwards. Note that these relations are valid only if the flow conditions are
unchanged.
All manufacturers supply a pump performance diagram with the pump delivery. The
curves in the diagram are results from practical tests in the manufacturers workshop
and specifies:
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· Number of revolutions
The operation point is normally set at the best possible efficiency, simultaneously
within the pump’s predicted capacity range.
It is important to be aware that the pump’s diagram is made for a special liquid with
specific properties. The capacity curve will be real for all liquids, provided the free
flow to the pump inlet is not restricted due to for example too high viscosity. The
power consumption curve will of course depend on the fluid’s density.
A pump’s condition is of course vital for the curve accuracy. There are a lot of
methods to check the centrifugal pump’s condition. Monitoring the pump’s delivery
head, capacity, power consumption and development of these is obvious. Detection
of many minor operational disturbances may be difficult and not necessarily
observed. Establishment of routines ensures continuous control of vibrations. Visual
inspection of the pump and regular maintenance is important to prevent break
down.
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Due to the length of the shaft, the pump has a limited rotation speed. This leads to a
reduced delivery head for a single stage pump. The pump is therefore built with
multiple stages. Shaft bearings are located between each stage in the pump unit and
with even intervals along the shaft. These bearings can be made of PTFE
preservative carbon that have self-lubricating qualities.
The top unit consists of an axial bearing, a double mechanical shaft seal, revision
ring and an upper ball bearing.
The axial bearing is a roller bearing that holds the entire weight of the shaft and
impellers. The bearing house is usually
provided with cooling ribs to maintain an acceptable oil temperature. The purpose of
the double mechanical shaft seal is to prevent leakage of cargo into the environment,
and leakage of air into the cargo. The oil in the seal lubricates the seal surfaces, and
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“quarantee” an operation without leak or other problems. If we got a leak in the seal
the oil must not came in contact with the cargo. The revision ring in the mechanical
seal functions normally as a deflector that will lead a leakage of seal oil into a special
chamber. This chamber can be drained.
A second function for the revision ring is to prevent leakage of cargo vapour along
the shaft when renewal of the mechanical seal. If the axial bearing nut is loose, the
shaft will drop down and the revision ring will land on a seat below.
The top carbon shaft bearing, must like the other shaft bearings, be lubricated by the
cargo itself. One can thereby not avoid contact between the cargo and the seal oil in
the top unit. Control of compatibility between the seal oil and actual cargo is
therefore important. The seal oil should not pollute the cargo or generate hazardous
reactions when mixed with the cargo.
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· Check pump unit guides clearances inside the cargo tank when possible.
· Check for lose bolts and nuts inside the cargo tank when possible.
· Always carefully check the cargo tank and sump for rags and other lose objects
before the hatch is closed.
· Always check the motor’s running direction before the coupling is fitted. Wrong
direction may result in shaft damage.
· Always regularly check the “anti rotation device”, if fitted.
· Always check lubrication oil level and seal oil level, pressurise before the pump is
started.
· Regularly check seal oil and lubrication oil levels when the pump is running.
· Always turn the pump before start.
· Check and adjust the pump’s safety device.
· Running of deepwell pump without liquid is the most common reason for
breakdown. Stop the pump when the tank is liquid free, do not force operation of the
pump and do not run the pump against a closed delivery valve for too long a time.
· These pumps are operating without vibration and related noise. Stop the pump
immediately if this occurs.
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Submerged pumps are multistage centrifugal pumps that are often used as discharge
pumps on large LNG and LPG tankers. The motor and pump are submerged down in
the tank sump or as close to the tank bottom as possible. The motor is connected
directly to the pump with a short shaft on this type of pump. The liquid that is
pumped lubricates and cools the pump’s bearings. It is therefore essential that the
pump is used only when there is liquid in the tank. The liquid is pumped up through
the tank’s discharge pipe and up to the liquid line.This type of pump is equipped with
electrical motor. The cables to the electric motor are either made of copper or
stainless steel. If copper is used in the cable, the cables must be sheathed with
stainless steel to prevent damage on the cable from corrosive cargoes. When
transporting Ammonia, the cable and engine must be sheathed with a thin layer of
stainless steel. It is important that the stainless steel sheathing is kept unbroken, and
we must avoid a sharp bend on the cable to protect the stainless steel sheath. One
must at all times check the resistance of the cable insulation before starting the
pump.
Submerged pumps are also installed as portable pumps. The discharge pipe is then
the steering pipe for the pump. At the bottom of the discharge pipe it is a non-return
valve that opens when pump is lowered and shut when the pump is taken up. Before
opening the discharge pipe it must be gas freed, this is done either with inert gas or
Nitrogen.
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The booster pumps onboard gas carriers have mainly an individual and compact
design. They are constructed with focus on reliability, simple maintenance and long
lifetime. The shaft seal, with double mechanical seal with sealing liquid, is similar to
the arrangement of the deepwell pump.
The bearing is lubricated by oil; the liquid lubricates the inner shaft bearings.
The following general regulations are existing for working a booster pump:
· Turn the pump shaft regularly when the pump is not used for long periods.
· Do never start the pump if the pump is not filled with liquid.
· Never run the pump against the closed delivery valve for more than approximately
30
seconds.
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· Adjust the flow by throttling the delivery valve, the inlet valves should always be
fully open.
The pump’s capacity curve (1) indicates the relation between the delivery head and
the flow rate for one pump. As both pumps are equal, the pumps’ individual capacity
curves are represented by the curve marked “1”. When equal pumps are run in
parallel the delivery head for the system will be equal the delivery head for one
pump. The capacity will meanwhile increase in proportion to the number of pumps.
If, for example one pump has a capacity of 100 m3/hrs at a head of 100 meters, two
pumps in parallel will supply 200 m3/hrs and three pumps 300 m3 /hrs at the same
head.
If the pumps are of different types or equal pumps are run at different speed, their
individual performance curves will be different. This is no problem provided the
operation point is outside the pumps’ individual operation point. If, for example the
operation point is altered by increasing the back pressure, this may lead to that one
of the pumps are run without output flow. If this situation occurs and is maintain, the
pump may be damaged.A deepwell pump is special vulnerable in this situation
because these pumps are dependent of a liquid flow through the pump. The only
indication on such condition is that the power consumption no longer is in agreement
with the operation.
If there are no check valves after the pump and the backpressure increases further,
you will have a back flow trough the pump into the cargo tank.
Even though the type of the pump is the same in a parallel operation, variation in
rotational speed, asymmetric piping, variance in opening if valves, cavitation and
variance of the pumps condition, may form the same condition.
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the pumps (1+2) is constructed like previous described. We then see on this actual
pump situation, a pump alone will deliver 120 m3/hrs against a head of 120 meters.
When you start pump number 2, the capacity for the system increases to 140 m3/hrs
against a head of 150 meters. Starting pump number 2 will not double the capacity
because a higher volume flow creates higher dynamic resistance. The system’s
capacity will increase if other pumps are started up in parallel operation. The
increase in capacity will however be relatively less for each pump added.
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The system’s maximum capacity is the number of pumps in parallel operation, times
maximum capacity for one pump. The maximum head is the maximum head for one
pump (1 or 2), plus maximum head for the booster pump (B).Notice that cargo
pumps no.1 and no.2 must ensure sufficient flow of liquid to the booster pump (B).
One must emphasise that there are made no special demands for a dedicated
booster pump’s NPSH-performance. If one of the pumps in parallel stops, there is a
risk that the supply of liquid to the booster pump became too low and will result in
cavitation. If so occur, cavitation can be reduced or stopped by throttling the delivery
valve on the booster pump.
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Quick changes to the liquid flow in a pipeline may lead to a pressure surge resulting
in a rupture in the pipeline system. This surge pressure can be recognised by a
“knock” in the pipeline. This type of pressure peak is generated very quickly in
pipelines, faster than a common safety valve is capable to relieve. The consequence
may be breakdown of the pipeline system and thereby high risk of pollution, fire and
personal injury.
Pressure surge may appear if:
The emergency shutdown valves are activated and closed too quickly.
(ESD/Emergency Shut Down)
Fast variation of the volume flow resulting that a non-return valve starts hammering.
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The pressure in a cargo transfer system has three components; the hydrostatic
pressure, the cargo tank pressure and the pressure generated by the pump. The
hydrostatic pressure and the cargo tank pressure will mainly be constant and we will
refer to these as “static pressure”.
If the flow suddenly is varying due to, i.e. too fast valve closure, the moving liquid
that have a specific velocity and mass will hit a “wall” inside the valve (the valve seat
or the valve flap). The kinetic energy of the moving liquid will immediately convert
into potential energy by compression of the liquid against the valve seat. How fast
the pressure peak is generated depends on the velocity and the density of the
liquid.
A pipeline of 250 meters and 150 mm in diameter is used for water transfer at a
capacity of 400 m3/hrs. The total mass of the moving liquid inside the pipe is 4400
kg and moves with a velocity of 6,3 meters/second. If a valve is closed very fast, the
kinetic energy will convert almost immediately to potential energy. The pressure
surge may reach approximately 40 bars within 0,3 seconds.
If the liquid is a condensed gas or crude oil, vapour may be present. These vapour
bubbles will collapse when the pressure increases. The collapsed bubbles will
generate pressure waves that will also be transmitted through the pipeline system.
In an opposite case where the pressure is decreasing rapidly, a volatile liquid will
start boiling. The above mentioned cases illustrate why it is especially important that
the valves and pumps are cautiously operated so neither dangerous pressure peaks
nor pressure drops are generated.
The enclosed diagram on the next page is from ITC Tanker Safety Guide. It shows a
normal cargo operation and pressure in the pipeline. The maximum pressure is at the
pump outlet. This pressure is the sum of the hydrostatic pressure and the pressure
generated by the pump. Due to friction in the pipeline, the pressure will gradually
decrease toward the cargo manifold. If the ESD valve is activated and the valve is
closed too quickly, the liquid flow will stop quite quickly.
The liquid’s kinetic energy will convert into potential energy immediately when the
liquid hits the valve seat. A pressure peak is generated and will be transmitted at the
speed of sound (the only way possible) back towards the pump. When the wave of
pressure reaches the pump, some of the pressure will unload through the pump, but
the resistance here will also operate as a “wall”. The pressure is rebuilt and reflected
back towards the ESD valve again. A new pressure peak is generated with additional
increased pressure. A “knock” will occur each time a pressure top is generated
against a “wall”. All personnel that operate valves or pumps must be observant of
these phenomena and of the liquid pressure, which may occur consequently.
The progress and the length of the pressure surge depends on the system. If the
wave of pressure is allowed to move between two valves without pressure relief, a
maximum pressure surge will be generated.
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The most vulnerable parts in the system are the shore connections and
loading/discharging arms. The operative personnel normally work nearby the
manifold area. A rupture in this area may easily lead to personnel injury. (Please
note that control of cargo hoses is dealt with in this chapter).
Maintenance and testing of the ESD-valves’ closing time is the most important of the
above mentioned causes. Closing time of the ESD-valves, which is too short, may
lead to generation of a dangerous pressure surge. Always consult the terminal
representatives about the required pipe line period and ESD time.
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The closing time of ESD valves should be as short as possible to prevent overflow
and spillage. But not so fast that a risky pressure surge occurs. Necessary time for a
safe closure of valves can be calculated based on the expected maximum pressure
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surge when the pressure wave has passed forward and backward through the
pipeline. The speed of the sound is set to 1320 m/s. If the pipeline is 2 km, the
calculated time for maximum pressure surge at closure of the ESD valve is:
The maximum pressure surge will occur 3 seconds from closure of the ESD valve.
This time is called a “pipeline period”. It is assumed that the safe closing time is five
times a pipeline period, so the closing time should at minimum be:
5 x 3s = 15 seconds
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The pipeline resistance is dependent of the flow rate in the pipe, and the dynamic
backpressure (pipe resistance) can be expressed as:
H = c x Q2 (see “The Affinity Laws”)The constant c, is calculated from above
mentioned expression. The dynamic curve is a result of calculation of the dynamic
backpressure at different flow rates with the same c-value. The system curve is
constructed by adding the static- and the dynamic backpressure at the same flow
rate.
We then see from the diagram, that the pump delivers 80 m3/h at a head of 120
mlc. The pump’s delivery pressure is dependent of the density of the liquid pumped.
If the liquid is propylene at a temperature of –44oC, the pump’s delivery pressure (p)
will be:
p=rxgxH
= 607,4 kg/m3 x 9,81 m/s2 x 120 m
= 715.031 Pa
= 7,15 Mpa
= 7,15 bars
The cargo tank pressure is 0,2 bars at a temperature of –40oC. Observed delivery
pressure (manometer pressure) is thereby approximately 7 bars.If the backpressure
increases, by for example throttling of the manifold valve, the dynamic backpressure
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p=rxgxH
H = p / r x g = 800 000 Pa / 607,4 kg/m3 x 9,81 m/s2 = 134 m
The energy level on the suction is decided by the height of the liquid, and the liquid
pressure. This is expressed as:
(m x g x X) + (m x po/r)
mxgxH
where “H” is the lifting height of the pump.
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The liquid is lifted out of the cargo tank. The energy level after the pump is
compound of static energy (liquid are lifted a given value Y), kinetic energy (given
backpressure p2) and velocity energy (velocity of the liquid c2).
H = (p2 - p0)/(r x g) + (y - x)
One can see how the tank pressure and levels affect the simplified calculation of the
lifting height of the pump. When the liquid level in the tank is lowered toward the
end of the unloading, the lifting height increases with hence following reduction in
the capacity. A higher tank pressure gives lower lifting height, and with that larger
capacity.
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10.10.3 Equation 1
The velocity of the liquid from a pump, is an expression for flow rate through the
pump, and can be defined as:
c = Q/A where:
10.10.4 Equation 2
The velocity of the liquid from a pump is dependent from the impellers velocity, the
number of revolutions. Higher number of revolutions of an impeller gives larger
velocity of the liquid, which again gives larger capacity. This is defined as:
10.10.5 Equation 3
Lifting head of a pump are given by the following expression:
H = c2/2g where:
10.10.6 Equation 4
The theoretical need of power (P) for a pump is:
P = r x g x Q x H where:
= density of the liquid in kg/m3
Change of the operation of the pump gives the following connections:
P1/P2 = (c1/c2)3 = (n1/n2)3
Peripheral speed (v) for a pumps impeller is:
v = (p x d x n)/60 where:
d = impeller diameter
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When the impeller diameter and the peripheral speed is variable the following
equation can be used:
10.10.7 Equation 5
Above mentioned expression can be summarised as:
One shall notice that the three last expression for flow rate, lifting height an effect,
only effect small changes of the rotor-blade wheels diameter.
This is due to that the loss of the pump is not directly proportional with the flow rate.
Large changing of the diameter will give bigger effect of the flow rate, lifting height
an effect.
10.10.8 Equation 6
A combination of equation 4 and 5 can the relation between lifting head and volume
flow give the hydraulic operation of the pump as follows:
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chapter. A wide range of displacement pumps is available, such as the lamella pump,
ring pump, propeller pump, etc.
10.11.1 Piston pump
The piston pump is used for relatively small amounts of liquid with large delivery
heads. When the piston is pulled upwards, a vacuum occurs inside the pump
housing. The suction valve will then open and liquid streams into the pump. When
the piston is pressed downward the pressure will increase, the suction valve will
close, the delivery valve is set open and the liquid sent out of the pump. The liquid
does not stream in a smooth flow as in a centrifugal pump, but accelerates and slows
alternately. This is of inconvenience with long pipelines. The valve is a weak point.
They are sensitive to liquid pollution and they also increase the resistance against
streaming.
Usually, the piston pump is double acting. Because of the pump’s movements, the
pump must have a relatively slow piston speed. The piston pump may sustain almost
unlimited pressure. However, the limitation is the automotive power and the material
strength. The piston pump does not have to be filled with liquid before starting.
Make sure that all the valves on the delivery side are open before starting. The
efficiency of piston pumps is higher than, for instance, centrifugal pumps. The piston
pump is a well-known pump on board an oil tanker. This is the pump, which is used
to pump cargo deposits ashore at the end of the discharging operation. These oil
deposits from cargo tanks, lines and cargo pumps are pumped ashore through a
small diameter line.
10.11.2 Screw pump
The screw pump consists of two screws or more, where one of them is activated.
The screws are placed inside a pump house. A common and well-known screw pump
is the Swedish manufactured so-called IMO pump. This pump consists of one active
screw placed in the middle and two symmetrical side screws. The screws tighten to
each other and to the housing, but have no metallic contact. When the screw
rotates, the threads are filled with liquid. The liquid is displaced by axial through the
pump. In this pump, the side screw rotates in the opposite direction of the middle
screw. These screws are working like an endless piston which constantly moves
forward. The liquid is not exposed to rotation. The pump is self-priming, running
almost soundless and with little exposure for wear and tear when pumping clean
liquids. The screw pumps are used a lot as a lubricating pump, but are also used as a
stripping pump on oil tankers.
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The various cargoes that is allowed for transport on gas carriers and the types of gas
carriers that may carry the them is updated as we gain better knowledge about the
products. Over time we can observe the various types of cargoes to see if there are
any changes regarding health hazards or environmental pollution. Some cargoes
have changed TLV from 400 ppm to 1 ppm. The reason for this is the experience we
have got with the cargo, and it is very seldom that new products came into the
market with 100% guaranty that they are safe in all manners.
What kinds of cargoes we can carry and which types of gas carriers that may carry
the various cargoes depend on the toxicity of the cargo. The toxicity ratings of the
various cargoes will always change over time as we gain more information about
their potential health hazards. One example is VCM “Vinyl Chloride” that had a TLV of
50 ppm in the early 1980s, but in the 1990s the TLV had been changed to 2 ppm.
What types of cargoes a gas carrier may transport, depends on what precautions
have been taken in the vessel’s design and construction, to prevent cargoes from
pollute the environment.
In order to ratify IMO rules and legislation’s, a given number of the IMO member
states must to abide by them. All flag and port states may have there own set of
rules and legislation that differ from the IMO rules. The IMO has set up a minimum
of standards that all gas carriers must be constructed and classed according to.
There is three international conventions to protect the environment and those are
SOLAS (1974) with protocol of 1978 and appendixes to 1991, MARPOL 73/78, and
STCW 78/95.
SOLAS «Safety of Life at Sea» contain rules and legislation’s on safety certificates
such as: Safety Construction Certificate, Safety Radio Certificate, and Safety
Equipment Certificate. These three certificates cover the safety of crew, ship and
safety equipment. Over time when as we gain more knowledge, the rules and
regulations will be updated to avoid similar accidents from happening again in the
future.
