Chapter 6: Work & Energy

6.1 Work done by a constant force

If the distance s is zero, the work is zero, even if a force is applied. Pushing on an immovable
object, such as a brick wall, may tire your muscles, but there is no work done of the type we are
discussing. In physics, the idea of work is intimately tied up with the idea of motion. If the object
does not move, the force acting on the object does no work.

, where θ is the angle between the force and the displacement

(1 N-m = 1 Joule)

To do work, there must be a force and a displacement, and since there is no displacement in the
perpendicular direction, there is no work done by the perpendicular component of the force.

Work can be either positive or negative, depending on whether a component of the force points
in the same direction as the displacement or in the opposite direction.

6.2 Work-Energy Theorem & Kinetic Energy

, where v is the speed

, when a net external force does work on an

object, the KE of the object changes

According to the work–energy theorem, a moving object has kinetic energy, because work was
done to accelerate the object from rest to a speed vf. Conversely, an object with kinetic energy
can perform work, if it is allowed to push or pull on another object.
 Chapter 6: Work & Energy

the work–energy theorem deals with the work done by the net external force. The work–energy
theorem does not apply to the work done by an individual force, unless that force happens to be
the only one present, in which case it is the net force.

If the work done by the net force is positive, as in Example 5, the kinetic energy of the object
increases. If the work done is negative, the kinetic energy decreases. If the work is zero, the
kinetic energy remains the same.

6.3 Gravitational Potential Energy

; g = 9.80 m/s2

An object may possess energy by virtue of its position relative to the earth and is said to have
gravitational potential energy. It is independent of the path = conservative force.

The gravitational potential energy PE is the energy that an object of mass m has
by virtue of its position relative to the surface of the earth. That position is
measured by the height h of the object relative to an arbitrary zero level

6.4 Conservative Vs Nonconservative

Conservative Force: (gravitational, elastic spring, electric)

Version 1 A force is conservative when the work it does on a moving object is

independent of the path between the object's initial and final positions.

Version 2 A force is conservative when it does no net work on an object moving around a

closed path, starting and finishing at the same point.

Nonconservative Force: (static & kinetic frictional, air resistance, tension, normal, propulsion

If the work it does on an object moving between two points depends on the path of the motion
between the points. The concept of potential energy is not defined for a nonconservative force.

For a closed path, the total work done by a nonconservative force is not zero as it is for a
conservative force. In Figure 6.13, for instance, a frictional force would oppose the motion and
slow down the car. Unlike gravity, friction would do negative work on the car throughout the
entire trip, on both the up and down parts of the motion. Assuming that the car makes it back to
the starting point, the car would have less kinetic energy than it had originally.
 Chapter 6: Work & Energy

6.5 The Conservation of Mechanical Energy

Total Mechanical Energy (E) = KE + PE

When the final mechanical energy is equal to the initial mechanical energy (Ef = Eo): total
mechanical energy remains constant all along the path between the initial and final points, never
varying from the initial value of E0. A quantity that remains constant throughout the motion is
said to be “conserved.” The fact that the total mechanical energy is conserved when Wnc = 0 J is
called the principle of conservation of mechanical energy.

1.  Identify the external conservative and nonconservative forces that act on the object.

For this principle to apply, the total work done by nonconservative forces must be zero,

Wnc = 0 J. A nonconservative force that is perpendicular to the displacement of the object

does no work, for example.

2.  Choose the location where the gravitational potential energy is taken to be zero. This

location is arbitrary but must not be changed during the course of solving a problem.

3.  Set the final total mechanical energy of the object equal to the initial total mechanical

energy, as in Equations 6.9a and 6.9b. The total mechanical energy is the sum of the

kinetic and potential energies.

6.6 Nonconservative Forces & Work-Energy Theorem

Most moving objects experience nonconservative forces, such as friction, air resistance, and
propulsive forces, and the work Wnc done by the net external nonconservative force is not zero. In
these situations, the difference between the final and initial total mechanical energies is equal to
Wnc , according to Wnc = Ef - E0. Consequently, the total mechanical energy is not conserved.
 Chapter 6: Work & Energy

6.7 Power

; rate at which work is done... 1 Watt = 1 J/s

=>

When θ = 0o:

note: The work done by a variable force in moving an object is equal to the area under the
graph of F cos θ versus s