LOGIC AND CRITICAL THINKING

Logic: Def.

1. Logic is the study used to distinguish Good from Bad and Correct from

Incorrect. Or

2. Logic is the study of the Methods and principals used to distinguish

correct from incorrect reasoning.

3. Logic is the appeal to thoughts. Thoughts can be expressed in three

forms.

1. General Idea

2. Judgment

3. Inference i.e conclusion

4. Logic is a process of application of senses.

i.e

 Visual sense logically high lights colour, size, shapes,

brightness, darkness.

 Touch sense which logically high lights, hardness, softness,

warmness and coldnes.

5. According to sigmand fruand logic in a study which highlights the

consciousness and unconciousness

 Logic as a study of thoughts.

 In definition logic is a process of application of senses and perception

which results in positive thoughts.

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 Logic is a process of critical thinking. Which is also known as logical

thinking.

 Logic and critical thinking are correlated to each other and are the

branches of philosophy which facilitate the application of fruit full ideas in the

business.

 Aristotle and John lock believed that the human mind is a blank slate and

that the most ideas and knowledge comes through the application of senses.

 Hence the knowledge of logic and critical thinking is a basic need for the

managers of modern world business.

 Logic in term of art science.

 Science is the knowledge of nature while art is the application of science

for the well fare of human being.

As Science As Art

1. Logic Natural Ideas developed will be

utilized & applied for the success

of business.

2. Need Valid Result Results are used for the benefit

of human kind.

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LOGIC & CRITICAL THINKING

Premises & Conclusion

Premises:- are the limitations or boundary walls in which certain arguments can

be discussed. e.o Job design.

Premises are

1. Job Analysis

2. Job Specifications

3. Job Enrichment

4. Work Environment

5. Quality of work etc.

Conclusion are the results obtained from different arguments discussed in the

premises e.g Impacts of job analysis on the

1. Business profitability.

2. Stock holder wealth

3. Stock holder Satisfaction

Logic & critical thinking are always based on certain premises &

conclusion one can not move logically without premises & conclusion.

Basic terms

Normally the following terms are used in the process of logic & critical

thinking these terms are known as the basic terms of logic.

1. Idea:- It refers to a set of images originated in a creative form.

2. Proposition:- Refers to the ideas which is expressed in a specified

language or different languages

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3. Such as:-

1. I speak (English language)

2. Ich speech (German language)

3. je parle (French language)

4. Arguments:- refers to the set of proposition which is discussed with in

specified premises.

5. Judgment:- It is the end result of the logic process which may be aenial or

affirmation of the connection among ideas.

The Order of Premises & Conclusion

In the process of logic & critical thinking we discussed that premises &

conclusion are the milestones, hence the order of premises & conclusion in this

process is that logic & critical thinking lan always be initiated with premises &

then after detail & fruit full discussion results will be concluded.

Hence, the order is that premises come first & conclusion at the end.

i.e We open the logical & critical thinking process with premises & end this

process with conclusion.

e.g (A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state)

(Premises) the right of the people to keep & bear Arms shall not be

infringed.

USA Constitution

Premises & conclusion indicator.

Distinction b/w premises & conclusion can be made in the process of logic

& critical thinking through the following indicators.

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Premises indicator (Reason show)

Since, because, as for as for, as, follows from.

Conclusion indicator (Result)

Therefore, hence, thus, so, accordingly as a result etc.

Arguments in context.

Logic & critical thinking is a process where argument will always be

discussed in reference to the context.

e.g prohibition of riba in the light of holy Quran, Ahadith or in fiqa.

The study of motion, reaction & genes in the light of physics, chemistry

biology respectively.

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 AGREEMENT & DISAGREEMENT OF ATTITUDE

Attitude:- The persistent tendency to behave in favour or against of certain

phenonomena.

Logically attitude & opinion are two different concepts.

Attitude refer to explicit behaviour regarding likes & dislikes of any phenomenen.

Opinion refer to implicit behavior regarding likes & dislikes of any phenomencn

Explicit:- something that is shown clearly or openely.