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MARPOL defines clean water as water with less than 15 ppm of contamination.
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STCW 78/95 «Seafarers’ Training, Certification and Watch keeping» contains rules
and regulations on qualification certificates of officers and rating onboard vessels.
STCW 78/95 was implemented 1st February 1997 and is based on two parts. Part A
contains the minimum standard requirements for qualification of all personal on
various types of ships. Part B contains the minimum requirements of what all
personal need to know in order to receive a certificate for their various ranks on all
types of ships.
IMO «IMO Gas Code» contains rules and regulations that are meant to make the
transport of liquefied gases as safe as possible for persons onboard as well as the
environment. There are three gas codes issued by IMO.
· Code for construction and equipment of ships carrying liquefied gases in bulk.
· IGC code International code for construction and equipment of ships carrying
liquefied gases in bulk.
The gas codes contain requirements for the construction of gas carriers. This
includes requirements on stability, leakage after collision/ grounding and cargo
compartments. In the gas code we also find a list of products that are classified as
liquefied gases, as well as the requirements covering how those cargoes are to be
transported. The gas code also covers toxic cargo and what types of safety devices
are required to carry those cargoes.
The vessels Certificate of Fitness states which cargoes the vessel is permitted to
carry.
We are required to always have onboard the personal safety protection equipment
for the type cargo we are carrying, as specified for in the vessels Certificate of
Fitness. Especially important are instruments for atmospheric measurements and
personal safety equipment.
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Some port states have local rules that are stricter than the IMO rules and are
designed to protect local waters. All countries try to protect own territorial waters
against pollution. Local rules may be stricter on clean water, shore line pressure,
navigation after sunset etc.
There are three countries that have especially strict rules and have a large amounts
of import and export of liquefied gases and those are: USA, Italy and Japan.
In the USA the US Coast Guard issue a Certificate of Compliance on all gas carriers
that are to load or discharge in US waters. According to US rules and regulations, all
gas carriers that visit US waters are to be inspected by the US Coast Guard in
accordance to the vessels Certificate of Compliance. Gas carriers that fail the US
Coast Guard inspection will not be permitted to birth before the vessel has fulfilled
the standards set by the Certificate of Compliance.
One main difference between IMO and USCG is that in US they have a higher
standard of security regarding strength on pressure vessels. That means that most of
the gas carriers have one safety relief valve setting according to IMO and a lower
one according to USCG.
Gas carriers that are built according to IMO gas code have no problem in attaining a
Certificate of Compliance. The owner of the vessel must send the USCG diagrams of
the mid ship section, GA plan, fire and safety plan. Those drawings and plans must
be sent to the USCG in long before the vessels first arrival US waters, if possible
when the vessel is new.
Italy issues all vessels that carry gas in Italian waters an Italian safety certificate
called “RINA”. The vessels Class Company can issue the RINA certificate if it is
approved by RINA. The RINA certificate is renewed and surveyed together with the
vessels IMO Certificate of Fitness.
Japan has their own rules and certificates on gas carriers. Those rules cover for the
most part measurements of vessels. That means there are other net and gross
weights on the vessel in Japan than on the IMO load line certificate. Japanese
authorities will survey all gas carriers that handle cargo in Japan. If the
documentation on the vessel is found unsatisfactory by the authorities, they can
require that the vessel must go in dock for new measurements.
In Norway it is the Norwegian Maritime Directorate that makes all the local rules,
those rules are applicable for all vessels in NOR or NIS. The Norwegian Maritime
Directorate uses the Class Companies to issue certificates and to conduct surveys on
those vessels.
Then we have some local rules around the world that does not allow gas carriers to
navigate after dark. Some ports have regulations concerning the wind speeds. The
ship/ shore checklist must state if there are any restrictions on wind speed or the
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height of waves. Information about the terminals is found in the “Guide to port
entry” or from the agents, terminals or your own company.
11.1.6 Publications
The most important publications we must have onboard are: SOLAS 74/92 latest
edition, MARPOL 73/78 latest edition, STCW 78/95 latest edition, the latest IMO gas
code for the type of gas carrier we are on, ICS Tanker safety guide liquefied gas, and
ICS Ship to ship transfer guide for liquefied gases. Vessels that are registered in
either NOR or NIS must have the latest edition of the Norwegian Maritime
Directorate rules. In addition we must have the guidelines and publications from
SIGTTO, ICS, OCIMF and USCG. In the Exxon vessel inspection guide we can find
references to all publications they require us to have onboard.
Before we can commence loading we need a confirmed loading order from the
owner. In the loading order we will find the quantity to be loaded, at which
temperature we will receive the cargo, and what temperature we are to discharge
the cargo. Further we find information about the load port and discharge port. It
may also state what size there is on the terminal lines and flanges.
The quantity to be loaded is given in metric tons. There are three different ways to
state the quantity, either:
MOLOO means that it is the owner, represented by the captain that states the
quantity to be loaded. MOLCO means that it is the charter that states the quantity.
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the shore tank is located on the surface. It also states what temperature the cargo is
to be discharged at.
The maximum allowed filling limit when loading is 98% and it is the safety relief
valve setting and the cargo temperature that give the filling limit. To find the filling
limit we can either use the operation manual for the vessel or the cargo density
table. When using the density table, we can calculate the temperature of the cargo
from the absolute pressure, in this case 4 bar.
When we have the basic information on the cargo, we must start planning the
loading. We then calculate the filling limit in each cargo tank and then plan the
loading rate. The loading rate is determined by three factors: cargo temperature, the
ambient temperature, and whether we do or do not have vapour return.
When we are loading and we need to run the cargo plant, there are various ways to
run the plant. It depends on the temperatures and the flexibility of the plant.
If we are set up to load two different cargoes e.g. ethylene and propane, then we
must separate the cargoes from each other. We call that segregation of cargo tanks,
cargo cooling plants and lines. Taking out small pipes on the cargo lines does
segregation, those pipe parts are called “spool pieces”. The spool pieces are taken
out of the lines and the main line is blanked of flange covers. We also have to
segregate the cargo cooling plant e.g. two plants are used for ethylene and one is
used for the propane. It is stated in the Certificate of Fitness how the lines and
compressors can be segregated. If we have 4 cargo tanks there could be a possible
segregation with cargo tank 1+2 and 3+4.
When we are loading a partial cargo we must try to use the manifold that is linked
directly to the tank that we are loading. If we are going to load on tanks 2,3 and 4,
then we use the manifold for tanks 3+4. All spool pieces are marked according to the
diagram. Many of the spool pieces have the same diameter but have a different
length, so try to keep your spool pieces orderly. Normally the spool pieces are
mounted on the cargo lines, so there should not be any problem keeping them
organised.
Before we can commence loading we have to cool down the tank shell as mush as
possible, the optimal is less than 10oC above cargo loading temperature. The
resulting temperature of the tank shell depends on how much time is used, the
amount of cargo remaining on board, and the arrangement of the lines to the cargo
tanks. We need thermometers on the outside of the tank shell in order to achieve the
proper temperature. If we are going to load fully refrigerated propane, we must try
to get the temperature on the outside on the cargo tank shell below –35oC before we
start loading. When the cargo tank shell is chilled down before arrival, the time used
for loading will be reduced.
Before we arrive port the cargo tank shell must be chilled down, and cargo lines and
spool pieces must be readied. Only then will we be able to reduce the time used in
port.
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When loading, the liquid is either pumped or pressured onboard from the shore tank.
If we are loading by pressure, the vessel’s cargo tank pressure must be lower than
the shore tanks pressure. This way of loading is mostly used on fully pressurised
vessels. When we are loading by pumps we must follow the cargo tanks pressure to
hold it below the safety valve set point. After completion of the loading, we need to
free the loading hose/ arm of liquid by use of hot gas. The hot gas is produced by
the vessel’s cargo compressor or from the shore tank or terminal’s compressor. On
some terminals they use nitrogen to free the hose/ arm of liquid. When using this
method we must keep a close watch so we do not get so much nitrogen into the
cargo tanks.
It is very important that we are familiar with both the vessels and the terminals
emergency routines, so that we all know what to do if there is a cargo leak or
uncontrolled venting.
When we transfer cargo from other vessels, we must follow our company quality
manual and the ICS Ship to Ship Transfer Guide.
When loading without vapour return, only the liquid line is connected to the terminal.
On some terminals we also have to connected a vapour line, but it is only for
emergency use, and goes directly to flare. The cargo liquid is pumped or pressured
to vessel’s cargo tanks through the liquid lines.
To avoid high pressure in the vessel’s cargo tanks we need to pressure control the
cargo in the tanks. To control the pressure we use the cargo cooling plant. During
the entire loading process we must check the tank pressure, and we must do our
utmost to avoid uncontrolled venting. Uncontrolled venting happen when the cargo
tanks pressures rise to the set point of the safety relief valves and they open. The
cargo tank vapour will then be led to the vessels vent mast. To avoid uncontrolled
venting we have to reduce the loading rate or stop loading if we can not increase the
cooling capacity.
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11.2.2 Loading without vapour return but use of cargo cooling plant
When commencing loading, we always start with a slow rate to check that there is
not any leakage on the terminal lines/ arms/ hoses or the vessel lines/ valves. When
we are sure that there is no leakage’s and the cargo tank shell is close to the same
temperature as the cargo, we can then increase the loading rate slowly to the agreed
maximum rate. While we are increasing the loading rate we must watch the cargo
tank pressure carefully.
In order to avoid having too much pressure in the cargo tanks when loading, we can
either reduce the loading rate or stop loading, if the cargo cooling plant is on
maximum capacity. If we can increase the cooling plant capacity, we have to do it
before reducing the loading rate. It is important for the vessel to load at the rate that
is stated in the charter party or is agreed to by the loading master. If we have to
reduce the loading rate due to foul gas, we will then have to clarify it with the
loading master and it must be noted in the deck logbook. When we reduce the
loading rate the cargo temperature from shore will increase.
On all types of gas carriers, it is important to check the cargo tank pressure all the
time while loading. We have to do our outmost to avoid uncontrolled venting.
The safest and fastest way to load is when we have vapour return, and that can be
done on all types of gas carriers. When we are loading with vapour return the liquid
hose/ arm is connected to the vessel’s liquid manifold and the vapour hose/ arm
connected to the vessel’s vapour manifold. The cargo liquid is pumped or pressured
onboard through the vessel’s liquid lines and to the cargo tanks that are to be
loaded. The cargo tanks excess pressure is evacuated through the vessel’s vapour
lines to shore.
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Before we commence evacuating any vapour from the vessel we must be sure that
the vapour is returned to the shore tank and not to flare. If the vapour is evacuated
to flare, the vessel will be charged for the amount of vapour that is burned. We must
be aware that if we evacuate more vapour than is agreed to, the terminal can
develop problems with the shore tank pressure.
In addition to the vapour return, we use the vessel’s cargo cooling plant. If we have
an indirect cargo cooling plant, we cool down the cargo tank shell or the vapour
phase in the cargo tank. If we have a direct cargo cooling plant we condense the
vapour in the cargo condenser and the condensate is pressured to the cargo tank.
While we are loading we must try to keep the cargo tank pressure as low as possible,
in doing so the vapour return will help us great deal. When vapour return exists, we
can increase or reduce the amount of vapour to shore by throttling the vapour
manifold valve. How mush vapour we can send to shore must be agreed upon with
the loading master before commencement of loading. It is the terminal’s capacity to
receive vapour that determines the rate of vapour the vessel can send to shore while
loading.
Before we open the vapour manifold valve to send vapour to shore we must be sure
that the vapour goes back to the shore tank and not to flare. If the vapour is sent to
flare, the vessel will be charged for the amount that is burned in the flare.
On fully pressurised gas carriers we must not send to shore so much vapour that the
cargo is chilled down to less than –10oC. As an example, if we load propane and the
cargo tank pressure is taken down to near 0 bar, the cargo temperature will be about
-42oC.
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After the loading is completed the terminal loading hose/ arm has to be freed of
liquid. To evacuate the liquid from the loading hose/ arm we either use the vessel
cargo compressors and blow hot vapour, or the terminal uses nitrogen and blows
onboard. If the terminal is using nitrogen, we must minimise the amount of nitrogen
to the cargo tanks. Try to blow the line into one cargo tank only. If we get to much
nitrogen in the cargo tanks, we will develop too high condenser pressure and our
cargo compressors may stop, and in the worst case we may have an uncontrolled
venting.
shell before commence loading, cargo cooling plant capacity, size of the loading lines
and the ambient temperature.
Cargo procedures while the vessel is at sea depend on what has been stated in the
charter party. Some cargoes are to be discharged fully refrigerated, while others at a
given temperature. In addition to the charter party, the vessels cargo handling
equipment performance is important, especially the capacity of the cargo cooling
plant, capacity of the cargo heater, insulation on the cargo tanks and the length of
the sea voyage.
On fully refrigerated gas carriers we do not have any choice, we must maintain a low
pressure and temperature of the cargo. How to run the cargo cooling plants at sea
depends on the plant itself, type of cargo, cargo tank insulation, the ambient
temperature and the length of the sea voyage. The fewer cargo plants and hours we
are running the plants, the lower fuel consumption do we have, and maintenance
cost will be reduced.
As long as the cargo plants are running, we have to watch that we don’t get vacuum
in the cargo tanks. We must try to maintain a positive cargo tank pressure e.g. 0,01
bar or higher, this is to avoid air leaks into the cargo tank. Some cargoes like
ethylene and butadiene, will be contaminated if the content of oxygen is to high. To
avoid a vacuum in the cargo tank there may be a pressure switch on the suction side
of the cargo compressor or on the cargo tank connected to the cargo compressor,
that stops the compressor when there is to low suction pressure.
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On semi-refrigerated gas carriers we have a few more options how we may handle
cargo at sea, than with a fully refrigerated gas carrier. We may either maintain the
cargo temperature or cool down the cargo, depending on the charter party.
The number of cargo cooling plants we have to use depends on the cargo, the
ambient temperature, capacity of the cooling plants, length of the sea voyage and
the insulation of the cargo tanks. We must try to cool down the cargo to the
discharge temperature as soon as possible and then maintain the temperature the
rest of the voyage. We will then be able to discharge the cargo earlier if we are sent
to another port of call. As long as the cargo is onboard it may be sold to another
customer, so we must be prepared to discharge the cargo earlier than planned. We
must always keep in mind that cooling down the cargo demands a lot of energy.
Read the charter party/ loading order carefully and run the cargo cooling plants as
economically as possible.
Always check the weather forecast and air temperatures for your voyage. The
seawater temperature has a major influence on your cooling capacity. Higher
seawater temperature results in reduced cooling capacity. Pressure is defined as the
movement of molecules, and when a vessel is pitching or rolling the molecules will
move faster and the result is higher cargo tank pressure. Try to cool down the cargo
as mush as possible before you enter into bad weather.
When the cargo cooling plants is running we must fill out the cargo-cooling log. In
the cargo-cooling log we must record the various pressures, temperatures and
ampere for each of the cargo cooling plants. We must also record when we have
changed condensate and to which tank we have pumped the condensate. This to
avoid overfilling of cargo tanks and interrupt the cargo cooling process.
On fully pressurised gas carriers we can only control the cargo tank pressure if there
is cargo compressor onboard, if not, we have to vent the vapour to the atmosphere.
The cargo tank steel of fully pressurised gas carriers are normally designed for
minimum temperature of –10C°. That means we normally control the cargo
temperature and pressure and do not lower it.
The charter party or loading order must state if we have to heat the cargo on the sea
voyage before discharging. Depending of the vessel’s cargo equipment, there are
normally three different ways to heat the cargo. We can pump the cargo through the
cargo heater to another cargo tank. We may use the cargo compressor to blow hot
vapour down into the liquid in the cargo tank. We can also use indirect cargo plant
and pump e.g. ethanol in coils either outside of the cargo tank shell or in the vapour
phase inside the tank.
On fully refrigerated gas carriers there are no options for heating the cargo at sea. If
the vessel is equipped with cargo heater we may heat the cargo when discharging.
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On semi-pressurised gas carriers we may heat the cargo during the sea voyage if we
have the cargo equipment for it. The most effective way to heat the cargo is to use
the cargo pumps and the cargo heater. Then we pump the cargo from one tank
through the cargo heater and then to another cargo tank. If we have submerged
pumps this is normally not a problem. If we use deep well pumps, we must keep in
mind of the shaft bearings and the shaft itself when the vessel is pitching or rolling.
As we pump liquid from one cargo tank to another we must check the sounding on
the cargo tank we are pumping to. Check the sounding in the other cargo tanks also,
and record the cargo heating log temperatures and soundings on all tanks. When we
check all the tanks while we are heating the cargo we can avoid overfilling any of the
cargo tanks.
Before we may commence discharging any cargo, the captain must get a written
permission from the owner to discharge the cargo.
Certain information is needed before arriving at discharge port, such as the discharge
temperature given in charter party, backpressure on the terminal, and size of the
terminal lines and flanges. The captain can receive this information either from the
agents or directly from the terminal.
When all the information is received we must make a discharging plan. The
discharging plan must contain which cargo tanks are to be discharged, and the
sequence and rate of the discharging. If the cargo has to be heated and we need to
use a booster pump, and agreement must be made with the terminal as to the
minimum/ maximum cargo temperature and maximum backpressure. We must also
prepare the correct reducer to fit the terminal flanges.
The cargo pumps we plan to use have to be checked according to the manufacturer’s
specification ref. operation manual. Check closely the oil and mechanical seals.
The vessels discharge plan must be discussed with the terminal before commence
discharging. When the discharge plan is agreed to, fill out the ship/ shore safety
checklist. The discharge plan and all checklists must be signed and followed by the
vessel and the terminal. All deviations from the discharge plan or checklist must be
noted in the deck logbook and cleared with the terminal.
There are different methods for discharging a gas carrier, and they depend on the
cargo equipment onboard and the facilities at the terminal. There are two main
methods used in discharging a gas carrier, either by pumps or by pressure. If shore
backpressure is very high we must use a booster pump in addition to the ordinary
cargo pumps or cargo tank pressure.
When we use cargo pumps to discharge the cargo we must first check that the pump
is free by turning the pump shaft by hand. When we can turn the shaft by hand we
may then start the pump.
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When the terminal and the vessel are ready to commence discharging, we start the
process by using only one pump. The delivery valve on the pump is only slightly
open as well as the one back to the cargo tank. When the line is chilled down we
then close the valve down to the cargo tank and open the pressure valve a little bit
more. Check that there is no leakage on the vessel’s lines and valves and as well as
the terminal lines.
