Roll No.

2207270

PROGRAM NO.-1

AIM: To study the various emerging wireless communication technologies.

Wireless communication technologies are undergoing rapid advancements. The last few years
have experienced a steep growth in research on wireless networks having attractive claims.
Researchers are currently envisioning different attractive properties of wireless systems such
as the ability to self-organize, self-configure, self-heal, self-manage and self-maintain.
Different wireless networks having the potential to offer cost-effective home and enterprise
access networking solutions are being researched. Technologies such as WiFi, WiMax,
Bluetooth, 802.20, 802.22 and software defined radio are gaining popularity. Even though
these technologies hold great promises for our future, there are several challenges that need to
be addressed.

Few of the wireless communication access technologies are mentioned below.

Mobile Wireless Communication
• FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
• CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
• TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
• GSM (Global System for Mobile)
• GPRS (Global Packet Radio Service)
• Wi-Fi
• Wi-Max
• Bluetooth

• RFID
• WLAN
• WMAN

1. FDMA

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) is the most common analog system. It is a
technique whereby spectrum is divided up into frequencies and then assigned to users. With
FDMA, only one subscriber at any given time is assigned to a channel. The channel therefore
is closed to other conversations until the initial call is finished, or until it is handed-off to a
different channel. A "full-duplex" FDMA transmission requires two channels, one for
transmitting and the other for receiving. FDMA has been used for first generation.
One problem with analog technology is that an FDMA cell phone stakes claim to the
frequencies for the full duration of the call, so this cuts down on the numbers of cell phones
that can be operating at the same time in the same cellular area. And cellular analog also
suffered from greater interference and less clarity than digital cell phone technology does, of
whatever type as well as being more battery thirsty and less secure from eavesdropping.
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Frequency Division Multiple Access

Fig 1

FDMA divides the given spectrum into channels by the frequency domain. Each phone call is
allocated one channel for the entire duration of the call. In the figure above, each band
represents one call.

2. TDMA

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) improves spectrum capacity by splitting each
frequency into time slots. TDMA allows each user to access the entire radio frequency channel
for the short period of a call. Other users share this same frequency channel at different time
slots. The base station continually switches from user to user on the channel. TDMA is the
dominant technology for the second generation mobile cellular networks.
Time Division Multiple Access

Fig 2
TDMA enhances FDMA by further dividing the spectrum into channels by the time domain as
well. A channel in the frequency domain is divided among multiple users. Each phone call is
allocated a spot in the channel for a small amount of time, and "takes turns" being transmitted.
In the figure above, each horizontal band represents the channel divided by the frequency
domain. Within that is the vertical division in the time domain. Each user then takes turns
occupying the channel.
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3. CDMA

Code Division Multiple Access is based on "spread" spectrum technology. Since it is suitable
for encrypted transmissions, it has long been used for military purposes. CDMA increases
spectrum capacity by allowing all users to occupy all channels at the same time.
Transmissions are spread over the whole radio band, and each voice or data call are assigned a
unique code to differentiate from the other calls carried over the same spectrum. CDMA
allows for a " soft hand-off" , which means that terminals can communicate with several base
stations at the same time.

Code Division Multiple Access

Fig 3
Unlike FDMA and TDMA, CDMA transmission does not work by allocating channels for
each phone call. Instead, CDMA utilizes the entire spectrum for transmisson of each call. Each
phone call is uniquely encoded and transmitted across the entire spectrum, in a manner known
as spread spectrum transmission. In the figure above, each brightly colored pattern represents
the encoded phone call being transmitted across the spectrum.
CDMA and TDMA were soon competing to be the top "digital dog technologies" in the
cellular phone world. And they still are today, as the new cell phone champion of TDMA,
which was always wider used than CDMA in North America anyway, GSM arrives from
Europe. CDMA technologies were originally more secure and had greater capacity than
TDMA, if less coverage. But rival technologies have now closed the gap, and TDMA
adherents claim that GSM is smarter in how voice calls are encrypted. The critics of CDMA
also state that a lot of the rival’s claims are theoretical as TDMA and related cellular systems
like GSM are cheaper to install and operate by the hundreds of carriers in countries around the
world and used much more in daily life.