Implicit:- something that is unclear or explain in indirect way.

Agreement of attitude:- refer to the explicit behavior which shows liking or

acceptance of any phenomenon.

Disagreement of Attitude:- refer to the explicit behavior which shows disliking

or refection of any phenomenon.

Basis of Agreement & Disagreement:- there are certain bases which cause

agreement or disagreement of attitude towards a phenomenon. There are,

1. Social thoughts. 2. Social influence 3. Social relations.

1. Social thoughts: Social thoughts as the name signifies are the results of

social interaction b/w the members of society, such thoughts either results

in the form of agreement or disagreement of attitude.

2. Social influence: Social influence is a potential which divert the attitude

either in the from of agreement or disagreement, such influence normally

developed due to the following factors.

. Group Pressure: 1. Qualitative leadership 2. Cognitive approach

(n/on selfish approach)

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3. Social relation: Attitude are also social relation b/w the members of the

society. Therefore, the agreement or disagreement of the attitudes

depends upon the following variables.

1. Activity. Ii. Interactivity

ii. interactivity iii. Sentimental attachment.

The frequent & persistent presence of the aforesaid variables among the

members of the society results agreement of attitudes & vice verse.

The language: Language is a basic medium which facilitates the

exchange of ideas messages & understanding, Co-Operation & Co-

Ordination among the members of the society so as to ensure smooth

relationship & multiplicity of social welfare.

As discussed, language is the medium of communication &

communication fuels in the flouring categories.

a. verbal communication

b. Non- verbal communication

c. C Symbolic Communication.

a. Verbal Communication. Verbal Communication as the name signifies

is a most common type of communication in which we orally present ideas,

messages & thoughts.

b. Non- Verbal Communication: Simply speaking non verbal

communication is that type of communication where we do not orally presents

our ideas & messages, but show it through body language, gestures, eye

expression, facial emersion.

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C. Symbolic Communication: Symbolic Communication is a special

type of communication in which messages, ideas are presented are derived

through symbols such as beckon lights.

The basic Functions of languages:

a. Directive function of language.

b. Expressive function of language

c. Informative function of language

a. Directive function of language: Directive function of language

represents the authoritative style of communication such as instructions to

subordinates through their bosses, it is the autocratic usage of language in order

to control, of language in order to control. Guide & direct the behaviors in a

derided manner.

Expressive function of language:- Expressive function of language represents

the expression of emotions of human being such as oH! In case of sorrow &

wava! In case of happiness.

Expressive function of language:

Expressive function of language represents the expression of

emotions of human beings such as oh! In case of sorrow & Wava! In

case of happiness.

Informative function of language:

As against the directive & experience functions of language, it is a

very normal type function of language through which just information

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in a very normal style is communicated such as information about

scientific research advertisement regarding industrial exhibitions &

weather fore cast etc.

Discourse serving multiple function:

It is a special type of functions of language which serves multiple

purpose. This function represents the combination of the aforesaid

basic function & serves the purposes of the basic functions singly.

Such as the poetry of our national poet Allama Muhammad Iqbal

serves multiple functions.

The forms of discourse:

Discourse refers to general conversation. The form of discourse refer

to the ways of the presentation of conversation which either proves

the correctness or incorrectness of conversation such as grammatical

structure (mistake or grammatical corrections) phonemes (accent) &

perception of the word & sentences.

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 EMOTIVE WORD & THE LOGIC OF EMOTIONS

As the words signifies, emotive words are those words & sentences

which directly influence feelings & emotions of the individual such as

exaggeration in the poetry.

What are two basic theories regarding the logic of emotion. They are.

a. Games lange theory.

b. Cannon Bord theory.

James Lange Theory:

This theory highlights that emotions in the human being are emerged

due to secretion of special brain hormones in a particular are a

hypothalamus.

Cannon Bord Theory:

This theory emphasis upon the importance of environment factors

which provoke the individual emotions in a specified manner.