When both the vessel and terminal lines are chilled down we can increase the
discharge rate according to the discharge plan and on the terminal advice. Do not
increase the discharge rate more than what the terminal has asked for, in the worst
case the terminal will stop discharging and the vessel is charged for the delay.
While discharging, it is always the terminal that sets the rate and required the cargo
temperature. If the terminal asks the vessel to reduce the rate then we must comply.
To reduce the rate we either throttle the pressure valve on a pump or stop a pump.
If we throttle the pressure valve, we then generate pressure in that cargo tank. To
avoid increased cargo tank pressure it is best to stop the pump. If the vessel refuses
to reduce the rate the terminal can stop the discharging and then hold the vessel
responsible for the delay or damage caused by the high discharge rate.
If the shore tank pressure is to high the terminal must flare the excess pressure, or
they can arrange a vapour return to the vessel. Reasons for the high shore tank
pressure may be either a discharge rate that is high, to high temperature of the
cargo, or the cargo compressors on shore may have to small capacity.
If the vessel must use the cargo cooling plant while discharging, permission to do so
must be stated in the charter party or agreed to by the receiver so that the vessel
will be compensated for the extra fuel consumption. Always while discharging we
must record in the deck logbook if there have been any deviations from the
discharge plan. Onboard we must do the utmost to avoid any claims from the
terminal.
When we must discharge the cargo tank by pressure, the tank that receives our
cargo must have a lower pressure than our own. This way of discharging is the
simplest, but when the liquid level decreases, the cargo tank pressure also decrease.
That means we have to compensate for the lost pressure, and that is done either by
hot gas from the vessel or shore, or by nitrogen from shore. This way of discharging
can be done by semi and fully pressurised gas carriers.
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The most common pumps on gas carriers are centrifugal pumps, either of deep well
or submerged type. Most gas carriers have one pump in each cargo tank and they
are also normally equipped with one or more booster pumps on deck. When
discharging fully refrigerated and semi-pressurised gas carriers we normally only use
the pumps in the cargo tanks. If we have to discharge against high backpressure
then we also need to use the booster pump either onboard or at the terminal.
While we are running the cargo pumps we have to check that the pump is running
the correct direction and the liquid level is reduced in the cargo tank. Record in the
discharge log pump pressure and ampere and discharge volume every hour. On new
cargo pumps there is an anti rotating device to protect the pump from running the
wrong way. Most of the pumps also have a non-return valve on the pressure side to
avoid leaks if the pump has or are stopped. Check the oil level and the mechanical
seal when the pump is running.
The booster pumps must be used if the backpressure is higher than maximum
pressure for the pumps in the cargo tank. Booster pumps can be set up either in a
series or parallel, depending on backpressure and the rate agreed upon. We must
never increase the pump pressure higher than the pressure limit on the terminal
discharging hose/ arm.
When transferring cargo from one vessel to another we must follow the company
quality manual and the ICS Ship to Ship Transfer Guide. While transferring cargo
either ship to ship or ship to shore there must be a good communication between
the two parties. All changes from the discharge plan or checklists must be reported
in the deck logbook.
Sometimes we may have to discharge the cargo with a higher temperature than we
have in our cargo tanks. In those cases we use our cargo heater while discharging.
When using the cargo heater we must first check that the heating medium is
circulating. Seawater or oil is used as a heating medium, however some terminals do
not accept water as heating medium. When we have checked that the heating
medium is circulating we may then pump cargo through the heater. Normally we can
by-pass the heater with some cargo, but watch the temperature of the liquid
manifold. Never pump cargo to shore with lower temperature than the minimum
temperature given in the checklist. In the worst case the shoreline may be damaged.
If we are using water as heating medium we must keep the seawater temperature
from dropping below 5oC as it goes out of the heater. If the water is freezing, the
cargo heater may be damaged and start leaking.
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The cargo temperature on the vessel’s liquid manifold depends on the amount of
cargo that is pumped through the cargo heater. The manifold temperature is
adjusted by bypassing the cargo heater. Less cargo through the heater will result in
lower temperatures and higher flow “discharge rate”. If the water temperature is 5oC
or less we must not use the cargo heater unless we have facilities to heat the water
before we pump it to the cargo heater.
Some terminals do not allow the use of cargo heaters that utilise water as heating
medium; they require oil as medium. If we must discharge at a terminal that does
not accept our heater type, we then must try to heat the cargo at sea.
All gas freeing operations requires a statement in the charter party or direct orders
from the company operation. Gas freeing is very expensive whether we gas free a
single tank or the whole vessel, and we must try to avoid those unnecessary costs.
Normally we have to gas free all the cargo tanks when we are changing cargo and
there must be visual inspection made of the cargo tanks. Other reasons for gas
freeing cargo tanks are for example times when we have to repair anything in the
tank or when we have to go in dry-dock. The tanks are gas free when they are free
of flammable, toxic or neutral gases and the tank atmosphere is pure air.
When we have to gas free cargo tanks, we must discharge as much liquid as possible
so that we can reduce the time used to liquid free the tank. To gas free cargo tanks
we use the vessel’s cargo compressors, inert gas generator and the cargo fan.
When we have received a confirmation from the charterer or owner that we are to
change cargo, we must set up a plan for the cargo change. The time we need to gas
free the vessel depends on the cargo ROB and what type the next cargo is.
Some products we may carry, such as propane and butane can be loaded on each
vapour phase, we only need to be liquid free. Other products such as ethylene and
butadiene require that we are gas free before gassing up with the cargo to be
loaded.
There is two temperatures we have to keep in mind when gas freeing. Those are the
temperature of the cargo tanks when start the gas freeing process, and the expected
air temperature when we commence blowing air. The reason that those two
temperatures are important is that we have to heat the tank shell the same amount
of degrees as the difference between the two temperatures. As an example if we
start with –99oC in the cargo tank and the ambient temperature is 19oC, we must
heat the cargo tank shell 118oC. It is always the heating process that takes the
longest time when gas freeing.
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The first we have to do when gas freeing is to liquid free the cargo tanks. To liquid
free the tanks we can either blow hot gas down in the pump sump or pressurise the
tank and empty the tank through the empty blow line. It depends on the type of gas
carrier we are on and the pipes in the cargo tanks. When we blow hot gas, we blow
it either through the condensate line, empty blow line or the pump. If we blow
through the pump we must check that the pump does not start to rotate. When the
hot gas is blown down in the pump sump the liquid will be boiled off. As long as we
have liquid the cargo tank pressure will increase as we blow hot gas. When there is
no more liquid left in the cargo tank, pressure will be stabilised and only the tank
shell temperature will increase. We must try to have as high pressure in the tank as
possible when we liquid free the tank. On fully refrigerated gas carriers we must
watch the cargo tank pressure at all times to avoid an uncontrolled venting.
Continue to blow hot gas down in the cargo tank until we have about 5oC above the
seawater temperature. Read the temperature on both sides of the cargo tank shell.
Keep in mind that the cargo tank shell can have a thickness of 20 mm or more.
We then stop the cargo compressors when we have reached the planned cargo tank
temperature. Then we have to vent off the cargo tanks pressure, either through the
vapour manifold into the water or to the vessels vent mast. If the vessel is equipped
with purge tanks or we have a gas recovery plant we can use the cargo compressors
and condensate the overpressure to the purge tank. The purge tank is a small tank
“pressure vessel” located either on deck or in a hold space. When we have reached
atmospheric pressure in the cargo tank we can commence to inert or purge the
cargo tanks with nitrogen.
If we are using inert gas the oxygen content by volume has to be less than 5%, that
is an IMO requirement. The inert gases have to be as dry and warm as possible
before we send it to the cargo tank. If the vessel is equipped with a heater on the
inert gas line we must use it to make use of the density difference between the inert
gas and the cargo vapour. When we have difference’s in the density it is easier to
achieve a good displacement purging. The differences in density tell us if we must
blow the inert gas through the cargo tank vapour or liquid line.
We must try to hold as low cargo tank pressure as possible while we are inerting to
avoid turbulence in the cargo tank. Start the inerting with as low rate as possible,
that way we will get the most effective purging. Displacements purging means the
cargo atmosphere is pressed out by the inert gas. Just after we have commenced the
inerting we have to measure the cargo tank atmosphere for HC vapour in the part of
the cargo tank we have blown inn the inert gas. During the whole inert operation we
have to measure the cargo tank atmosphere for HC vapour content until we reach
the planned content less or equal to LEL or the limit stated in the company QA
manual.
While we are inerting, the oxygen content will not be higher than the oxygen content
we have set on the inert gas generator e.g. 2% by volume. The HC content will be
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reduced as long as we are inerting and we do not stop the inerting before we have
reached the LEL for the actual cargo. As an example the LEL on propane is 2% by
volume, so we have to inert until we reach 1,5% by volume. When we have less HC
content than LEL on the actual cargo we can commence ventilating the cargo tank
with air.
In the IMO regulations we must use a safety factor of 2 as the margin for error on
measurement and instruments. That means that when we draw flammability
diagram, the line for critical mixture with 2% oxygen by volume gives 4% HC content
by volume. We then have to inert until we read 2% HC by volume before we
commence ventilating with air. It is important that we also inert all liquid lines,
condensers and cargo compressors before we stop the inerting, to have a neutral
atmosphere in them.
Equipment we can use when venting cargo tanks with air are cargo compressors,
cargo fan, inert gas blower, booster compressor or portable cargo fans. The kinds of
equipment we use depend on the vessel’s cargo equipment. If the vessel is equipped
with a vent heater we must use it to get as warm and dry air as possible. While we
are venting with air we have to measure the oxygen content and also check that the
HC content is reduced to 0% by volume. Before we stop the air ventilation we have
to measure the cargo tank atmosphere for 0% by volume of CO - CO2 (Carbon
monoxide - Carbon dioxide) and the oxygen content must be 21% by volume.
CO Carbon monoxide
CO is a very toxic gas and extreme caution should be taken prior to entering a tank
that has been previously inerted and ventilated.
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The HC content in the cargo tanks can not be higher then when we started venting
with air, unless we have forgotten to purge any lines or other cargo equipment’s.
The humidity and temperature of the air we use for venting gives us the necessary
temperature of the cargo tank shell. If the cargo tank shell has a temperature that is
much lower than the air, the air will condense on the steel and we will get water in
the tank.
Temp. Water
4oC 6.30
g/m3
5oC 6.75
g/m3
6oC 7.22
g/m3
24oC 22.20
g/m3
25oC 23.50
g/m3
26oC 24.80
g/m3
For example at an ambient temperature on 25oC and 75% relative humidity and an
average cargo tank shell temperature of 5oC, will produce 10,75 g/m3 of water
condensation.
Temp Water
6.30
4°C
g/m3
6.75
5°C
g/m3
7.22
6°C
g/m3
22.20
24°C
g/m3
23.50
25°C
g/m3
24.80
26°C
g/m3
At 25oC the maximum content of water is 23,5 g/m3 and 75% humidity gives us then
17,625 g/m3. At 5oC the maximum water content can be 6,75 g/m3 that give 17,625
g/m3 – 6,75 g/m3 = 10,87 g/m3 water. If we are venting with 10000 m3/h, 108,7 kg
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If we had heated the cargo tank shell to 30oC before venting with air at 25oC the
relative humidity in the tank atmosphere will be approximately 57%. At 30oC the
maximum content of water is 31 g/m3 and we had 17,625 g/m3 that gives us 17,625
g/m3 divided by 31 g/m3 = 56,8% and we do not develop any problems with water.
While we have a visual inspection of cargo tanks we must use that time to sweep
and clean up dust and check that there is not any foreign substances on the tank
top. Check that all bolts and nuts on the pump and cargo tank lines are tight. Also
check that the pump is in the correct position, if a pump is damaged it is very costly
to repair and gas free the tank.
To gas up a cargo tank means that we change the cargo tank atmosphere from air to
either a neutral, toxic or cargo atmosphere. There are different methods and ways to
gas up cargo tanks and they are dependent on the specifications from the charterer
and what type of cargo to be loaded. If the vessel is set up to load a cargo that
requires low dew-point and a low content of oxygen, we must then use nitrogen to
purge out the humidity and oxygen from the cargo tank. If there isn’t any required
limit to the humidity and oxygen content can be more than 1% by volume, we can
then use inert gas to purge out the humidity and oxygen from the cargo tank. Before
loading ammonia we can gas up the cargo tanks directly with ammonia vapour if the
terminal and charterer agree on that, otherwise we have to use nitrogen.
Normally we purge with nitrogen alongside a terminal or jetty, it can also be done at
anchorage with a barge. Some new gas carriers have their own nitrogen plant
onboard and can purge while they are at sea. Before the nitrogen is blown down into
the cargo tank we must try to heat it as much as possible, up to 60oC or more.
Nitrogen vapour expands when it is heated and the warmer we have the nitrogen,
the lower the consumption and time used is. To heat nitrogen onboard we can use
either the superheater feed by steam or an electrical heater.
While we are purging with nitrogen we must have as low tank pressure as possible,
less than 0,02 bar. When we start purging we must start with a low rate to avoid
turbulence in the tank. Normal method is displacement purging and uses the
different density to push out the old atmosphere from the cargo tank. Just after we
have commenced purging we must measure the oxygen content in the part of the
tank we blow in the nitrogen to see the reduced content of oxygen. Also check the
oxygen content in the middle of the tank just after commence purging to be sure
that it isn’t turbulence in the atmosphere.
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The purging rate must be discussed and cleared with the loading master before we
commence purging. Always start with a low rate and increase to maximum when we
are sure that there is no turbulence in the atmosphere. We have to calculate for each
purging what is the most economical, either the lay time or the use of nitrogen.
There is a big differences in harbour fees and nitrogen prices around the world, so
what was the cheapest in one port could be the most expensive in other ports.
Before we have completed purging we have to purge through all lines and all cargo
equipment to be sure that we do not have any air left in the cargo systems.
When the surveyor has, according to the specifications given from the shipper or
charterer approved the cargo tanks and cargo equipment, we can then commence
purging with cargo vapour. Some gases as ethylene and butadiene require less than
0,1% oxygen by volume.
For liquefied gases as methane, ethylene and ethane most shippers require a dew
point of less than –45oC. The charter party always specifies the maximum content of
oxygen and the maximum dew point.
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We must always use the difference in density while we are purging; the lightest
vapour to be purged must go into the top of the cargo tank. Then we take the
vapour to be purged out through the bottom liquid line in the cargo tank.
Which method we should use, either serial or parallel depends on the experience and
the lines onboard. On one vessel it can be easiest to purge parallel, another vessel
get the best results from using serial purging. When we are gassing up we have to
avoid opening any lines after the cargo tanks are completed gassed up. That means
on most vessels we must gas up using the parallel method.
The more flexible the vessel is built, the easier it is to purge and gas up the vessel.
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There are some formulas that we can use to calculate the consumption of nitrogen
or inert for changing atmosphere in tanks and the time to be used for the same
purpose. The formula is a bit different, if we use inert versus nitrogen.
When we use nitrogen, the oxygen content is 0%. That means we should purge 21%
oxygen from the air to a given maximum content of oxygen in the tank e.g. 0,2%.
If we have one tank at 1000 m3 capacity and the O2 content, according to the
charter party,
should be less than 0,2%, we start with air in the tank. The calculation will be as
follows:
The desired O2 content has been set to 0,18%, to be less than 0,2%.
The nitrogen consumption will then be 1000m3 * 4,75 which equals 4750m3 nitrogen.
This is the minimum required nitrogen. When ordering nitrogen add 10% to the
minimum needed (5225m3) nitrogen.
When using inert we also use the formula with ln “natural logarithm” but we must
calculate the O2 content in the inert gas also.
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Take an example with the same tank at 1000m3. The charter party states maximum
2% O2 and the O2 content on the inert is set to 0,5%. We start with air in the tank.
We have to subtract the inert gas O2 content from the original and desired O2
content.
On vessels that have facility to have some vacuum on their tanks they can use their
compressors to create the minimum allowed pressure in their tanks. If your vessel
can have 30% vacuum in the tanks, it means a 0,7 bar absolute pressure.
When you have 30% vacuum you have already quit 30% of the oxygen, which
means you have 20,8/100*70 = 14,56% oxygen left. When we come alongside we
pressurise the tanks with nitrogen to 1 bar absolute. Then we can continue the purge
normally.
To pressurise the tanks to 1 bar absolute we need 30% of the total capacity of our
tanks. If we should purge one tank on 1000m3, we need 300m3 of nitrogen.
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12 CARGO CALCULATION
This means that if the relief valve setting is low, we can load more than if the setting
is high. If there is a possibility to take off one or more of the pilot valves, we can
increase the liquid volume loaded. We then have to calculate the difference between
the pilot settings. The time used for loading will also increase if we have a lower set
point on the cargo tank’s relief valves. What we always have to avoid is an
uncontrolled venting.
If we look at some examples e.g. propane and the first example relief valve setting is
4,5 bar and the other example relief valve setting is 0,5 bar. Cargo temperature is –
35oC.
Relief valve setting 4,5 4,5 bar + 1 bar = 5,5 bar ≅ 5oC = 523,3
bar kg/m3
Relief valve setting 0,5 0,5 bar + 1 bar = 1,5 bar ≅ - = 570,2
bar 32oC kg/m3
Cargo temperature – = 573,7
35oC kg/m3
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In our example with 1000 m3 tank, we can see that the difference is about 45mt.
With 4,5 bar setting we can load 513,259mt and with 0,5 bar setting we can load
558,900mt. If the freight rate is 80 USD/mt we then miss USD 3651. If we are on a
gas carrier on 10 000 m3 the loss of income will then be USD 36 510.
When we reduce the set point on cargo tank relief valves, the time used for loading
and discharging will increase. What we have to avoid is letting the cargo tank fill
100% with liquid.
On semi-refrigerated gas carriers, normally the lowest relief valve setting is 0,5 bar.
There are two or more pilot valves e.g. 3,6 bar and 5,2 bar. If we change the relief
valve setting, we have to mark that on the cargo tank and also note it in the deck-
log book.
On fully refrigerated gas carriers the relief valve setting is about 0,25 bar and there
are often facilities for putting one extra weight on the pilot, normally 0,2 to 0,3 bar.
That means we have a relief valve setting of 0,45 bar. The extra setter is allowed to
be used only while loading or gas freeing.
When the vessel is at sea and we get a telex that we are to set up to load propane
at –30oC in Fawly. Our cargo tank relief valve set point is 4,5 bar. To find out how
mush we can load, we then have to take a rough calculation. We can then use
density for propane at –30oC and for 6oC, this only to get an overview of how mush
we can load.
