STRUCTURE, PROPERTIES AND FUNCTIONALITY

11/08/10
  Overview of vitamins
◦  Sources & Function
◦  Bioavailability

  Individual vitamins
◦  Structure & Properties

  Vitamin
stability to processing
methods
  A vitamin is an organic compound required
as a nutrient

  A compound is called a vitamin when it

cannot be synthesized in sufficient quantities
by an organism

  Vitamins are defined by their biological

activity, not their structure

  Vitamins are usually classified as water

soluble or fat soluble
  Vitamins can be classified as either
• Water soluble (Vitamin B and C)
• Fat soluble (Vitamin A, D, E, K)

  Water soluble vitamins are generally involved

in the cellular metabolism of energy
supplying nutrients.

  Fat soluble vitamins often have very

specialized functions

4
  Vitamin A
  Vitamin B1 (Thiamin)
  Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)
  Vitamin B3 (Niacin)
  Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid)
  Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)
  Vitamin B7 (Biotin)
  Vitamin B9 (Folic acid)
  Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamin)
  Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid)
  Vitamin D
  Vitamin E
  Vitamin K
  Coenzymes or their precursors
◦  Niacin, thiamin, riboflavin, biotin, pantothenic acid,
B6, B12 and folate

  Antioxidants
◦  Ascorbic acid, certain carotenoids, vitamin E

  Genetic regulation
◦  Vitamins A and D

  Specialized functions
◦  Vitamin A (vision), Vitamin C (hydroxylation
reactions), K (carboxylic reactions)
 Recommended daily allowance (RDA):

The average daily dietary intake level that is

sufficient to meet the requirement of nearly
all (97-98%) apparently healthy individuals in
a particular life stage and gender group.
  RDA have been published
for Vitamin A, D, E, K, B1,
B2, B3, B6, B9, B12 and C

  Reference adequate intake

(AI) provided for Vitamin
B5 (Pantothenic acid) and
B7 (Biotin), instead of RDA.
  Theproportion of the quantity of
vitamins ingested that undergoes
intestinal absorption and
utilization by the body.
  Diet composition

  Physical characteristics of food

  Forms of vitamins

  Interactions with other diet components

Vitamin Acid Alkali Light Air Heat
Vitamin A U S U U U
Ascorbic Acid (C) S U U U U
Biotin (B7) S S S S U
Vitamin B12 S S U U S
Vitamin D S U U U U
Folate (B9) U U U U U
Vitamin K U U U S S
Niacin (B3) S S S S S
Vitamin B6 S S U S U
Riboflavin (B2) S S U S U
Vitamin Food Deficiency
Vitamin A
 Liver, fortified Milk Night blindness;
Retinol
 Xerophthalmia

Vitamin D
 Egg Yolk, Milk, Exposure Rickets

to sun enables body to
make its own Vitamin D.

Vitamin E
 Corn or Cottonseed Oil, Rare, seen primarily in

Butter, Brown Rice, premature or low birth
Soybean Oil, Vegetable weight babies or children
oils such as Corn, who do not absorb fat
Cottonseed or Soybean, properly.
Nuts, Wheat Germ.

Vitamin K
 Green Vegetables, Liver, Defective blood

also made by intestinal coagulation
bacteria.
Vitamin Food Deficiency

B1 – Thiamin Meat, pork, liver, whole Beri-beri – muscle

and enriched grains weakness and paralysis

B2 - Riboflavin Meat, liver, milk, green Skin disorders and

vegetables, enriched anaemia
grains
B3 – Niacin Milk, meat, enriched Pellagra – Diarrhoea,
grains Dermatitis, Dementia,
Death
B5 – Pantothenic Acid Beef, poultry, whole Fatigue, GI distress,
grains, potatoes, broccoli Burning Feet

B6 – Meat, poultry, fish, Depression, convulsions

legumes, soy

B7 - Biotin Nutritional
Egg yolks, lots deficiency
of other No major
foods
B9 - Folate Dark leafy veg, fortified NTD
foods
B12 - Cobalamin Milk, fish, poultry, Pernicious anemia,
shellfish (animal) fatigue (vegans)
  Restoration: replacement, in full or in part, of vitamin
losses incurred during processing

  Fortification: addition of vitamins to food that are suitable

carriers of vitamins, which do not necessarily contain the
vitamin naturally

  Enrichment: addition of vitamins above initial

natural ;levels to make a product more marketable

  Standardization: addition redesigned to compensate for

natural fluctuations in vitamin content

  Nutrification: the addition of vitamins to formulated or

fabricated foods marketed as meal replacers
  β-carotene   Vitamin C
◦  Colorants ◦  Antioxidants
  Lipid systems
  Vitamin E ◦  Inhibits can corrosion
◦  Antioxidants ◦  Stabilizes color and
  Lipid systems flavor of wine
◦  Prevention of black
spot in shrimps
◦  Stabilization of cured
meat color
◦  Dough improvement in
baked goods
◦  Reducing agents
  Prevents enzymatic
browning
Retinol
  Present in animal foods as retinol and beta-
carotenes in plant foods
  Double bonds present make it susceptible to
oxidation
  Attacked by peroxides and free radicals from
lipid oxidation
  Catalyzed by traces of copper and iron