For example of the environment presents a friendly atmosphere, the

result will be positive response in the form of emotions i.e. Joy,

happiness, co-operation will be develop other wise the negative

response in the form of angriness, sadness, fear may be provoke.

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Emotively Neutral Language:

When ever, the words & sentences are presenting the literal

meanings with in a specified language is called emotively neutral

language. In this type of language emotions are replaced by actual

information provided to the individuals in the society.

TRUTH & VALIDITY

Validity:

The process through which we compare our test scores with Criterion

standard scores is called validity.

Valid score: The score which falls near to the standard scores are

valid scores.

Invalid Scores:

If the scores fall away from the standard scores then it will be

considered invalid scores.

Truth: The value which is obtained from a valid test & which provides

the same scoring results as defined by the valid testis called truth

value of the test.

Test construction (Assignment):

Problem Solving (Assignment):

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Creativity thinking & Innovating:

The methods in which the individuals organize ideas, concepts &

images to form new constructive associations are called creativity

helps in invention. It is a cognitive activity which depends on

knowledge & interest creativity involves the generation of ideas that

are original, novel & useful.

The creativity Process:

Most people would agree that creativity is a highly desirable activity

that has made possible major invention, scientific break through &

great work of art & literature, usually people assume that creativity

springs suddenly from flashes of inspiration.

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 FALLACIES

i. Fallacies ii. Fallacy of Relevance iii. Fallacy of

Ambiguity

Fallacies:

Any argument which is physiologically true or incorrect but logically

incorrect is called fallacy. Normally each fallacy is a type of incorrect

argument so “Fallacy” is an argument which is although incorrect in

nature but psychologically persuasive Fallacy can make us fool any

time but they prove upon examination. So it is necessary to study

these mistaken arguments and they should be avoided.

(Propagandas Hinary Fayol).

Normally the fallacy is divided into two main groups.

i. Fallacy of Ambiguity.

ii. Fallacy of relevance.

Fallacy of Ambiguity:

The fallacy of Ambiguity is not used intentionally but it is used

unintentionally. A phrase or word can be ambiguous in a particular

context if it can have two or more different meanings in that context.

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1. Equivocation:

An informal fallacy in which two or more meanings of the same word

or phrase have been confused.

2. Amphiboly:

In this type of ambiguity the grammatical structure is so loose that it

can be interrupted in two or more than two ways. If a fallacious

statement may be true on one interpretation & false on other e.g. he

is scholarshpoing.

3. Accent:

An informal fallacy committed when a term or phrase has a

meanings in the conclusion of an argument different from its

meanings in one of the premesis, the different araising chiefly from a

change in emphasis given to the words used.

Arabs Chinese Germans Africa

Bakistan Raing sinking Bubble

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Fallacies of Relevance:

When an argument relies upon the premises that are not relevant to

its conclusion. These fallacies are used intentionally, there are 5

types fallacy of relevance.

i. The Argument from Ignorance:

this type of fallacy is committed whenever it is urged that a

proposition is true is simply on the basis that it has been proved true,

this fallacy appcal to know the logical meanings while ignorance

appear most commonly in misunderstanding of developing sciences.

Example during war the propaganda & rumours are the example of

argument from ignorance.

ii. The Appeal to In appropriate Authority:

Some people appeal to inappropriate authorities to accept or eject

contain issues of subject matters with in specified population. These

inappropriate authorities are example of some model “Sportsmen”.

For example, we are argued to drive an automobile or special

models or sport cur of given make. Because of a famous player

confirms superiority. We are urged to drink a beverage of certain

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brand because some moves star or football player express

enthusiasm about it.

iii. Complex Question:

In this type of fallacious statement such questions are asked which

are unanswerable, the main aims in complex questions are to divert

an individual from actual subject matter. They presuppose the truth

of some conclusion. The question itself is likely to be euwkward

which beck no answer. Normally they put the questions very

seriously, for example how one can climb the sky.

iv. Accident:

The fallacy of accident is committed which we move carelessly or too

quickly toward a generalization. Here the conclusion which is drawn

accidentally and is already generalized is always considered true in

general populations.