To calculate the accurate filling limit, we have to know the actual cargo temperature
and we must use density table. However, as long as we do not know the exact cargo
temperature, we use the nearest values in the table. When we know the exact
temperature of the cargo, we can calculate more accurately. Relief valve setting is
4,5 bar and atmospheric pressure 1,013 bar gives absolute pressure 5,513 bar.
We have to interpolate between 5,45 bar and 5,61 bar to find the correct reference
temperature and the correct density. The reference temperature is 5,39oC and
reference density is 522,79 kg/m3.
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In this example the filling limit will be 90,17% when we load propane at a
temperature on -30oC. If the loading temperature is colder than -30oC the filling limit
will be less than 90,17% and higher if the temperature is above -30oC.
12.4.2 Example 1
Cargo Propane
Temp in oC -30 o
C 567,9 kg/m3
density
o
Temp. reference rel. valve R 5,39 C 522,79 kg/m3
density
Tank #1, 100% Volume 1182,18 m3
Relieve valve set point 4,5 bar
Atmospheric pressure 1,013 bar
Absolute pressure relieve 5,513 bar
valve
Filling limit = rR / rL x 98 %
Filling limit 522,793 / 567,900 x 98,00 % 90,22 %
When we have loaded propane on –30oC to the limit 90,17% we are then sure that if the
pressure in the cargo tank increases to 4,5 bar and the temperature in the liquid
increases to 5,39oC the liquid volume will be 98%.
When we have calculated the filling limit we can find the maximum volume of liquid that
we can load.
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VL = 0,98 * V * ρR/ ρL
VL Volume liquid
V 100% Volume of the cargo tank
ρR Density of reference temperature on the relief valve setting
ρL Density for actual cargo temperature
When we have found the correct filling limit, we can find the maximum volume to be
loaded. We have to find the cargo tank at 100% volume and multiply with the actual
filling limit.
If we have a cargo tank on 1182,18 m3 volume at 100%, we find the maximum
volume to be loaded by multiplying with 90,17% filling limit.
12.4.3 Example 2
After we have found the filling volume, we find the ullage or sounding in the vessels
ullage/sounding table.
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Ullage
Sounding
Sounding is the level from tank bottom to the liquid surface. Ullage is the level from
liquid surface to deck level. In the following examples, we use sounding.
In this example, we
find the correct sounding to be 8,1662 meters. We have to do this calculation on
each cargo tank before we start loading.
In this example, the filling volume is 1065,943 m3 and that is in between 8,16
meters and 8,17 meters, so we have to interpolate to find the correct sounding.
12.4.4 Example 3
sounding in m volume in
m3
8,16 1065,25 m3
8,17 1066,36 m3
8,1662 1065,94 m3
When we have found the correct sounding/ullage we have to find which corrections
we must use to get the actual sounding/ullage. The corrections can be found in the
sounding/ullage table for each vessel.
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12.4.5 Corrections
There are normally four corrections to be used: the correction on the float, correction
on the sounding tape, list and trim correction. The float correction depends on the
liquid density; with a higher density the float becomes lighter in the liquid. The tape
correction depends on the temperature in the vapour phase. List and trim correction
depend on how the vessel is in the water. We have to study the corrections carefully
so we use the correct sign character. Spherical floats have the highest corrections on
float. All corrections we do, we find in the sounding/ullage table for each cargo tank.
On the next page, we found an example of a spherical float.
The table for float correction is calculated against different densities and when we
have a cargo with density in between the table values, we have to interpolate to find
the correct correction.
Out of the table above we can see that lighter liquid will give a higher correction.
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If we have cargo density 0,55 kg/dm3, we have to interpolate between 0,50 and 0,60
and
the correction will then be 0,160 meter. Small floats will give the lowest corrections.
A tank equipped with spherical float will have higher corrections than tanks equipped
with a flat float.
A correction on the sounding tape depends on the temperature in the vapour phase
in the tank. High temperature and a small vapour volume give a small correction, low
temperature and big vapour volume gives a higher correction.
12.4.6 Example 4
To find the correct corrections we have to know the density of the cargo, in this
case, propane at –30oC and density 567,9 kg/m3 = 0,5679kg/dm3, aft trim on 0,5
meter zero list and –15oC in the vapour phase. When we are completely loaded on
this tank, we will have a sounding of 8,0318 meter.
The 98% maximum filling is to prevent liquid getting in the relief valve, if the tank
pressure reaches the relief valve setting.
On vessels with relief valve setting of 0,5 bar we do not have any possibilities to heat
the cargo at sea. On semi-refrigerated or fully pressurised vessels, we have
opportunity to heat the cargo while the vessel is at sea. When we are heating the
cargo, we have to follow the tank pressure carefully to avoid uncontrolled venting.
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Vessels with a low relief valve setting can have a higher filling limit than vessels with
a high relieve valve setting.
The sketch below shows how the filling limit changes with the cargo temperature, as
long as the relief valve’s set point is the same.
In this chapter we will look at the tables and corrections we use when calculating
weight of cargo onboard gas carriers. We then start to look at how we calculate
weight in air at 15oC by using the correct tables.
The tables we are using are the ASTM-IP-API tables for light hydrocarbons. Density
is mass divided by volume. The mass has either kilo (kg) or metric ton (mt) as unit.
Volume has either cubic meter (m3) or litre (lt) as unit. Unit for density is either
kg/m3 ⇒ tonn/m3 or kg/dm3 ⇒ kg/lt. Density and specific gravity is often given in
vacuum, then we need tables or calculations to convert to weight in air at 15oC.
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We then start with table ASTM-IP-API no. 21 to find density at 15oC from specific
gravity 60/60oF 0,5075.
Specific API
0,506 - 0,5063
0,507 - 0,5073
0,508 - 0,5083
We have now find the density at 15oC to 0,5078 kg/lt which is equal to 507,8 kg/m3,
which we use in table ASTM IP no.54 to find the reduction factor to –25oC. In table
ASTM IP no.54, we look in the column for actual liquid temperature –25oC. The table
is divided in three columns and we have to interpolate between the 0,505 and 0,510
columns.
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Table 54C
Observed Density 15 oC
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Table 54C
Observed Density 15 oC
The next correction is the shrinkage factor, which is a thermal factor on the tank
steel. Shrinkage factor is normally 1 at 20oC and is less than one when the steel is
colder than 20oC.
The shrinkage factor is the correction for the thermal expansion on the cargo tank
steel. It is the correction between 20oC and the actual steel temperature. With
different steel, we have different shrinkage factors, but on one vessel the shrinkage
factor is similar on all cargo tanks if they are made of equal steel. Aluminium and
invar steel have a shrinkage factor near 0 and mild steel has higher factor. Shrink
factor for a vessel depends on the material of the cargo tank. There is a shrinkage
table on each vessel. Only vessels with equal quality of steel and tank thickness have
equal shrinkage factors. When we calculate cargo, we use shrinkage factor both on
the liquid and the vapour.
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The last table ASTM-IP no 56 is used to find mass of liquid and vapour in air from
mass in vacuum or vice versa. We have to use the liquid density at 15oC, which in
this example is 0,5078 kg/ltr, and find the factor for propane to 0,99775. We have to
multiply this factor with the mass in vacuum to get mass in air. If we have the mass
in air we must divide with the factor. When the cargo calculations are completed, on
the bill of lading and the other cargo papers we have to note if the loaded mass is in
vacuum or air. We must always use liquid density at 15oC on the actual cargo to find
the correct factor.
Table
56
Factor for
mass in
Density at 15oC vacuum to
kg/ltr mass in air
We can look at one example where we have loaded 1089,556m3 propane with
specific gravity 60/60F 0,5075 and liquid temperature is –25oC.
From table ASTM-IP-API no. 21 we find the cargo density at 15oC to 0,5078 kg/ltr.
⇒ 507,8 kg/m3
From table ASTM IP no. 54, we find reduction factor from 15oC to –25oC to 1,10432.
From table ASTM IP no. 56, we find factor from mass in vacuum to mass in air to
0,99775.
From the cargo tank shrinkage table, we find shrinkage factor to 0,99868 at –25oC.
The calculation gives us 610 994 kg in vacuum at 15oC that gives us 609 619 kg in
air. We have to note on all cargo documents that the mass is in air and also note the
specific gravity 60/60F.
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When we insert the values in the formula we find the following vapour density.
• · Ts = 288 K
• · Tv = 273 + (-18) = 255 K
• · Pv = (Ps + PT ) x 100 = (1,013 + 1,5) x 100 = 251.3 kPa
• · Ps = 101.3 kPa
• · Mm = 44,1 kg/kmol for propane
• · I = 23,6382 m3/kmol
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When we have calculated the vapour density, we have to calculate the mass of the
vapour. We continue with the calculation of propane loading. The cargo tank 100%
volume is 1182,18m3 and we have loaded 1089,556m3 liquid. The vapour volume is
then 100% cargo tank volume minus liquid volume. That gives us 1182,18m3 –
1089,556m3 = 92,624m3.
We have a vapour temperature on –18oC, which gives us a shrinkage factor (cargo
tank expansion factor) on 0,99888 taken from the vessel’s shrinkage table. The
vapour density is in kg/m3 and the mass will then be in kilos.
When we calculate the mass of liquid in kilos, we also calculate the mass of vapour
in kilos. If we use mass of liquid in metric ton, we have to calculate the vapour in
metric ton also. In this example, the vapour density is 5,227 kg/m3, which is equal to
0,005227 mt/m3. In this example, the mass of vapour is 484 kilos.
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To find the total mass of liquid and vapour in the cargo tank, we have to add mass
of liquid 610 994 kg + 484 kg = 611 478 kg. Then we use ASTM-IP table 56 and find
the conversion factor to mass in air. Cargo density at 15oC is 507,8 kg/m3 with a
factor of 0,99775. Then we multiply total mass in vacuum 611 478 kg with 0,99775
which gives us 610 102 kg in air.
We will take an example on a full calculation and find the total mass in air, the cargo
is propane and we have the following information:
Spes.Grav.60/60F 0,5072
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With a set point on the relief valve at 4,5 bar we can load maximum 91,38% with
liquid temperature –24oC.
We always have to start with the calculation of maximum filling volume. This
calculation is based on figures we got before we start loading. If the temperature
and pressure changes, while we are loading, we have to recalculate the maximum
filling volume. Warmer cargo gives a higher filling volume; colder cargo gives a lower
filling volume. When the loading is completed, we do the final calculation. We have
to find the maximum filling limit on all tanks.
PROPAN Tank # 2
3 Sounding 8,152 m
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After we complete the cargo calculation, we have a ships figure which is the one the
chief officer must calculate and one shore figures, which is the one that the surveyor
has calculated. Those two figures will be nearly equal or equal. The one we use in
the Bill of Lading is the surveyor’s figure. In our example, we have loaded 745 096
kg in air at 15oC in the actual cargo tank. It must be specified on the Bill of Lading
that the mass is in air at 15oC.
When we discharge the cargo, we will have 311,4 kg vapour left in the tank. At a
minimum, we are allowed to discharge is 99,5% of Bill of Lading, in this example 741
370 kg. It is important for the vessel to calculate which temperature and cargo tank
pressures will remain when we finish discharging. In this example, we must have
maximum 0,16 bar pressure and vapour temperature –27oC.
When we load on an atmosphere from a previous cargo, we call that ROB
(Remaining on Board) or heel. That means when we have calculated the total mass
of cargo in a tank we have to subtract the ROB. When the discharging is completed,
that means we are finished pumping liquid. We have blown hot vapour to shore and
tank pressure, and vapour temperature is equal to what we estimated before
loading.
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Gas Tankers Advance Course
It is important to remember that the tank pressure has a big influence on the vapour
density. If we transport an ambient cargo, we have to remove the tank pressure
before we commence the calculation of the ROB. Tank pressure is removed with the
vessel’s compressors and the condensate is sent directly to the discharge line.
We can look at two examples on density calculation of a cargo with equal
temperature but different tank pressures. We use propylene as example and vapour
temperature is –25oC molecular mass 42,08 kg/kmol.
The first example tank pressure is 0,3 bar and the other example tank pressure 1,5
bar. The atmospheric pressure is 1,020 bar vessels total volume is 12000m3.
With a difference of tank pressure at 1,3 bar on a 12 000 m3 vessel, we get 29 492
kg in mass difference. It is a good routine to always calculate the maximum mass of
vapour, which we can have as ROB to reach 99,5% of Bill of Lading before we start
discharging.
If we are onboard a fully refrigerated gas carrier, we do not have any problem with
high tank pressure when we have completed discharging.
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When transport of chemical gases and also sometimes LPG cargoes, we use density
tables for the actual cargo. We get the density tables from the surveyor, the shipper
of the cargo or thermodynamic properties of gases. The weight of cargo is calculated
by use of the actual cargo temperature and the density tables are either in vacuum
or in air. On clean cargoes, such as, ethylene, propylene, butadiene and VCM, we
can use the density tables composed by SGS or thermodynamic properties of gases.
We have to be sure that the density tables we are using are either in vacuum or in
air and it has to be noted on the Bill of Lading. The density table we are using in the
load port has to be used also in the discharge port. The only ASTM table we are
using is ASTM-IP table no.56 for converting weight in air to weight in vacuum or vice
versa.
When the calculation is completed, we have to note that the weight is in vacuum or
in air. We always have to calculate the vapour density because the vapour
temperature does not match the cargo tank pressure. We should use the actual
vapour temperature and actual tank pressure in the calculation of vapour density.
First we take a look at how we are calculating the weight of liquid.
First of all we have to find out the maximum filling volume on the actual cargo tanks
that we have to load.
We should calculate the weight of liquid propane, cargo tank pressure is 1,1 bar. We
have loaded 1089,556m3 liquid propane, density from density table and –24oC is
560,6 kg/m3. Cargo tank expansion factor at -24oC is 0,99870. Weight in vacuum
will then be 605 477 kg, weight in air 604 115 kg.
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Tank pressure 1,4 bar is equal to 140 kPa and the atmospheric pressure 1,013 bar is
equal to 101,3 kPa. Vapour temperature ∆T in K = 273 + - 25 = 248K Tank
pressure plus atmospheric pressure ∆P is equal to 241,3 kPa.
D P x Molecular mass
Molar gas const. x D
T
( 140,0 + 101,30) x 44,1
8,31441 x ( 273,00 + -25,00) 5,16075 kg/m3
We can take another example with ethylene and calculate the vapour density,
molecular mass is 28,05 kg/kmol, vapour temperature is –99oC ⇒ 174K and tank
pressure is 0,35 bar ⇒ 35 kPa. Atmospheric pressure is 1,012 bar ⇒ 101,2 kPa.
D P x Molecular mass
Molar gas const. x D
T
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Now when we have found the vapour density at the actual vapour temperature, we
can calculate the weight of vapour at the actual temperature. We have loaded one
tank with ethylene, tank 100% volume is 1182,15 m3 and liquid volume is 1088,6 m3.
Liquid temperature is –100oC and vapour temperature is –99,5oC shrinkage factor at
–99,5oC are 0,99648. Tank pressure is 0,15 bar and the atmospheric pressure is
1.014 bar.
We have now seen how to calculate weight of liquid and weight of vapour and we
should now calculate both liquid and vapour. We should calculate one tank loaded
with ethylene, relief valve set point is 4,5 bar and atmospheric pressure is 1,020 bar.
After loading the vessel we have 1 meter by stern trim with the following values:
Maximum filling limit is 89,45%, which is equal to 1313,348 m3 with relief valve
setting on 4,5 bar. Total weight of cargo in the tank is 738 009 kg in vacuum.
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Gas Tankers Advance Course
When we change the relief valve set point to 0,5 bar the maximum allowable filling
limit then increase to 97,0% that is equal to 1424,127m3. We then get a total weight
of cargo in the tank on 799 940 kg, which is 61 931 kg more than with set point on
4,5 bar. First, we have to calculate maximum allowed filling limit.
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Gas Tankers Advance Course
Before we commence with cargo calculations, we have to be sure that the density
given is in air or in vacuum. With most chemical gases, we get the density on the
actual liquid temperature in vacuum. Always note on the Bill of Lading that the
quantity is either in vacuum or air. On the calculation forms, we calculate both in
vacuum and in air.
We should now do a full cargo calculation. We start to calculate ROB before loading.
Then we do calculations after we have completed loading.
The vessel has three twin tanks numbered as follows 1P, 1S, 2P, 2S, 3P and 3S.
Cargo tanks 2 and 3 are equal and tank 1 is a bit smaller.
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Loading report
Cargo Propylene Port Al Jubail
Molecular 42,08 Date 17.05. 1994
mass
Atm.press. 1,015 Vessel LPG Seagull
Liquid
Tank # Sounding Volume Temp. Pressure r liquid Shrinkage Mass of
in meter from in oC in bar in factor liquid in
3
tab. in kg/m kg
m3
1P 0,02 0
1S 0,02 0
2P 0,02 0
2S 0,02 0
3P 0,02 0
3S 0,02 0
Total mass of 0
Liquid
Vapour
Tank # !00% Vapour Temp. in oC r Shrinkage Mass of
vol. in volume vapour factor vapour in
m3 in m3 in kg
3
kg/m
1P 1182,18 1182,18 -27 2,129 0,99862 2 514
1S 1182,18 1182,18 -27 2,129 0,99862 2 514
2P 1468,18 1468,18 -27 2,129 0,99862 3 122
2S 1468,18 1468,18 -27 2,129 0,99862 3 122
3P 1468,18 1468,18 -25 2,112 0,99868 3 097
3S 1468,18 1468,18 -25 2,112 0,99868 3 097
Total mass of vapour 17 465
Total mass in vacuum 17 465
ROB
Total loaded in vacuum
Total loaded in air
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Loading report
Cargo Propylene Port Al Jubail
Molecular 42,08 Date 18.05. 1994
mass
Atm.press 1,020 Skip LPG Seagull
Liquid
Tank # Sounding Volume Temp. Press r liquid Shrinkage Mass of
in meter from in oC in bar in kg/m3 factor liquid in
tab. in kg
m3
1P 8,74 1123,83 -39 0,6 601,2 0,99826 674 471
1S 8,76 1125,55 -39 0,6 601,2 0,99826 675 503
2P 8,72 1400,11 -39 0,6 601,2 0,99826 840 281
2S 8,73 1401,20 -39 0,6 601,2 0,99826 840 936
3P 8,76 1404,41 -38 0,6 600,0 0,99829 841 205
3S 8,75 1403,35 -38 0,6 600,0 0,99829 840 570
Total mass of 4 712
Liquid 967
Vapour
Tank # 100% Vapour Temp. in oC r vapour Shrinkage Masse of
vol. in volume in kg/m3 factor vapour in
m3 in m3 kg
1P 1182,18 58,35 -35 3,445 0,99838 201
1S 1182,18 56,63 -35 3,445 0,99838 195
2P 1468,18 68,07 -36 3,459 0,99835 235
2S 1468,18 66,98 -36 3,459 0,99835 231
3P 1468,18 63,77 -34 3,431 0,99841 218
3S 1468,18 64,83 -34 3,431 0,99841 222
Total mass of vapour 1 302
Total mass in vacuum 4 714
269
ROB 17 465
Total Loaded in vacuum 4 696
803
Total loaded in air 4 687
973
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There are some parameters we have to have in mind to find out how much liquid we
need to take onboard for gassing up our cargo tanks. The first is the temperature of
the liquid we will take onboard then the temperature of the cargo tank steel and
what volume we should gas up.