  Negligible loss due to leaching

  Heat converts it to a form of lower potency
  Present in animal and plant tissues in free or
bound forms

  Destroyed by sulfur dioxide in sulpfited fruits

and vegetables

  Destroyed by enzymes thiaminase and

polyphenoloxidase (PPO)

  Substantial losses due to leaching and drip

losses
  Occurs as free form in milk

  Bound to phosphate in other foods

  Destroyed by alkaline conditions, light and

excessive heat

  Stable to air and acids

  Occurs as nicotinamide and as nicotinic acid

  Bound to polysaccharides and peptides

  Not available in many cereals unless liberated

by heat or alkaline conditions

  Synthesized from amino acid tryptophan

  Generally stable
  Stability in acid and calcium salt highly
dependent on pH
  More stable at alkaline pH
  Unstable to autoclaving

  Unaffected by atmospheric oxygen and light

  Susceptible to leaching during blanching and
home cooking
  Loss of <10% during milk pasteurization,
sterilization and drying
  Pyridoxine, pyridoxal and pyridoxamine

  Free form in milk, bound state in other foods

  May be deficient in some diets

  Lost by reaction with –SH2 groups of proteins

and amino acids when heated or during
storage
  Dry crystalline form stable to heat and oxygen
  Gradually destroyed by UV
  Acidic or alkaline solutions more heat labile
  Abundance usually low in natural foodstuffs
  Animal products: mostly in protein-bound form
◦  May be freed by strong acid hydrolysis at elevated
temperature
◦  Freed by proteolytic enzyme
  Plant foods: water-extractable form
◦  Susceptible to leaching during washing and blanching
  Occurs in various forms

  Most abundant in dark green leaves, liver and

kidney

  One of main causes of deficiency diseases in

developed countries affecting pregnant
women, pre-term infants and the elderly
  Small losses due to interaction with Vitamin C

  Reacts with sulfydryl compounds in the

presence of oxygen in milk

  Generally stable
  Occurs as both ascorbic and dehydroascorbic
acid (heat labile)
  Very soluble and most labile of vitamins
  Readily lost by leaching and drip losses
(substantial loss during processing)
  Destroyed by plant enzymes
  Copper and iron catalyze oxidation in air

  Sulfur dioxide protects against oxidation

Vitamin D2 Vitamin D3
  Occurs in foods as cholecalciferol (D3)

  Produced in the skin under influence of UV

light

  Synthetic ergocalciferol (D2) added to some

milk products, baby foods and margarine

  Stable under all normal processing and

storage conditions
  Formerly, thought to occur as eight
compounds: four tocopherols and four
tocotrienols
  Activity expressed as α-tocopherol
equivalents
  Naturally occurring antioxidant
  Lost relatively slowly

  Generally stable during processing except

frying
◦  Destroyed by peroxides
  Insoluble in water but soluble in organic
solvents

  Decomposed by UV radiation, alkali, strong

acids, reducing agents

  Reasonably stable to oxidizing agents and

heat

  Unaffected by freezing, heat processing

(canning) and γ-irradiation
  Freezing

◦  Commercial freezing: pre-freezing, freezing and thawing

◦  Main loss occurs during pre-freezing steps

◦  Vitamin B9 susceptible to freezing

◦  Rapid freezing with appropriate packaging minimizes

loss of most vitamins

◦  Inappropriate freezing and ineffective packaging can

result in drip loss of water-soluble vitamins and
oxidation of Vitamin A, C and E
  Blanching
◦  Steam and microwave blanching most common

◦  Significant loss of water-soluble vitamins

◦  Inefficient blanching can incur loss of Vitamin C by

oxidation and leaching

◦  Vitamin C stable to heat during blanching

◦  Vitamin B1 highly susceptible to heat during

blanching
  Pasteurization and UHT Processing

◦  Milk pasteurization – minimal effect on water-

soluble vitamins except for Vitamin C

◦  Fruit juice pasteurization inactivates endogenous

enzymes – minimize oxidation of Vitamin C

◦  Aseptic processing higher content of headspace

oxygen than “in package” pasteurization
Dehydration

◦  Sun-drying of fruit, fish, meat and grain

◦  Spray-drying of milk, coffee and eggs
◦  Steam-heated revolving drums
◦  Tunnel drying of fruits and vegetables
◦  Freeze-drying of meat

  Drying in presence of air result in losses of Vitamin A, β-

carotene and Vitamin C

  Freeze-drying – no loss of Vitamin C since carried out in

absence of oxygen

  Sun-dry > Drum > Spray-dry ~ Tunnel dry > Freeze-dry

  Canning

◦  Destroys thermo-labile vitamins

◦  Destruction rate and extent depends on time/
temperature conditions of process
◦  Vitamin B1 and B5 undergo greater loss at lower
retort temperature for longer periods than at high
retort temperature for a short time
◦  Vitamin C loss exacerbated by presence of oxygen
during canning
◦  Subsequent low temperature storage improves
retention of vitamins
  Extrinsic parameters
◦  Storage temperature
◦  Relative humidity
◦  Type of container

  Intrinsic parameters
◦  Dissolved or headspace oxygen
◦  pH
◦  Water activity
◦  Opportunity to leach
◦  Prior processing condition (drying, freezing, heat)