For example when in any particular situation or events which results

in object or events which results in bad luck or good luck then that

situation is always associated with good or bad luck.

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v. False Cause:

Some individual induces such fallacy which can secure their right in

general population by violating of the correct methods of law & order

& therefore providing false causes or proof. For example during war

in Afghanistan the capitalist got sympathy of common people that

communist people are going to humiliate our ISLAMIC value &

culture and therefore, they secure their capital by using such

propaganda.

DEFINITION

Definition means on explicit statement of a term of symbol, in

connection with term. Our first concern is to fix their meanings. The

concept with which we work must be clear & distinctive, the aim of

logical definition is to secure the clear concepts.

For example child ask me, what is an elephant. I may just point to

an elephant to say. Any elephant is a creature of such type, this may

satisfy the child & may be enabling to recognize the elephant &

distinguish it from some other animals. If the elephant is available

near at hand. I shall proceed to describe some prominent features of

the animal, shall construct some rough image of the elephant. I shall

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talk of its massive body, its column like legs, its ear image, & its

rough skin etc.

Enumerative Description:

This is the external features of anything.

Connotation:

It means the characteristics of any thing.

Purposes of definition:

i. To increase Vocabulary:

Usually a term that is to be explained improper manner, requires

certain other words to form a sentences which should represent the

properties of that works, so in this way we increase vocabulary to

introduce new scientific definition. We may have to define all kinds of

terms such as.

i. Technical terms in various subject.

ii. Psychology, motivation, perception etc.

iii. Physics, maths, force, Newton laws.

2. To Eliminate Ambiguity:

Ambiguity means the confusion of one word with another, for

example (excess, access), (Accept, Except).

3. To Explain concepts & ideas theoretically:

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It should explain a useful description of the entities theoretically to

which the term is applied, e.g. laws of motion.

Types of Definition:

There are five types of different definitions:

i.stipulative definition

Stipulative means to attach new symbol or word to the old wording &

the term which is newly defined need not itself to be entirely novel.

But it may be newly in the context in which definition take place.

Therefore, the stipulative definition means only “ nominal” or verbal

& it is not suppose to change the character of the symbol, this is only

done or the convenience i.e to same the time& reduce the writing

material.

e.g (1) Billion trillion 1021 Zeta

ii. Trillion Trillions 1024 yota.

2. Lexical definition:in this type of dominion warty to redefine

aeration symbolic values, the job of the lexical definition is to define

the symbolic more covariant way.

E,g Bird Two footed mammal--- Any wave blooded

vertebrate with feathers.

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5. Presise Definition: this type of definition has psychological &

emotional impact by influencing the attitude of the viewers,

Persuasive definitions are common in political arguments.

Written by Perviz khan Khalil Lecturer IBMS Agricultural Uni

Peshawar.

PRoPOSITION

Preposition is a statement / judgment Which is represented with in an

argument in a specified language.

There are three kinds of proposition.

a. Simple proposition.

b. Complex proposition.

c. Categorical proposition.

For example.

a. Simple Proposition. It is the connection of two terms, These term are

“subject” and “Predicate”.

e.g.

1. All human beings are mortal.

2. Muslims are human beings.

3. Therefore muslims are mortal.

1. In first one “human” is the middle term represented by “M”

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2. In second one muslims” are the minor term represented y “S” (subject)

and

mortality is the major term represented by “P” (Predicate).

Capula: The link between the subject (S) and predicate (P) is capula.

Subject :- Subject is the term which is affirmed or denied.

Predicate: it is the term which affirm or deny the subject.

Here for example (Man is mortal) Man is subject, mortal is predicate & is capula.

b. Complex Proposition” in complex proposition, in stead of using once

a subject or predicate, we use more than one time of the above terms,

where are two types of complex proposition.

a. Conjunctive proposition:- in this type of complex proposition we

use a term “if” “ then” for example if A is B then C is D or if is rain then the

weather will be cool.

b. Disjunctive Proposition: in this type of complex proposition we used “

Either” “or” for example Either “A” is “B” or “C” is “D” either my brother will be

here or I shall go to see him

C. Categorical Proposition: The proposition which is categorized into two

standard forms are known as categorical proposition it “s” & “P” represents

the subject & predicate terns then the four standard forms propositions are

represented by symbol.