To change cargo and gas up costs lot money, to minimise the cost we have to use all
the available cargo equipment onboard in the most efficient way. We have to be sure
that the amount of liquid we order for gassing up is enough to gas up and to
commence cooling down the cargo tanks. If we have some ROB in one tank, we can
begin gassing up at sea if the tanks are surveyed and approved by a surveyor. If we
don’t have any ROB or not enough, we have to order liquid to gas up the rest of the
volume to be gassed up. To minimise the consumption of cargo for gassing up, we
need to heat the cargo, as mush as possible. The amount of cargo lost when gassing
up depends on the people onboard, cargo equipment and the time we use for
gassing up. For cargoes with a heavy vapour, such as VCM, propane butane and
propylene, the loss of cargo is near to 0 when gassing up correctly. The only way to
reduce the loss of cargo is to control tank pressure when loading coolant, measure
and check when commence heating the coolant for gassing up.
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Gas Tankers Advance Course
We have to load 7,11 m3 propylene at –40oC from shore tank to change the vapour
atmosphere at 20oC two times. This was a calculation for one tank, if we gas up all
tanks, the calculation has to be on the total volume of the vessel’s cargo tanks.
After completion of the loading two Bill of Lading will be made, one for what we have
used for gassing up and one for the quantity we have loaded.
We have now calculated that we should have 4 618 kg vapour left in tank #1 P and
S when we are not able to get out any more from the tanks. Before we order any
liquid, we have to subtract 4 618 kg from the amount of liquid we need to gas up the
whole vessel.
We can continue with the example and have 15 m3 liquid propylene at –10oC, vapour
temperature 0oC and the pressure 3,3 bar in tank #1 P/S. Total volume of the vessel
is 8237 m3 and atmospheric pressure is 1,015 bar. That means we have to gas up
vessel’s total volume – volume of tank #1 P/S, which is equal to 8237 m3 – 2364,36
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We have 27202 kg available in tank #1 P/S, but when we are completed gassing up,
we have 4618 kg vapour left, that means we have 22584 kg available for gassing up.
Total volume to be gassed up is vessel’s total volume minus volume of tank #1 P/S
multiplied with 2,5. That gives ⇒ 8237 m3 - 2349,36 m3 ⇒ 5872,64 m3 x 2,5 =
14682 m3. We have to find the vapour density equal to tank steel temperature 25oC,
which is 1,724 kg/m3.
In this example, we do not have enough liquid to reach 2,5 times for gassing up.
There was 1581 m3 vapour short, so we have to order that 1581 m3 x 1,724 kg/m3 =
2726 kg.
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o
Tank steel temperature 25 C
Atmospheric pressure 1,015 bar
Vapour r at 25oC 1,724 kg/m3
Total volume to gas up 5872,64 x 2,5 14 682 m3
Mass of total volume to gas up 25 309 kg
Available mass 22 584 kg
Mass in kg to load to complete gassing 2 725 kg
up
To hold the temperature of the vapour we use for gassing up, we have to use either
the compressors or heaters. If we are able to increase the temperature on the
vapour from 25oC to 60oC, we do not need to supply any extra from shore.
12.4.8 Calculation of vapour at 60oC
It is important that we continue to heat the tank we are taking the vapour from to
hold a positive pressure.
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Table 21
0,500 - 0,510
Specific API
Gravity Gravity Density
60/60oF 60oF 15oC
0,500 - 0,5004
0,501 - 0,5014
0,502 - 0,5023
0,503 - 0,5033
0,504 - 0,5043
0,505 - 0,5053
0,506 - 0,5063
0,507 - 0,5073
0,508 - 0,5083
0,509 - 0,5093
0,510 - 0,5103
12.4.2 Enclose 2
Table 54C
Observed Density 15 oC
temperature, 0,500 0,505 0,510
o
C Factor for reduction of volume to 15 oC
-43 1,153 4 1,149 3 1,146
-42,5 1,152 4 1,148 3 1,145
-42 1,15 3 1,147 4 1,143
-41,5 1,149 3 1,146 4 1,142
-41 1,148 3 1,145 4 1,141
-40,5 1,147 3 1,144 4 1,14
-40 1,146 3 1,143 4 1,139
-39,5 1,145 3 1,142 4 1,138
-39 1,143 3 1,14 3 1,137
-38,5 1,142 3 1,139 3 1,136
-38 1,141 3 1,138 4 1,134
-37,5 1,14 3 1,137 4 1,133
-37 1,139 3 1,136 4 1,132
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12.4.3 Enclose 3
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12.4.4 Enclose 4
Correction for expansion of sounding tape tank #1
Temp. Read Sounding in meter
o
C 6 7 8 9 10 11
-104 -0,004 -0,003 -0,003 -0,002 -0,001 -0,001
-103 -0,004 -0,003 -0,003 -0,002 -0,001 -0,001
-102 -0,004 -0,003 -0,003 -0,002 -0,001 -0,001
-101 -0,004 -0,003 -0,003 -0,002 -0,001 -0,001
-100 -0,004 -0,003 -0,003 -0,002 -0,001 -0,001
-99 -0,004 -0,003 -0,003 -0,002 -0,001 -0,001
-98 -0,004 -0,003 -0,003 -0,002 -0,001 -0,001
-97 -0,004 -0,003 -0,003 -0,002 -0,001 -0,001
-96 -0,004 -0,003 -0,003 -0,002 -0,001 -0,001
± -0,003 -0,003 -0,002 -0,002 -0,001 -0,001
-48 -0,002 -0,002 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 0,000
-47 -0,002 -0,002 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 0,000
-46 -0,002 -0,002 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 0,000
-45 -0,002 -0,002 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 0,000
-44 -0,002 -0,002 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 0,000
-43 -0,002 -0,002 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 0,000
-42 -0,002 -0,002 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 0,000
-41 -0,002 -0,002 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 0,000
-40 -0,002 -0,002 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 0,000
-39 -0,002 -0,002 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 0,000
-38 -0,002 -0,002 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 0,000
-37 -0,002 -0,002 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 0,000
-36 -0,002 -0,002 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 0,000
-35 -0,002 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 0,000
-34 -0,002 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 0,000
-33 -0,002 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 0,000
-32 -0,002 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 0,000
-31 -0,002 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 0,000
-30 -0,002 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 0,000
-29 -0,002 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 0,000
-28 -0,002 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 0,000
-27 -0,002 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 0,000
-26 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 0,000
-25 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 0,000
-24 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 0,000 0,000
-23 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 0,000 0,000
-22 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 -0,001 0,000 0,000
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12.4.5 Enclose 5
Trim table tank #1, tank 100% volume 1182,18
m3
Sounding and trim meter
in
Sounding Stern trim Sounding Stern trim Sounding Stern trim
0,5 1 0,5 1 0,5 1
8,04 -0,021 -0,043 8,41 -0,021 -0,043 8,78 -0,022 -0,045
8,05 -0,021 -0,043 8,42 -0,021 -0,043 8,79 -0,022 -0,045
8,06 -0,021 -0,043 8,43 -0,021 -0,043 8,80 -0,022 -0,045
8,07 -0,021 -0,043 8,44 -0,021 -0,043 8,81 -0,022 -0,045
8,08 -0,021 -0,043 8,45 -0,021 -0,043 8,82 -0,022 -0,045
8,09 -0,021 -0,043 8,46 -0,021 -0,043 8,83 -0,022 -0,045
8,10 -0,021 -0,042 8,47 -0,021 -0,043 8,84 -0,022 -0,045
8,11 -0,021 -0,042 8,48 -0,021 -0,043 8,85 -0,022 -0,045
8,12 -0,021 -0,042 8,49 -0,022 -0,043 8,86 -0,022 -0,045
8,13 -0,021 -0,042 8,50 -0,022 -0,043 8,87 -0,022 -0,045
8,14 -0,021 -0,042 8,51 -0,022 -0,043 8,88 -0,022 -0,045
8,15 -0,021 -0,042 8,52 -0,022 -0,043 8,89 -0,022 -0,045
8,16 -0,021 -0,042 8,53 -0,022 -0,043 8,90 -0,022 -0,045
8,17 -0,021 -0,042 8,54 -0,022 -0,043 8,91 -0,022 -0,045
8,18 -0,021 -0,042 8,55 -0,022 -0,043 8,92 -0,022 -0,045
8,19 -0,021 -0,042 8,56 -0,022 -0,043 8,93 -0,022 -0,045
8,20 -0,021 -0,042 8,57 -0,022 -0,043 8,94 -0,022 -0,045
8,21 -0,021 -0,042 8,58 -0,022 -0,043 8,95 -0,022 -0,045
8,22 -0,021 -0,042 8,59 -0,022 -0,043 8,96 -0,022 -0,045
8,23 -0,021 -0,042 8,60 -0,022 -0,043 8,97 -0,022 -0,045
8,24 -0,021 -0,042 8,61 -0,022 -0,044 8,98 -0,022 -0,045
8,25 -0,021 -0,043 8,62 -0,022 -0,044 8,99 -0,022 -0,045
8,26 -0,021 -0,043 8,63 -0,022 -0,044 9,00 -0,023 -0,045
8,27 -0,021 -0,043 8,64 -0,022 -0,044 9,01 -0,023 -0,045
8,28 -0,021 -0,043 8,65 -0,022 -0,044 9,02 -0,023 -0,045
8,29 -0,021 -0,043 8,66 -0,022 -0,044 9,03 -0,023 -0,046
8,30 -0,021 -0,043 8,67 -0,022 -0,044 9,04 -0,023 -0,046
8,31 -0,021 -0,043 8,68 -0,022 -0,044 9,05 -0,023 -0,046
8,32 -0,021 -0,043 8,69 -0,022 -0,044 9,06 -0,023 -0,046
8,33 -0,021 -0,043 8,70 -0,022 -0,044 9,07 -0,023 -0,046
8,34 -0,021 -0,043 8,71 -0,022 -0,044 9,08 -0,023 -0,046
8,35 -0,021 -0,043 8,72 -0,022 -0,044 9,09 -0,023 -0,046
8,36 -0,021 -0,043 8,73 -0,022 -0,044 9,10 -0,023 -0,046
8,37 -0,021 -0,043 8,74 -0,022 -0,044 9,11 -0,023 -0,046
8,38 -0,021 -0,043 8,75 -0,022 -0,044 9,12 -0,023 -0,046
8,39 -0,021 -0,043 8,76 -0,022 -0,045 9,13 -0,023 -0,047
8,40 -0,021 -0,043 8,77 -0,022 -0,045 9,14 -0,023 -0,047
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Gas Tankers Advance Course
12.4.6 Enclose 6
Sounding table tank #1, tank 100% volume
1182,18 m3
Sounding Volume Sounding Volume Sounding Volume
m m3 m m3 m m3
8,04 1051,77 8,41 1092,05 8,78 1127,33
8,05 1052,91 8,42 1093,08 8,79 1128,20
8,06 1054,04 8,43 1094,10 8,80 1129,05
8,07 1055,17 8,44 1095,12 8,81 1129,90
8,08 1056,30 8,45 1096,14 8,82 1130,74
8,09 1057,33 8,46 1097,15 8,83 1131,58
8,10 1058,55 8,47 1098,16 8,84 1132,41
8,11 1059,67 8,48 1099,17 8,85 1133,23
8,12 1060,79 8,49 1100,17 8,86 1134,05
8,13 1061,91 8,50 1101,17 8,87 1134,85
8,14 1063,03 8,51 1102,16 8,88 1135,65
8,15 1064,14 8,52 1103,15 8,89 1136,44
8,16 1065,25 8,53 1104,14 8,90 1137,23
8,17 1066,36 8,54 1105,12 8,91 1138,01
8,18 1067,46 8,55 1106,10 8,92 1138,78
8,19 1068,56 8,56 1107,07 8,93 1139,54
8,20 1069,66 8,57 1108,04 8,94 1140,30
8,21 1070,76 8,58 1109,00 8,95 1141,06
8,22 1071,86 8,59 1109,96 8,96 1141,80
8,23 1072,95 8,60 1110,92 8,97 1142,54
8,24 1074,03 8,61 1111,87 8,98 1143,27
8,25 1075,12 8,62 1112,82 8,99 1144,00
8,26 1076,20 8,63 1113,76 9,00 1144,71
8,27 1077,28 8,64 1114,70 9,01 1145,43
8,28 1078,36 8,65 1115,63 9,02 1146,13
8,29 1079,43 8,66 1116,56 9,03 1146,83
8,30 1080,50 8,67 1117,48 9,04 1147,53
8,31 1081,57 8,68 1118,40 9,05 1148,21
8,32 1082,63 8,69 1119,32 9,06 1148,89
8,33 1083,69 8,70 1120,23 9,07 1149,56
8,34 1084,75 8,71 1121,14 9,08 1150,23
8,35 1085,80 8,72 1122,04 9,09 1150,89
8,36 1086,85 8,73 1122,94 9,10 1151,54
8,37 1087,90 8,74 1123,83 9,11 1152,19
8,38 1088,94 8,75 1124,71 9,12 1152,82
8,39 1089,98 8,76 1125,59 9,13 1153,46
8,40 1091,01 8,77 1126,47 9,14 1154,08
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12.4.7 Enclose 7
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Gas Tankers Advance Course
12.4.8 Enclose 8
Trim table tank #2 and #3, tank 100% volume 1468,18 m3
Sounding and trim in
meter
Sounding Stern trim Sounding Stern trim Sounding Stern trim
0,5 1 0,5 1 0,5 1
8,04 -0,029 -0,059 8,41 -0,029 -0,059 8,78 -0,028 -0,057
8,05 -0,029 -0,059 8,42 -0,029 -0,059 8,79 -0,028 -0,057
8,06 -0,029 -0,059 8,43 -0,029 -0,059 8,80 -0,028 -0,057
8,07 -0,029 -0,059 8,44 -0,029 -0,059 8,81 -0,028 -0,057
8,08 -0,029 -0,059 8,45 -0,029 -0,059 8,82 -0,028 -0,057
8,09 -0,029 -0,059 8,46 -0,029 -0,059 8,83 -0,028 -0,057
8,10 -0,029 -0,059 8,47 -0,029 -0,059 8,84 -0,028 -0,057
8,11 -0,029 -0,059 8,48 -0,029 -0,059 8,85 -0,028 -0,057
8,12 -0,029 -0,059 8,49 -0,029 -0,059 8,86 -0,028 -0,057
8,13 -0,029 -0,059 8,50 -0,029 -0,059 8,87 -0,028 -0,057
8,14 -0,029 -0,059 8,51 -0,029 -0,059 8,88 -0,028 -0,057
8,15 -0,029 -0,059 8,52 -0,029 -0,059 8,89 -0,028 -0,057
8,16 -0,029 -0,059 8,53 -0,029 -0,059 8,90 -0,029 -0,057
8,17 -0,029 -0,059 8,54 -0,029 -0,059 8,91 -0,029 -0,058
8,18 -0,029 -0,059 8,55 -0,029 -0,059 8,92 -0,029 -0,058
8,19 -0,029 -0,059 8,56 -0,029 -0,059 8,93 -0,029 -0,058
8,20 -0,029 -0,059 8,57 -0,029 -0,059 8,94 -0,029 -0,058
8,21 -0,029 -0,059 8,58 -0,029 -0,059 8,95 -0,029 -0,058
8,22 -0,029 -0,059 8,59 -0,029 -0,059 8,96 -0,029 -0,058
8,23 -0,029 -0,059 8,60 -0,029 -0,059 8,97 -0,029 -0,058
8,24 -0,029 -0,059 8,61 -0,029 -0,059 8,98 -0,029 -0,058
8,25 -0,029 -0,059 8,62 -0,029 -0,058 8,99 -0,029 -0,058
8,26 -0,029 -0,059 8,63 -0,029 -0,058 9,00 -0,029 -0,058
8,27 -0,029 -0,059 8,64 -0,029 -0,058 9,01 -0,029 -0,058
8,28 -0,029 -0,059 8,65 -0,029 -0,058 9,02 -0,029 -0,058
8,29 -0,029 -0,059 8,66 -0,029 -0,058 9,03 -0,029 -0,058
8,30 -0,029 -0,059 8,67 -0,029 -0,058 9,04 -0,029 -0,058
8,31 -0,029 -0,059 8,68 -0,028 -0,058 9,05 -0,029 -0,058
8,32 -0,029 -0,059 8,69 -0,028 -0,058 9,06 -0,029 -0,058
8,33 -0,029 -0,059 8,70 -0,028 -0,058 9,07 -0,029 -0,058
8,34 -0,029 -0,059 8,71 -0,028 -0,058 9,08 -0,029 -0,058
8,35 -0,029 -0,059 8,72 -0,028 -0,058 9,09 -0,029 -0,058
8,36 -0,029 -0,059 8,73 -0,028 -0,057 9,10 -0,029 -0,058
8,37 -0,029 -0,059 8,74 -0,028 -0,057 9,11 -0,029 -0,058
8,38 -0,029 -0,059 8,75 -0,028 -0,057 9,12 -0,029 -0,058
8,39 -0,029 -0,059 8,76 -0,028 -0,057 9,13 -0,029 -0,058
8,40 -0,029 -0,059 8,77 -0,028 -0,057 9,14 -0,028 -0,058
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12.4.9 Enclose 9
Sounding table tank #2 and #3, tank 100% volume 1468,18 m3
Sounding m Volume m3 Sounding m Volume m3 Sounding m Volume
m3
8,04 1311,35 8,41 1362,91 8,78 1406,51
8,05 1312,81 8,42 1364,21 8,79 1407,56
8,06 1314,27 8,43 1365,50 8,80 1408,59
8,07 1315,72 8,44 1366,79 8,81 1409,61
8,08 1317,18 8,45 1368,07 8,82 1410,63
8,09 1318,63 8,46 1369,35 8,83 1411,64
8,10 1320,08 8,47 1370,62 8,84 1412,64
8,11 1321,52 8,48 1371,88 8,85 1413,64
8,12 1322,96 8,49 1373,14 8,86 1414,62
8,13 1324,40 8,50 1374,39 8,87 1415,60
8,14 1325,84 8,51 1375,64 8,88 1416,57
8,15 1327,27 8,52 1376,87 8,89 1417,52
8,16 1328,70 8,53 1378,11 8,90 1418,47
8,17 1330,13 8,54 1379,33 8,91 1419,42
8,18 1331,55 8,55 1380,55 8,92 1420,35
8,19 1332,97 8,56 1381,76 8,93 1421,27
8,20 1334,38 8,57 1382,97 8,94 1422,18
8,21 1335,80 8,58 1384,17 8,95 1423,09
8,22 1337,20 8,59 1385,36 8,96 1423,98
8,23 1338,60 8,60 1386,54 8,97 1424,86
8,24 1340,00 8,61 1387,71 8,98 1425,74
8,25 1341,29 8,62 1388,88 8,99 1426,60
8,26 1342,77 8,63 1390,04 9,00 1427,46
8,27 1344,15 8,64 1391,19 9,01 1428,31
8,28 1345,53 8,65 1392,33 9,02 1429,14
8,29 1346,89 8,66 1393,46 9,03 1429,97
8,30 1348,26 8,67 1394,59 9,04 1430,79
8,31 1349,62 8,68 1395,70 9,05 1431,59
8,32 1350,97 8,69 1396,82 9,06 1432,39
8,33 1352,32 8,70 1397,92 9,07 1433,18
8,34 1353,66 8,71 1399,02 9,08 1433,95
8,35 1355,00 8,72 1400,11 9,09 1434,72
8,36 1356,33 8,73 1401,20 9,10 1435,47
8,37 1357,66 8,74 1402,28 9,11 1436,22
8,38 1358,98 8,75 1403,35 9,12 1436,95
8,39 1360,29 8,76 1404,41 9,13 1437,67
8,40 1361,60 8,77 1405,47 9,14 1438,38
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Gas Tankers Advance Course
12.4.10Enclose 10
Correction on the float
Tank no. # 1P 1S 2P 2S 3P 3S
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Gas Tankers Advance Course
tab. 21
15 Mass of liquid in vacuum at Mt
15oC
16 Uncorrected vapour volume m3
17 Shrinkage factor vapour
phase
18 Corrected Vapour volume m3
19 Tank pressure bar
20 Atmosphere pressure bar
21 Molecular weight
o
22 Temperature on vapour C
23 Density on vapour kg/m3
24 Mass of vapour in vacuum Mt
25 Total mass in vacuum Mt
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351
Gas Tankers Advance Course
In a cooling plant, the cooling media will constantly change its state. Vapour is
compressed and gets a higher pressure and temperature, vapour condenses and
liquid vaporises. In the cooling process, the aggregate state, pressure and
temperature change continuously.