A, E, I, O

A = universal affirmative.

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B = is universal negative

I = is particular affirmative.

O = is the particular negative.

For example

“ Human is motal”, is a simple Proposition & its standard forms of proposition

are.

A = All human beings are mortal.

E = No human being is mortal.

I = some human beings are mortal.

O = some human beings are not mortal

Here A is universal Affirmatleive

E = is universal negative.

I = particular affirmative.

O = is particular negative

Quality – Quantity & destitution. When we divide the categorical

proposition into for forms.

i. universal affirmative.

ii. Universal negative.

iii. Particular affirmative.

iv. Particulate negative.

So in the above standard form, the affirmation negation of the statement in

a proportion is said to be quality of propos ion. While the universal son or

the particularism is the quantity of that specified propositions

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 For example”

All humans are mortal no human is mortal some humans are mortal

some are not mortal. Here ( All, no, some) repress ent the quantity &

mortality represent the quality of the proposion).

By, Perviz Khan Khalil ( Lecturer IBMS KPK Agricultural University Peshawar)

TRADITIONAL SQUARE OF OPPOSITION

There is a system made by logicians in order to compare the universal &

particular standard Form of Propositions.

Contraries

Sub. Alterns Sub. Alterns

Sub. Contraries

Where

A. Universal affirmative, All human are Mortal

E. Universal Negative, No human are mortal

I. Particular Affirmative, Some human are mortal

O. Particular Negative, Some Human are not mortal

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1. Contraries: (AE)

When there is similarity in subject and predicate but deference in quality & the

pair is universal.

2. Sub Contraries: (IO)

When there is similarity in subject & predicate but deference in quality &

the pair is particular.

3. Sub Alternes: (AI) (EO)

When there is similarity in subject, predicate & quality but deference in

quantity.

4. Contridictries: (AO) (EI)

When there is similarity in subject & predicate by deference in both quality

& quantity.

Therefore there are four (4) ways in which proposition may be “opposed”

as contraries, sub-contrarces, sub alternes & contredictries.

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Categorical syllogism (Deductive Argument):

A syllogism is an argument in which from two proposition containing a common

element, a new proposition follows as a necessary consequence.

e-g All human are mortal

All kings are human

There fore All kings are mortal

The first two are the premises & the last one is conclusion & in the above.

Mortality – Major term - Predicate (P)

Human – Middle term - (M)

Kings – Miner term – subject (S)

Because

Miner term – subject

Major term – predicate

Miner, middle & major term are the terms of syllogism.

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Figure of the syllogism

All humans are mortal

Muslims are human

Therefore Muslims are mortal

The form of above syllogism is

Major term (P) is Mortal

Miner term (S) is Muslims

Middle terms (M) is Human

So

All M are P

All S are M

Therefore all S are P

Mood is (AAA)

If

All is No.

No M is P

No S is M

Therefore No S is P

Mood is (EEE)

Figures

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 F-1 M-P F-2 P-M
S-M S-M
∴ S-P ∴ S-P
Therefore

MOOD OF SYLLOGISM:

Every syllogism has a mood, the mood of a syllogism is determined by the types

(A, E, I or O) of standard form categorical propositions it contains. The mood of

the syllogism is therefore represented by three (3) letters & those there letters

are always given in standard form order.

e-g 1. All human are mortal (A)

Some human are mortal (I)

Some human are mortal (O)

So the mood of this syllogism is (AIO)

2. No Heroes are cowards (E)

Some soldiers are cowards (I)

Some soldiers are not cowards (O)

Mood is (EIO)

We can identify mood from

- Universal Affirmative or negative

- Particular Affirmative or negative

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