To perform calculations of the cooling process, one must know the enthalpy changes
taking place. If one is to make enthalpy-tables for a cooling media in all possible
states, you will find a large and unpractical table. Diagrams for simply cooling media
where the cooling media’s enthalpy under the actual aggregate states, are therefore
developed. Such a diagram contains infinitely much more information than a table
can have, and gives, in addition, possibility to make a “heat-technical picture” of
the cooling process.
Before making use of the Mollier diagram one has to learn how the diagram is built,
and how the different lines lie in the diagram. This will make it easier to find
information in the diagram.
Log p-h diagram or called the Mollier diagram, has a vertical logarithmic scale for
pressure (p) and a horizontal scale for enthalpy (h). In the Mollier diagram, one will
often think of the two different units for the different qualities. We will consistently
make use of the SI-units and refer to these scales only.
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Gas Tankers Advance Course
The pressure of the Mollier diagram is, as in all heat technical tables, given as
absolute pressure. If nothing else is given, we have chosen to set the atmospheric
pressure to equal 1 bar, which corresponds to 0,1 MPa.
In cooling technical calculations one is only interested in enthalpy changes and not
the absolute enthalpy values. The values for enthalpy are therefore chosen from a
random reference state. One must take note of this, if one wants to compare
enthalpy values from the different tables or diagrams.
In the Mollier diagram, the “sack” is the most bearing curve. The bent line that goes
from the lower left corner and upwards the KP (the kinetic point) is called the liquid
line. If this line is lengthways, the liquid is always in its boiling point. The line bends
from KP and is almost vertically down the middle of the diagram. This line is called
the saturation curve. On this line, the state will be saturated gas. At the right of the
saturation curve, the gas is super-heated. To the left of the liquid line the liquid is
super-cooled.
The area between the liquid and the saturation line specifies a mixture of boiling
liquid and saturated gas. The dashed line indicates the proportion of mixture
between liquid and gas. Halfway between the liquid line and the saturation line there
will be equal parts of gas as liquid. In the sketch above, one line is marked “0,1”.
Along this line there is 90% liquid and 10% saturated gas.
The distance between the liquid and the saturation line indicates how large the
vaporisation is. Notice that the vaporisation varies with the pressure and is lessened,
the higher the pressure is. In the critical point, liquid can not appear.
The Mollier diagram also has lines that indicate density (or specific volume),
temperature and entropy.
The lines for entropy indicate how pressure, temperature and heat content change in
an adiabatic state of proportion. An adiabatic state of proportion is an alteration
without heat exchanging with the surroundings. The real compression progress in a
compressor will of course deviate some from these lines because of loss in the
compressor and heat exchange with the environment.
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The lines for density (kg/m3) or specific volume (m3/kg) indicate density with varying
pressure and temperature.
The line for constant temperature is vertical from the top of the diagram down to the
liquid line. The temperature goes from the liquid line horizontal to the saturation line,
thereby to bend vertically towards the enthalpy from the saturation line.
To maintain necessary training in using the Mollier diagram, we will see in some
examples how to obtain useful information from the diagram. This course provides a
Mollier diagram for propane utilises the diagram in the following advice.
Take note that there are often two scales for pressure and enthalpy. Note which
units to utilise for temperature, density and entropy. We will only utilise SI-units in
our calculations. In the course enclosure, tables for conversion between the most
common units are enclosed.
When you plot and draw in the diagram it is recommended to always utilise a soft
pencil. The diagram can be used several times.
13.1.1 Example 1
The ship is loaded with propane and the tank manometer pressure is 2 bar. Find the
physical state for the liquid in the loading tank.
Any state of proportion can settle in the diagram if we can identify two actual
crossing lines. As the cargo in the loading tank always lies in its boiling point, the
state of proportion must lie somewhere among the liquid line. It is also known that
the pressure in the tank and above the liquid is read off at 2 bar on the manometer.
This pressure is equivalent 3 bar absolute (if we assume the atmospheric pressure to
1 bar) or 0.3 MPa. The state of proportion here is the point of intersection between
the liquid line and the pressure line of 0,3 MPa.
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Gas Tankers Advance Course
13.1.2 Example 2
The ship is loaded with propane and the tank pressure is read off on the manometer
at 2 bar. Plot the state of proportion for the gas above the liquid in the cargo tank.
As the gas above the liquid in the loading tank is, at all times, saturated, the state of
proportion must lie somewhere on the saturation line. The pressure in the tank and
above the liquid is read off to 2 bar on the manometer. This pressure is equivalent to
3 bar absolute (if we assume the atmospheric pressure to 1 bar) or 0,3 MPa. The
state of proportion here will be the state of intersection between the saturation line
and the pressure line of 0,3 MPa.
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Gas Tankers Advance Course
13.1.3 Example 3
The ship is loaded with propane and the tank pressure is read off on the manometer
to 2 bar. Utilise the Mollier diagram to find how much heat one must supply the tank
to evaporate (boil off) 1 kg propane.
In example 1 and 2, the state of proportions for the liquid and the gas in the loading
tank is stated at a tank pressure of 2 bar. The difference between the liquid enthalpy
h1 and the saturated gas enthalpy h2 is the heat quantity that is needed to evaporate
1kg propane at 2 bar pressure.
The latent heat of evaporation for propane can also be found in a heat thermal
property table for propane. Find this table in the course enclosure, and check that
the latent heat of evaporation is the same.
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Gas Tankers Advance Course
13.1.4 Example 4
The gas carrier is loaded with propane and the tank pressure is read of on the
manometer of 2 bar. On a cargo compressor in operation the suction pressure is
read off to 1,5 bar, and the suction temperature to –10 oC (14oF). Plot the state of
proportion for the gas on the compressor.
As the pressure in the gas in to the compressor is 1,5 bar, the state of proportion
must lie on a pressure line equal 0,25 MPA (1,2 bar + 1 bar) in the diagram. The
exact state of proportion is plotted where the temperature line of –10oC crosses the
pressure line of 0,14 MPa.
When the point is plotted, the density of the gas into the compressor can be defined
from the density lines that run sideways out to the right in the diagram.
A cooling plant’s net cold capacity is expressed as:
Qnett = m x Dh where
m =the mass of gas that streams through the cooling plant per hour (kg/s)
Dh = the difference between enthalpy on the gas that abandons the tank and
enthalpy on the condensate that returns back to the tank (kJ/kg)
Notice that the density of the gas increases at higher gas pressure and lower
temperature. Larger density gives more mass per hour that will flow through the
plant. More mass involves larger cold capacity for the plant.
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Gas Tankers Advance Course
13.1.5 Example 5
A gas cylinder is filled with floating propane. Temperature of the air and propane
liquid and gas is 15 oC. We say that the gas over the liquid is saturated.
The valve opens and floating propane flows over in an open container. Plot the state
of proportion for the liquid in the bottle, before the valve was opened, and for the
liquid in the opened container later.
The liquid lies on the liquid line in the diagram. The point (1) is defined either from
the temperature line of 15oC (59oF) or equivalent pressure line 0,73 Mpa (7,3 bar).
When the liquid is let out of the bottle, the pressure of the liquid to the atmospheric
pressure (1 bar) lowers. The fast reduction of the pressure involves a powerful
boiling of the liquid because of an “unbalance” between the liquid’s temperature and
gas pressure of the liquid. The heat of the boiling is taken from the liquid itself and
the surroundings and the liquid gets colder. An enthalpy change during the process
will not take place. We can draw the process line (from point 1 to point 2) for any
change to the liquid, as a vertical line from the cross-point through the liquid line to
the pressure line.
Notice that the new state of proportion (2) is inside the “sack” and that a precise
share of the liquid has evaporated because of pressure reduction.
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Gas Tankers Advance Course
We separate between four types of compressors in the cooling plant: oil lubricated
pistons, oil free pistons, oil lubricated screw compressors and oil free screw
compressors.
Both types of pistons and oil free screw compressors are used on the cargo side in
the cooling plant. On the Freon side, oil lubricated piston and screw compressors are
used.
13.2.1 Pistons
An oil-lubricated piston has piston rings made of cast-iron. It is therefore necessary
to lubricate the cylinder walls. A part of this oil will be lead out of the compressor. An
oil separator in the pressure pipeline separates most of the oil. But some of the oil is
lead further out in the system in form of oil vapour. The consequence is that one can
not have too large demands for defilement of cargo on ships with such cargo
compressors.
The state of the piston rings and the cylinder liner is conclusive for how much oil
leads out of the compressor. In time, mud will extend from the oil settler. This
reduces the settler’s capacity. Cleaning of this is therefore one of the assumptions to
maintain the oil consumption and the pollution at a fair level.
The working valves are usually a plate type valve and are placed inside the
compressor. The working valves have work-over intervals from 2000 to 5000 hours.
The capacity regulation by the suction valve plates is gradually lifted from the seats
and only the gas is pumped in and out of the cylinder. The lifting arrangement is
normally performed hydraulically by oil taken from the pressure side of the oil pump.
The lubricate oil pump is normally the gear type and normally placed in the extension
of the crankshaft. The oil lubricates the bearing, shaft and the cylinder walls.
One supplies the crankcase with a coil for heating and cooling.
The lubricated piston compressors are normally built as V or W machines. This
construction is less space demanding, but also less friendly working-wise. The
compressor case is sterling in cast-iron and the valves normally of aluminium. The
casings are loose and cast-iron.
The principal for oil free piston compressors is that no parts, which are in contact
with the gas, are lubricated. The piston runs dry in the cylinder. These construction
problems are solved, as follows:
The sealing device between piston and cylinder liner is performed by piston rings
with self-lubricated qualities. Piston rings of teflon material are often used in these
compressors.
A labyrinth gland performs the sealing device between piston and cylinder walls.
Piston/cylinder is made by a small groove. The clearance is as small as possible. As
the piston is in touch with the cylinder walls, there is minimal wear on compressors
with this construction. Loss of energy, which is due to friction in a normal
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Gas Tankers Advance Course
compressor, is about the same as the leakage loss for a compressor with labyrinth
gland.
Oil free piston compressors are at all times built as double acting. That involves that
they are supplied with a cross-head, and the working valves are placed outside the
cylinders. The compressor is also built as two and three stage compressors. This
means that one cylinder is used as 1st stage, the next to 2nd stage and the third as
3rd stage. The individual stages here will have different cylinder diameters where the
first is the largest and the others gradually smaller. The first stage is also referring to
as a low-pressure (LT) cylinder and the highest as high-pressure (HT) cylinder.
The lubricant free piston compressors have, under normal situations, no draft of oil.
Some gas will however leak down in the crankcase on the piston compressors and
there mix with the oil. High pressure in the crankcase is an indication of inferior
sealing. This indicates that the viscosity of the oil is less. If sealing and oil is in bad
shape, oil will also go up in to the cylinder liner and go with the vapour out of the
compressor. Pollution of cargo and reduced compressor capacity are the
consequences of this.
One recommends using a mineral oil for the butadiene, while synthetic oil is used for
the rest of the cargo. Many of the synthetic oils are hygroscopic and will therefore
accumulate dampness if they are exposed to damp air. When changing oil types, one
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Gas Tankers Advance Course
must be sure not to mix the oil types. To be sure that all remnants of the “old” oil
are removed, washing the crank room with the “new” oil before refilling is
recommended.
Too high operating temperature will lead to higher wear and thereby higher leakage
loss in the compressor.
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flapper. Cylinder, labyrinth sealing, crank room and piston rod steering is cooled and
heated by glycol.
If the diagram above is actually for an oil free compressor with a read off suction
pressure of 0,5 bar and a delivery pressure of 5 bar, the pressure ratio is:
6 / 1,5 = 4
A pressure ratio of 4 gives a delivery rate of about 0,60. If the compressor has a
gross capacity of 400 m 3/h, net capacity is:
240 m3/h gas flow through the compressor in this working situation.
Comparison between oil free piston compressors with labyrinth sealing and Teflon
sealing indicates that the delivery volume is a bit larger for a compressor with Teflon
sealing. However, the power consumption rises at a higher delivery pressure
percentage, more than occurs with delivery volume.
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This type of compressor works by the displacement principal. The working parts of the
compressor are two rotating screws, parallel placed in a compressor case. The screws, or
the rotors, are shaped with male and female profiles that mesh into on another.
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The impetus is transferred to the male rotor. The most common combination is four
and six lobes for the male and the female rotor. Four lobes on the male rotor mesh
into 6 lobes on the female rotor. If the male rotor has a number of revolutions of
3600 rpm, the female rotor number of revolutions is:
1. 1. The lobe on the female rotor reveals the die orifice. When the rotors turn,
the chamber gets longer and gas sucks into the compressor.
2. 2. The chamber passes the inlet opening. The gas is now closed between the
end casing.
3. 3. Gradually as the rotor twists additionally, the volume is less and the gas
compress against the outlet wall.
4. 4. An additional twist of the rotor uncovers the outlet wall and the gas is
pressed out of the compressor.
In the most common screw compressors on board, the confined gas will compress to
a precise volume before blowing down to the pressure side. One says that the
compressor has a constant embedded volume proportion. The embedded volume
proportion is determined from the proportion:
V1 / V2 where
V2 is the volume of reticent gas after compression, but before blow down to pressure
side.
The pressure proportion is not constant, but dependent from ploy for the employed
gas and rate of cooling. The connection between the volume proportion and the
pressure proportion can therefore be expressed, as:
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Practically, this means that when the drift parameters change, the screw
compressors with a built-in volume proportion will compress the gas needlessly too
much or too little. Too low compression increases back flow of gas and hence
reduced efficiency.
The oil free screw compressors are used on board as cargo compressors. A
synchronising gear is used to keep the rotors from wearing one another. The axial
strength recovers when placed on the outlet side. Bearings and gear lubricate by a
self-pressure oil system.
To prevent oil from forcing into the compressor room, axial sealing is installed
between the bearings and the gas area inside the compressor.
The compressor case is cooled and heated by glycol. The number of revolutions is
kept relatively high, 5000 to 15000 rpm, to keep the leakage loss as low as possible.
This means that if electric motors are used as; the gear must be used.
Oil lubricated screw compressors are used on board on the Freon side in cascade
plants. The female rotor is driven directly by the male rotor in this type of
compressor. Ample oil must therefore be supplied to the rotors.
The screw compressors power consumption is unfavourable compared with the two-
stage piston compressor. Installation of a “superfeed” arrangement compensates
some in this condition.
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The capacity regulation on oil lubricated screw compressors takes place by help of a
hydraulic operated drawback that opens a gate to the inlet side. The capacity if often
infinitely variable between 10 % and 100 %.
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Despite the fact that the oil separator is installed after the compressor, a larger share
of oil is constantly in the freon consequently this leads to poor plant cooling capacity.
It is not possible to drain off pure oil on the liquid side and a system is therefore
installed as an oil-restoring device in these plants.
The oil-restoring device system is often used in these systems. Some of the cold and
the oil-rich freon liquid is taken from the pressure side and delivered to the lower
inlet of the heat exchanger. A relatively warm freon liquid from the liquid collector
meets it here. The oil-rich freon liquid evaporates inside the pipes. Because of the
large velocity of the gas out of the heat exchanger, the oil particles are carried with
it, as well.
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An independent regulation valve provides that a suitable amount of freon is let into
the heat exchanger when the liquid is taken from the pressure side. A constant
overflow pipe provides that the level in the heat exchanger is constant.
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In this chapter we have chosen to use one-sage direct cooling for our examples,
which is used on board many semi-pressurised gas carrier. Propylene is chosen as
cargo and cooling media.
The simplified sketch of the plant indicates the main components in a cooling plant
with possibility for motoring both with 1 stage and 2 stage direct operation. With 1
stage direct operation cargo tank(s), liquid separator, compressor, condenser, liquid
collector and regulation valves are utilised. Notice that the compressor has two or
more cylinders with different diameters. This is normal when the plant is also
designed for 2 stage operation. Following, there is also an intermediate cooler with
coil. This is not in use in 1 stage operation and supply lines are therefore drawn as a
broken dashed line.
On the following log sheet, an actual operation situation for this plat is registered.
The cooling process itself is drawn in a sketch of a Mollier diagram for propylene.
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Cargo Sea
water
Pressure Temp. Temp
Air Power Tank 1.suct 1.deliv. 1.suct. 1.deliv. In Out
o o o o
Date: Time: C Amp. % bar bar bar C C C oC
load
21/3 12:00 28 180 100 3,0 2,8 10,5 -5 80 23 27
The loading tank is filled with propylene. The temperature of the liquid in the tank is –
12oC, this gives a tank pressure of 3 bars. Heat will be transferred to the tank and the
cargo because of the difference in temperature between cargo and the surroundings.
The condition of the liquid in the tank is in the boiling point line at a pressure of 3 bars.
When liquid boils, the gas over the liquid is regarded as saturated. The condition of the
gas at this point is, therefore, in the Mollier diagram on the saturation line at an absolute
pressure of 4 bar. The point is marked as A.
The piston compressor sucks the gas from the tank via a liquid separator. Because of
heat leakage, the gas is heated between the tank and compressor. In addition, the
pressure in the gas will reduce some because of friction in the pipeline. When gas
sucks into the compressor, both temperature and pressure will be changed. If the
compressor’s suction temperature is –5oC and read-off suction pressure is 2,8 bars,
the condition of the gas (when it sucks into the compressor) can be plotted into the
diagram. The condition is in an overheated area where the temperature line of –5oC
and the pressure line of 3.8 bars (2,8 bars + 1 bars) crosses. The point is marked
as B.
The gas is compressed parallel over both cylinders and delivered to the seawater-
cooled condenser. The compressor performs a job on the gas and the gas is supplied
with energy. Pressure, temperature and enthalpy increases. The compressing
process is traced into the diagram as the line from B to C.
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The heat is transferred from the gas to the seawater in the condenser. The gas into
the condenser now has a temperature of 80oC. The temperature of the seawater into
the condenser is read-off as 23oC. The gas cools and condenses against the relative
cold seawater under constant pressure. The pressure is maintained by the
compressor, which continuously compresses new vapour. The process line in the
Mollier diagram is traced from point C to D. Notice that the gas’s overheating at first
is removed, and then the gas is saturated. Then the evaporation heat is removed
and the gas condenses. When all gas is condensed in the condenser, the state is on
the boiling point line. The relative cold gas of about –12oC that was sucked out from
the tank has, through the compression, increased the temperature to a relative
warmer state than the seawater. This renders a possibility of heat transmission from
an originally colder to a warmer medium. One can see that the gas’s enthalpy
reduces in the process.
A heat quantity is transferred to the seawater that is corresponding to the difference
in enthalpy of the gas that sucks from the tank and the condensate enthalpy after
the condenser.
It is the temperature of the seawater that circulates through the condenser that
determines the condensation pressure. The heat exchanger is normally designed so
that the temperature difference between seawater and condensate is between 3oC
and 8oC. In our example, the read-off condensation pressure is 10,5 bars. In the
heat technical table for propylene, one can see that this corresponds to a
condensation temperature of 25o C, which is within the normal area. A change in the
temperature of seawater and gas over the condenser indicates something is wrong.
If for example, the seawater side becomes dirty, the temperature increase of the
seawater over the condenser is smaller and the condensation pressure higher. One
should notice that such changes of the cooling plant mainly occur over time,
something that makes it difficult to intercept the signals. The only useful method to
reveal such a development is to log the drift parameter regularly. This routine is of
great importance.
The suction of the gas is now condensed and the condensate collected in a liquid
collector. A regulation valve between the liquid collector and the cargo tank regulates
the level in the liquid collector. One can see the process line between point D and E
in the Mollier diagram. Notice that there is no enthalpy change. Temperature and
pressure is what changes over the valve. When the pressure over the condensate is
reduced from condensation pressure of 10,5 bars to tank pressure of 3 bars, the
liquid will boil energetically. Boiling requires heat. This heat is mainly taken from the
liquid itself. The liquid cools and some of the gas evaporates. A mixture of liquid and
gas with the same temperature as the liquid and the gas in the tank is what returns
into the cargo tank. The temperature must be the same for the mixture, because the
pressure is the same. One can locate the shares of liquid and saturated gas in the
Mollier diagram as point E.
The regulation valve’s job is to let the condensate back to the cargo tank in a
constant and controlled process. The valve should simultaneously keep the liquid
locked to secure the compressor’s maintenance of the compression pressure. It is of
great importance that the regulation valve has satisfactory activity. If the liquid level
and thereby the liquid lock disappears, uncondensed gas will blow through the
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condenser and reduce the capability of the plant. If the liquid level rises, so the
condenser refills this result in an inferior heat exchange of the condenser and a
higher condensation pressure.
If the compressor has a capability of 350 m3/h, the net cooling capacity of the plant,
Qnet is:
The capacity of the compressor (V) and the density (p) of the gas into the
compressor determines the mass (m), which flows through the plant. The gas’s
specific volume (v) is point B in the Mollier diagram to 0,12 m3/kg. This corresponds
to a density of (l/0,12 m3 /kg) or 8,33 kg/m3.
Notice the factor, which expresses the cooling plant’s capability to influence and to
control, thereby, the cooling capacity of the plant. Its construction and condition
determine the capacity of the compressor. Good control and maintenance influence
the capability of the cooling plant.
Pressure drops determine the density of the gas into the compressor and
temperature increases between tank and compressor. Needless throttling of valves
on the suction side or tightened filters, gives a needless low pressure and thereby, a
lower density. Inferior isolation of suction pipe or tank gives a larger heat leakage,
higher temperature and thereby lower density. Lower density gives less mass
through the compressor hence with reduced capability.
The enthalpy difference of the plant is determined by the cooling media and other
outer conditions like the seawater temperature. These factors are therefore less
influential than the others are. By studying the process of the Mollier diagram, one
can see that the condition for the temperature of the liquid in the tank and h2
determines the gas at the top of the tank. The other enthalpy point, h1, is
determined by the condensation pressure. Notice that a higher condensation
pressure removes this point to the right and will give less enthalpy difference than
with a low condensation pressure. A lowest possible condensation pressure gives
therefore the best capacity in addition to the best operating condition for the
compressor.
If the capability of the cooling plant is larger than the total heat leakage, the
temperature of the cargo will be lower over time. When the temperature sinks, the
tank pressure sinks. If the seawater temperature and other operating conditions are
unaltered, the process lines EAB are displaced parallel downward with the tank
pressure against the process lines E1A1B1.
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One can see that a lower tank pressure results in a lower cooling capacity. The mass
through the compressor sinks because the density of the vapour is lower with a
lower pressure. In addition, the point h2 is displacing gently against the left; this
results in some lower enthalpy difference. One must notice that the saturation line of
the different material has different inclines. Therefore the influence of this change
varies.
If the condensation pressure is kept unaltered, the process will be longer for the
compression and the outlet temperature from the compressor will be higher. The
condition for the gas after compression is removed from C to C1. This has in itself
no direct influence on the capacity, as long as the condenser can transfer the
necessary heat amount from the gas to the seawater.
Previously, we have seen how the piston compressor delivery extent depends on the
pressure condition of the compressor. The pressure condition in our example is, as
follows:
This increased pressure condition gives an essential reduction in delivery extent and
thereby cooling capacity. The influence of reduced delivery extent of the cooling
capacity is often larger than the summary of the other factors.
The explanation of why the cooling capacity is at the lowest by low tank pressure is
some complex. In addition to above-mentioned condition, the heat leakage will, of
course, be largest at a low tank pressure.
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13.3.1.1 Example 1
The cooling capacity of the vessel is at the moment 234 kW. We want to find the
time to cool down the cargo of 1000 MT propylene, from –12o to –30o.
Net heat abducted in the cooling plant = heat-leakage + heat abducted from the
cargo
In the vessel’s operation manual, we find that the heat leakage to the cargo tanks at
presence air and seawater temperature is 36 kW.
The necessary heat amount removed from the cargo to cool the cargo is located in
the Mollier diagram or in a heat technical table:
Here one must eliminate 39,3 kJ from one kilo propylene to lower the heat
temperature from -12 oC to -30 oC. As we have 1000 MT propylene, the heat amount
that must be abducted is:
(1000 x 103) kg x 39,3 kJ/kg = 39,3 x 106 kJ
The calculated cooling time here at unaltered heat leakage and cooling capacity is
about 55 hours. In practice, the cooling time will be a bit longer because the cooling
capacity and the heat leakage is not constant in the period.
13.3.1.2 Example 2
The vessel is loaded with propane and the cargo tank pressure is read to 2 bars. The
suction pressure of a cargo compressor is read to 1,5 bars and the suction
temperature is –10oC (14oF). Plot the state-point for the gas into the compressor.
As the pressure of the gas into the compressor is 1,5 bars, the state-point must lie in
a pressure line equal 0,25 MPa (1,5 bars + 1 bars) in the diagram. The exact state-
point is plotted where the temperature line of –10oC crosses the pressure line of 0,25
MPa.
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When the point is plotted, the density of the gas into the compressor is determined
from the density lines aslant towards right in the diagram.
Qnet = m x h
Where
m = the mass of gas flowing through the cooling plant per time (kg/s)
h = the difference between enthalpy of the gas that leaves the tank and enthalpy on
the condensate that is returned back to the tank (kJ/kg)
Notice that the density of the gas increases at higher gas pressure and lower
temperature. Larger density gives more mass per hour that flows through the plant.
More mass involves larger cold capacity for the plant.
13.3.3 Example 3
A gas bottle is filled with liquid propane. The temperature of the air and propane
liquid and gas is 15oC. The gas above the liquid is regarded as saturated.
The valve opens and liquid propane runs into an open container. Plot the state-
points for the liquid in the bottle before the valve was opened and for the liquid in
the open container afterwards.
The liquid lies on the liquid line and the point (1) is determined either from the
temperature line of 15o C (59oF) or corresponding pressure line of 0,73 MPa (7,3
bars).
When the liquid is discharged from the bottle, the pressure lowers above the liquid to
the atmosphere pressure (1 bars). The quick reduction of the pressure involves
powerful boiling in the liquid because of an “unbalance” between the liquid
temperature and the gas pressure above the liquid. The heat from boiling is taken
from the liquid itself and the surroundings and the liquid gets colder. No enthalpy
change will take place during the process. One can trace the process line (from
point 1 to point 2) for the alteration that occurs with the liquid, as a vertical line from
the point of the liquid line to the atmosphere pressure line.
Notice that the new state-point (2) lies inside the “sack” and that a precise share of
the liquid has vaporised because of the pressure reduction.
One can see how the cooling plant’s capacity was reduced at larger pressure
conditions in the chapter concerning 1 stage direct operation. At 2 stage operation,
stated pressure conditions will improve the capacity of the plant.
This plant is the same as used in the one-stage lesson. The difference is that the
plant now is altered to 2 stage operation with intermediate cooling. Notice how the
volume flow now compares to 1stage operation and which valves that regulates this.
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The compressor is the same, but only one of the cylinders is used to suck from the
tank.
The compressor is traced with different diameters of the cylinders. Most of the piston
compressors that are used on the cargo-side have this construction. The largest
cylinder is used as 1st stage in the compression and is called the low-pressure
cylinder. The smallest cylinder is used in 2nd stage compression and is called the
high-pressure cylinder.
There is also installed an intermediate pressure container with a coil for sub-cooling
of the condensate in this plant.
The following table indicates a summary from the cooling plant’s log sheet in an
actual stage situation.
Cargo Sea
water
Pressure Temp. Temp.
Air Tank 1.suct 1.deliv 2.deliv 1.suct 1.deliv 2.suct 2.deliv In Out
o o o o o o
C bar bar bar bar C C C C C oC
27 0,7 0,5 3,5 10,5 -25 50 -7 74 23 27
The compressor’s low pressure cylinder or 1st stage suck vapour from the cargo tank.
The vapour leaves the tank with state A and are sucked into the compressor’s 1st
stage with state B. The vapour compresses in the compressor’s 1st stage and is
delivered to the intermediate cooler (MT) with state C. The intermediate cooler is
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partly filled with cargo liquid. The superheated gas is normally led down in the liquid
where it is cooled by the relatively cold liquid.
The compressor’s 2nd stage suck in saturated vapour from the top of the MT cooler
and compresses this vapour and delivers it to the cargo condenser. The process line
is marked DE.
The heat is transferred from the vapour to the seawater in the cargo condenser, the
vapour condensate and is collected in the liquid collector. The process line is marked
EF.
The condensate is led via a coil in the MT cooler through the regulation valve and
back to the cargo tank. The process line is marked FG. Notice that the state-point is
below the sub-cooled area.
The pressure in the intermediate cooler determines the temperature of the liquid in
it. A pressure of 3,5 bars for propylene corresponds to a temperature of –8oC. The
vapour that is sucked inn to the 2nd stage has a temperature of –7oC in the log. The
small difference of temperature may be caused by heat leakage in the suction line or
reading error. The state-point G is therefore determined from the temperature line
corresponding to a pressure of 0,45 MPa (3,5 bars + 1 bars).
A to low liquid level in the MT cooler results in a sub-cooling of the condensate and
thereby reduces cooling capacity. The heat supplied to the liquid in the MT cooler
from the warm vapour from the 1st stage and the relatively warm condensate leads
to a lot of liquid evaporation. An independent regulation valve regulates the liquid
level in the MT cooler.
The vapour is led from 1st stage and down in the liquid of the MT cooler in our 2-
stage plant. Many plants that also have the possibility for “flash cooling” where the
vapour is lead into the top of the MT cooler and give operational advantages.
After the coil in the MT cooler the condensate is released back to the cargo tank
through the regulation valve. Notice that there is a larger share of liquid now than at
1-stage operation. The state-point for the condensate that returns back to the tank is
further to the left in the diagram.
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The cooling plants net cold capacity is calculated, as previously, by the expression:
13.3.1 Example 1
To better visualise the difference between 1-stage operation and 2-stage operation,
we can look at an example where the vessel has loaded warm propylene and
delivered the cargo fully cooled. The plant is started with 1-stage operation because
of a very high tank pressure. Subsequent to the cargo cooling, the cargo tank
pressure is reduced. The result is increased differential pressure between 1st and 2nd
stage and reduced delivery extent. When the temperature of the cargo is at –30oC,
one decides to reorganise the operation to a 2-stage operation with intermediate
cooling.
The following working parameters are registered before and after the re-adjustment:
Cargo Sea
water
Pressure Temp. Temp
Tank 1.suct 1.deliv. 2.deliv. 1.suct 1.deliv. 2.suct. 2.deliv. In Out
o o o o o
bar bar bar bar C C C C C oC
1,1 1,0 3,7 10,5 -20 54 -7 74 23 27
1,1 0,9 10,5 -22 80 23 27
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= 92 kW
The cooling capacity at 2-stage operation and intermediate cooling are calculated
from the following values located in the Mollier diagram and technical table:
The two calculated cooling capacities in the example must be evaluated from the
accuracy in our measures. With normal measure divergence, one can conclude that
the cooling capacities are about equal for this plant at –30oC for propylene and a
condensation pressure of 10,5 bars. The decision of reorganising the plant to 2-stage
operation at this moment looks correct, if one only evaluates the cooling capacities.
One must however notice that normally it refers, in the operating manuals, only to
maximum delivery-pressure/maximum differential-pressure over the compressor and
not pressure condition. These parameters are simple practical expressions for the
compressor’s constructional limitations, which influence the operation.
If it is specified, in the operating manual, that maximum delivery pressure at 1-stage
is 12 bars and maximum differential pressure is 8 bars, alteration from 1-stage to 2-
stage operation is determined, as follows:
At unchanged seawater temperature, the condensation pressure is 10,5 bars.
Limitation of maximum delivery pressure is thereby kept regardless of operations
form.
The differential pressure at 1-stage will rise at falling tank pressure. If the
condensation pressure is a constant 10,5 bar, 1-stage will have a differential
pressure of 8 bars when the suction pressure p0 is:
po = (10,5 - 8) bar = 2,5 bar
If the pressure drop of the suction line is constant at 0,1 bars, the plant must alter to
2-stage operation at a tank pressure of 2,6 bars, which corresponds to a cargo
temperature of –15oC.
From constructional limitations one can see that the cooling plant should be altered
to 2-stage operation at –15oC and not at –30oC.
13.3.4 Example 2
When we are loading cargo that is warmer than compared with the safety valve’s set
point, the loading time is determined by the capacity of the cooling plant. To
maintain the tank pressure during the opening pressure for the valves, the cargo that
is loaded must be cooled down. Bad plant condition and poor plant operation reduces
the cooling capacity and results in longer loading time.
The same gas tanker, as in the example above is to load 4000 MT hot propylene of
+15oC. The loading tank’s safety valves have an opening pressure of 4,5 bars. It is
determined to maintain the tank pressure of 4 bars during the loading.
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In the following log two different operational parameters are registered from the
cargo cooling plant. In the first alternative, the compressor’s suction valves are
throttled to a suction pressure of 1,5 bars. In the second alternative, the suction
valve is less throttled and the suction pressure is 2,5 bars.
The following operational parameters is registered before and after the alteration:
Cargo
Pressure Temp.
Tank 1.suct 1.deliv. 1.suct. 1.deliv.
o o
Alt. bar bar bar C C
1 4,0 1,5 8,0 5 81
2 4,0 2,5 8,0 0 77
The two cooling processes are plotted into a Mollier’s diagram for propylene.
Notice that the enthalpy difference is the same regardless of suction pressure. In the
Mollier diagram, we find specific volume and density for the gas into the compressors
at the two suction pressures:
One can see that the difference in the cooling capacity will be proportional with the
change in the mass flowing through the plant. The percentage difference in the
cooling capacity thereby is expressed, as follows:
The cooling capacity is reduced by about 36% if the suction pressure is reduced from
2,5 bars to 1,5 bars for this re-condensation plant during the above-mentioned
conditions. This also means that loading time will increase with 36%.
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To visualise this influence better, we calculate the loading time for the vessel. We
assume that the cargo tanks with ROB, steal and isolation are cooled down to -5oC
before commence loading. The heat leakage to the cargo tanks (QTr) is stated in the
vessel’s operational manuals to 144 kW and three identical cargo cooling units drive
in the re-condensation plant, where the compressor’s capacity in each cooling unit is
set to 400 m3/h.
We locate how much heat has to be removed from each kilo propylene liquid to cool
this down to +15oC to –5oC in the heat technical table:
Necessary heat that must be removed from the cargo (QL) is:
QL = m x Dh
= (4000 x 103)kg x 46,5 kJ/kg = 186 x 106 kJ
We find the enthalpy values of the gas out of the tank (h2) and the enthalpy of the
mixture that is returned to the tank (h1), in the Mollier diagram:
h2 = 240 kJ/kg
h1 = -80 kJ/kg
The cooling capacity for the entire re-condensation plant at a suction pressure of 2,5
bars and 0oC is:
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= 300971 s
= 83.6 hours
The cooling capacity for the entire re-condensation plant at a suction pressure of 1,5
bar and 5oC is:
= 485 kW
T2 = QL / (Qnetto - QTr)
= 186 x 106 kJ / (485 - 144) kW
= 545455 s
= 152 hours
We can see that the influence of unnecessary throttling on the suction side of the
compressor gives large deflection of the cooling capacity and thereby loading time.
The tank pressure during the loading period also has influence on the total loading
time. If a high tank pressure is kept close up to the safety valve’s opening pressure,
less heat will be abducted from the loaded cargo and loading time will be shorter.
A cascade plant onboard a gas tanker is a cooling plant composed by two coolant
circuits working in serial with each other. Both circuits are complete cooling plants
that are built in many different configurations. Both 1-stage and 2-stage operations
are used depending on the cargo that should be cooled and choice of components in
the cooling systems. One of the cooling circuits consist in a closed cooling process
where the cargo directly condenses contra freon or other cooling media. The other
cooling circuit consists in a closed cooling process where the freon or another cooling
medium condenses contra seawater.
The cargo side of the cascade plant is the same as in the 2-stage plant example,
with exception for the condenser. The seawater-cooled condenser is now replaced
with a freon-cooled condenser. On most cascade plants we have both a freon
condenser and seawater cooled condensers in the cargo cooling plant. This gives
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flexibility and good operation economy. The freon side of this plant is a simple 1-
stage plant with screw compressor.
Freon compressors are of oil-lubricated type. Large amounts of oil will follow the
compression gas out of the compressor. If this is not separated and returned to the
oil receiver, the share of oil in the freon circuit will be too high. The oil will reduce
heat transfer in the heat exchangers and create operation interruptions. The oil
separator has two functions where it separates oil from the gas and at the same time
is a system tank for the oil system.
The following summary from a cooling plant’s log indicates an actual operation
situation for this plant. The cargo that is cooled is ethylene.
Ethylene cycle
Pressure Temp.
Tank 1.suct 1.deliv. 2.deliv. 1.suct. 1.deliv. 2.suct. 2.deliv.
o o o o
bar bar bar bar C C C C
0,6 0,5 5,3 17,3 -42 70 -60 50
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The cooling process of the cargo side is plotted into a Mollier diagram for ethylene
and is, as follows:
The cooling process on the freon side of the cascade plants is plotted equal.
The condensation pressure of the loading side depends on the temperature of the
freon liquid circulating through the loading condenser. The pressure in the liquid
separator again depends on the suction pressure of the freon compressor and
determines the freon temperature. (We assume that the freon side has the right
filling). Notice that the condensation pressure for ethylene lies at 17,3 bars, which
corresponds to a temperature of –27oC. The pressure in the liquid separator is 0,2
bars, which corresponds to a temperature of –37oC. This gives a temperature
difference of 10oC in the cargo condenser, usually too high for this type of heat
exchanger. If the freon pump don’t deliver sufficient liquid to the cargo condenser,
the cause is probably one or a combination of the following:
Cascade plants are used both for LPG and ethylene. The plant exists both on
atmosphere gas carrier LPG and for semi pressured gas carriers LPG/ ethylene. This
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plant is an example of a usual cascade plant that can also be used to re-condense
ethylene. Normally screw compressors are used both on the loading side and on the
freon side in the cooling plant onboard big atmosphere pressure gas carrier LPG.
There are many different configurations of cascade plants. The freon side is
frequently equipped with super-feed or intermediate pressure container with sub-
cooling. Some plants have freon pumps, which pump freon through the cargo
condenser, where others use thermal expansion valves. Freon compressors can be
piston compressors or screw compressors. Screw compressors can be built with one
or two stages.
Plants with and without MT-containers, with and without flash cooling, with and
without de-super-heaters, 2-stage compression with and without sub-cooling, exist
on the loading side. The compressors on the cargo side have to be oil free piston or
screw compressors. The configuration possibilities are many and the variation in
plants from vessel to vessel is what one faces onboard. The understanding of the
cooling process and knowledge to your vessel’s “special” plant is a basic assumption
for safe and economic operation of the plant.
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Most insulation material’s insulating qualities emerge from stationary gases, bad
thermal conductance capability and thereby good insulation capability.
The thermal conductance capability is expressed by a material’s thermal
conductance number (thermal conductivity) and states the heat quantity
measured by Watt, which is transported through to surface of 1 meter thickness
when the temperature difference is 1K.
Thermal conductivity
One can see that the best heat conductor or worst insulation materials are pure
metals. The worst heat conductors or best insulation materials are stationary gases.
It is of most importance that the gases are kept as stationary as possible, because
the total thermal transmission is higher if convection also arises. This is in practice
solved by trying to catch the gas inside the smallest possible cavity, or by keeping
the gas inside a net of thin fibres. The thermal conductance figure will mainly
increase at higher temperature because of larger convection. The best insulation
material regarding thermal transmission is a composition of a firm material and a gas
with the separately lowest thermal conductance figures.
First of all, it is the thermal conductance figure that is of interest when looking at the
important qualities for an insulation material. Lower thermal conductance figures
render possible thinner insulation and thereby place saved.
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The upper temperature limit for the material’s relevance normally has no importance
for an insulation material that should be used for cool insulation, but one prefers that
the material tolerate highest possible temperature considering fire.
The insulation material’s lower temperature is of major importance. In the plastic
insulation condensation can occur at a lower temperature and thereby increase the
thermal inductance figure for the material.
Thermal expansion and elasticity are two qualities of great importance for plastic
insulation materials, for example cargo tanks on gas tankers. Changing temperature
for tank shells and insulation can lead to periodical expansions and compressions. As
the thermal expansion co-efficiency for the insulation material can be 4 to 5
times larger than the steel, cracks may easily arise if the insulation material don’t
have good elasticity. A plastic insulation material like polyurethane has good
adhesion firmness to the steel priming and good elasticity and is thereby resistant
to cracks. An insulating problem area is around the loose tank cradle of cylinder
cargo tanks. All of the expansion and compression movement of longitudinal
direction of the tank takes place here. Large demands are made both to material and
for the insulation to be good and long performance. A special developed insulation
with especially good elasticity is suitable for such areas.
All insulation materials that are used onboard must be fire resistant. Insulation
materials made of plastic are added or built up in such a way that in case of fire, fire-
extinguishing vapour are released, and they are self-quenching. The insulation
material will only burn as long as a foreign fire source is present. One must not
underestimate the risk of fire in the plastic insulation and the consequences by such
a fire. Fire can easily arise in such materials in connection with weld work. Ignition of
the insulation on the cargo tanks has occurred with fatal consequences. The large
amount of thick, black and poisonous smoke that is formed by such a fire has
prevented escape from hold space and serious poisoned injures.
Where the material is exposed to strains the material’s compressive-strength is
important. The strain points will, for example, be large in the support points for an
insulated pipeline. To evade lasting compression or crumbling of the insulation
material, special compressive-strengthen materials are used in these areas.
Of the chemical qualities for insulation materials, it is the corrosive qualities that
often are underestimated. When the insulation material of glass or mineral wool got
a high humidity, it will have a strong corroding effect on metals. It is difficult over
time to avoid this onboard. Even stainless steel pipes corrode in such an environment
and if this is allowed to proceed, an expensive replacement is soon the result.
The capability to resist humidity or diffusion resistance is an important quality that
must be evaluated in choosing insulation material, as well as, in planning
maintenance. When insulating between a warm and cold side, for example, a cargo
tank, the cold side will be tight (tank shell) and the warm side will be surrounded by
air with high humidity. Because of a higher saturation pressure on the warm side in
proportion to the cold side, moist air will be forced through and will condense against
the cold side. The thermal conductance figure will, because of the humidity, increase
and the water will freeze and destroy the insulation. The damage extent will
accelerate if such a process is continuously unchanged.
If the diffusion resistance for stationary air is set to 1, the proportional diffusion
resistance for mineral wool will be about 1,5 and for polyurethane it will be about 60.
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A diffusion-tight damp-latch on the warm side is, at all times, imperative on a chill
insulation. The most commonly used materials and methods are:
• Thin aluminium foil glued on the insulation. This method is suitable for
insulation non-exposed for mechanical wear and tear, for example, some
loading tank constructions.
• Galvanised and stainless steel sheet that is fastened by pop cones and the
joint seals with jointing compound. This method is expensive, but strong
against mechanical wear and tear and necessary for “foaming”.
• Glass-fibre armed polyester. This method is more moderate, but gets easily
fragile. Most suitable for repair
• One or more layers with asphalt emulsion armoured with multiple layers of
glass fibre fabric. Moderate method and easy to maintain, but weak for
mechanical wear and tear.
• Sprayed mastic with or without armouring. Moderate method, but week
against mechanical war and tear and requires more maintenance on exposed
places. Most suitable for repair and sprinkling on insulation not exposed to
rough weather.
• The insulation material on gas ships may be divided into the following three
different groups based on structure and material:
• Cellular plastic, which is expanded plastic raw material, built up in a cellular
structure.
• Wallboard, which is built up of a net with thin fibres.
• Expanded volcanic perlite, which is built up on a cellular structure.
14.1.1 Polyurethane
There are a number of insulation materials, which are built up of raw plastic
materials. The most used is polyurethane. Mixing isocynate and polyole, normally in
the proportion 1:1 makes polyurethane. Isocyanate has a resemblance to thick oil
and polyole has a resemblance to clear liquid. A chemical reaction that is
exothermic is actuated when mixing the liquids. If one adds some water, carbon
dioxide is formed, which because of the reaction-heat evaporates and “blows” up the
material. Foam with about 90% closed cells and a very low thermal conductance
number appear. Polyurethane-foam based on CO2 has a relatively long time of
expansion.
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One can mix polyurethane foam for smaller repairs in a bucket before pouring into a
mould. As there are different suppliers on the market, it is recommended to check
with the supplier about the composition and if water has to be used when mixing.
There are also a number of machines for spraying on the market, also disposable
spray equipment with smaller containers for iciyanat and polyol. Disposal-spray
equipment of this type or a simple modifying of the paint sprayer onboard, is suitable
for smaller repairs to the insulation.
Polyurethane is also available as half-cups for insulation of pipes. It is important that
the dimension of the cup fit to the outer diameter of the pipe so that air leak is
avoided. The polyurethane cups can easily be cut for matching the pipe bend, bend
and valves. It is recommended to lay two layers with half cups on larger pipes, so
that the connections are displaced in proportion to each other. The half cups and the
connections are glued, and secure the density and strength and a water barrier is
laid either with thin metal plates or mastic.
14.1.2 Polystyrene
Polystyrene is produced in two stages. At the first stage polystyrene is pre-expanded
with vapour where blisters from 1 to 6 mm are formed. The pre-expanded material is
sent up into large silos for de-aeration. After 2 to 4 day in the silo, the pre-expanded
material is filled in forms for further expansion and compression of the grains, to
shape blocks. Heat from steam or electrical elements are used in this last expansion.
The finished blocks are cut up into plates and pipe cups.
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heat and thereby is warmer than a galvanised plate. The thermal conductance is
thereby larger.
1. Held the atmosphere in hold spaces dry by drying the atmosphere regularly,
use dry inert gas or nitrogen, if possible.
2. Control the cargo tank insulation regularly. Areas with ice or humidity indicate
thermal loss. Note these areas with spray paint to easier locate the areas
when these need repairing.
3. Control external insulation regularly and repair wrecked water barrier plates
immediately. Areas with ice or humidity indicate thermal loss. Note the areas
with spray painting in order to easily locate these when need of repairing.
4. At all times, have necessary materials to repair wrecked insulation onboard,
minimum materials to repair damage on water barrier. As some of the
insulation materials have limited operating time, the stock onboard must be
adjusted to the expected consumption the next month.
5. Before adding new insulation in place, corrosion and pitting must be
controlled. The steel must be protected from corrosion before new insulation
is put to place.
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When the insulation on cargo tanks gets inferior, it will have influence on the
capacity of the vessel. Its construction and choice of components give the cooling
plant’s capacity. Systematic maintenance will hold this capacity. The amount of heat
transferred to cargo tanks and cargo pipes dependent on the insulation’s state,
surrounding temperature, heat radiation and movements. Before taking a closer look
at the condition around heat transfer on gas carrier, it is useful to form a picture of
the heat balance.
Heat is transferred from the surroundings to the cargo and systems for cargo
because of the temperature difference. The transmission heat to the cargo tanks,
Qtr.tank is the total transferred heat to the cargo tanks with cargo, steel and
insulation. Transmission heat to cargo pipelines QTr.pipe is the total transferred heat to
cargo in the pipes, pipe and insulation around the pipes. The heat of compression,
QTr.Compr is the heat supplied to the gas in the compressor and the heat of
condensation QCond is the heat transferred to the seawater in the loading condenser.
When the cooling plant is driven to keep the temperature of the cargo constant, the
heat balance is expressed as:
or as:
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done onboard, how to evaluate the result and what results the eventual effectuated
effort will have.
Most gas carriers are equipped with a graphic description of the calculated heat
transfer to the cargo tanks.
This is a theoretical calculated description that does not necessarily give the right
image of the heat transfer. The older the ship is the larger probability that the
calculated heat transfer DOES NOT coincide with reality.
Control of the reel heat transfer can be executed onboard. If a loaded cargo tank is
closed and isolated from the cooling plant over a period of time, the transferred heat
from the surroundings can be measured. The heat transfer is thereby quantified and
is comparable with what it was or should be. Before looking on a concrete example,
it is of importance to emphasise that when accomplish such measuring, one must
evaluate the results from the accuracy of the instruments. As the measuring
instruments onboard has normally no more accuracy than + 10%, the period of
measure should be as long as possible. Further it is important that if comparing
repeated actual measurements, the measures has to be made at the best possible
equal condition.
We will now take a look at different examples and what we can do.
14.2.1 Example 1
A 12 year old smaller intermediate pressure gas carrier with 6 cargo tanks is loaded
with ethylene and has just moved the sailing area from Europe to SEA. The captain
rapport that the ship capability to cool down ethylene is perceptible inferior. The
cooling rate is now at the lower edge of 0,3oC per day when the temperature of the
cargo gets lower than minus 102oC. Inspection of the loading tanks indicate ice more
than usual round all of the tank foundation and tank no.2 and 4 has many “ice
spots”. Several “ice spots” than before are also observed on suction lines and
condensate lines on deck. The cooling plant is checked and driven at optimum, but
the cooling rate is more than halved at the same pressure in proportion to when the
ship sailed in European waters.
As the cooling plants condition is verified good and the plant is verified optimum
driven, the bad cooling rate must be the result of the insulation has been worse
during the years. The heat transfer has probably increased gradually through the
years, but the influence has not been operational visual before the ship altered
sailing area. It is obvious that the insulation on tank no. 2 and 4 plus the insulation
on the lines on deck are mostly reduced.
Repair of the insulation is necessary, but the question is which areas have most
influence on the cooling capacity. Clarification of this is of importance when planning
and priority of the insulation repair. The amount of heat transfer to the cargo tanks
and pipelines must be concretised and compare with the repair costs before making
the right decision.
Cargo tank no. 2, 3 and 4 are the same type and size. To find out how much heat
that is transferred to the “bad” loading tanks in proportion to one of one of the
“good”, the tanks are shut for 24 hours.
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The measuring instruments that are utilised during the experiment is calibrated and
the following sketch for heat transfer is utilised and filled in:
Ambient temperature in oC 24 34
o
Sea water temperature in C 28 29
o
Average Hold space temperature in C 23 27
Ship's movement Calm sea Calm sea
Weather condition Cloudy Cloudy
As the weight of gas is relative much less than the liquid weight, only the enthalpy
change of the liquid is measured. The enthalpy values exist in heat technical table
and the heat transfer to the cargo in tank no. 2 is calculated to:
Corresponding, the heat transfer is measured and calculated to the cargo in tank no.
3 and 4 to respectively 13,9 kW and 22,2 kW.
In the technical description of the ship the calculated heat transfer when the ship
was built to 13,1 kW for each tank at the same surrounding temperature and
seawater temperature is located.
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Qnetto = m x Dh
Higher temperature on the vapour into the compressor involves lower density and
thereby reduced amount of vapour through the compressor per time. The influence
of inferior insulation on the suction lines to the cooling plant will have direct influence
on the cooling capacity.
The reduction of the suction line's insulation involves a direct reduction of the cooling
rate of about 10% in this temperature area.
The size of the heat loss through condensate lines and liquid lines cannot be
measured directly because there will at all times be and unknown and varying
mixture of liquid and gas in the pipes. Judgement must at all times be adjusted and
from the rapport from this ship, one must assume that the insulation here has the
same condition as the suction lines. If this is the case, the influence of bad insulation
on the condensate lines will have maximum consequence. The liquid lines are only
utilised in a short period (during loading and discharging), while the condensate lines
are utilised during all of the cooling period.
The increase of the relative heat loss through the insulation on loading tank no. 2
and 4 is now indicated. Likewise is the reduction of cooling capacity because of
increased heat transfer to the suction gas established. There is no doubt that both
conditions have influence on the operational situation on the ship. But it is difficult to
compare these two directly, for thereby to establish which one of them that has the
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The ship’s three loading compressors have stated a capacity of 680 m3/h at the same
operational condition. The alteration of the heat transfer to the suction line in
proportion to earlier years is calculated to:
Vapour Ethylene
o
Temperature at inlet compressor -60 C
before, T1
Enthalpy, h1 572,7 kJ/kg
o
Temperature at inlet compressor -40 C
now, T2
Enthalpy, h2 607,4 kJ/kg
Density, r2 1,6181 kg/m3
Number of compressors 3
Capacity per compressor, V 680 m3/h
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