4. GSM

Global System for Mobile Communications is the most popular standard for mobile telephone
systems in the world. GSM differs from its predecessor technologies in that both signaling and
speech channels are digital, and thus GSM is considered a second generation mobile phone
system. This also facilitates the wide-spread implementation of data communication
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applications into the system. Newer versions of the standard were backward-compatible with
the original GSM system. For example, Release '97 of the standard added packet data
capabilities by means of General Packet Radio Service (GPRS). GSM is the international
standard in Europe, Australia and much of Asia and Africa. In covered areas, cell-phone users
can buy one phone that will work anywhere where the standard is supported. To connect to the
specific service providers in these different countries, GSM users simply switch subscriber
identification module (SIM) cards. SIM cards are small removable disks that slip in and out of
GSM cell phones. They store all the connection data and identification numbers you need to
access a particular wireless service provider. The ubiquity of implementation of the GSM
standard has been an advantage to both consumers, who may benefit from the ability to roam
and switch carriers without replacing phones, and also to network operators, who can choose
equipment from many GSM equipment vendors.

5. GPRS

General packet radio service is a packet-based wireless data communication service designed
to replace the current circuit-switched services available on the second-generation global
system for mobile communications (GSM) and time division multiple access (TDMA) IS-136
networks. GSM and TDMA networks were designed for voice communication, dividing the
available bandwidth into multiple channels, each of which is constantly allocated to an
individual call (circuit-switched). These channels can be used for the purpose of data
transmission, but they only provide a maximum transmission speed of around 9.6Kbps
(kilobits per second).GPRS distributes packets of data from several different terminals in the
system across multiple channels, making a much more efficient use of the bandwidth currently
available for 'bursty' applications such as internet access..

6.Wi-Fi: Wireless Fidelity

WiFi is the wireless way to handle networking. It is also known as 802.11 networking and
wireless networking. The big advantage of WiFi is its simplicity. You can connect computers
anywhere in your home or office without the need for wires. The computers connect to the
network using radio signals, and computers can be up to 100 feet or so apart.

Wi-Fi networks use radio technologies called IEEE802.11b, 802.11a or 802.11g to provide
wireless connectivity in local area networks. A Wi-Fi network can be used to connect
computers to each other, to the Internet, and to wire networks using IEEE 802.3 or Ethernet.

Wi-Fi gets to connect to the Internet in the office, airport, hotel, business-center, congress-
hall, trade center, cafe, restaurant and other public places. Based on this technology any
employee or visitor gets mobile Internet access without losing freedom of movement across
the hotspot. A hotspot is a connection point for a WiFi network. A small box is hardwired into
the Internet. The box contains an 802.11 radio that can simultaneously talk to up to 100 or so
802.11 cards. There are many WiFi hotspots now available in public places like restaurants,
hotels, libraries and airports.
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Fig. Wireless fidelity

The Hot Spot

The Access Points are installed in the building in order to provide a high-speed Wi-Fi
technology based Internet access. The 1-Point coverage zone - "Hot-Spot" can achieve 200 m.
in a radius, which in most cases is sufficient to evenly reach all parts of a building. All Access
Points in the building are combined into a central router, which is connected to the Internet.

7.BLUE-TOOTH

Bluetooth is an industrial specification for wireless personal area networks (PANs). Bluetooth
provides a way to connect and exchange information between devices such as mobile phones,
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laptops, PCs, printers, digital cameras and video game consoles over a secure, globally
unlicensed short-range radio frequency. The Bluetooth specifications are developed and
licensed by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group.

A short-range radio technology aimed at simplifying communications among Internet devices

and between devices and the Internet. It also aims to simplify data synchronization between
Internet devices and other computers.

Fig: Typical Bluetooth mobile phone Hands-free

Bluetooth is a radio standard and communications protocol primarily designed for low power
consumption, with a short range (power-class-dependent: 1 meter, 10 meters, 100 meters)
based on low-cost transceiver microchips in each device.

Bluetooth lets these devices communicate with each other when they are in range. The devices
use a radio communications system, so they do not have to be in line of sight of each other,
and can even be in other rooms, so long as the received transmission is powerful enough.

Briefly, Bluetooth technology,

• uses radio waves in 2.4 GHz band - therefore, no line of sight is required
• supports multipoint, not just point to point
• works in a small confined area - 10 to 15 meters apart
• is able to support speeds of 1-2 Mbps today but will offer higher speeds in future
• has significant industry support with over 1800 members in the industry consortium

List of applications

• Wireless control of and communication between a cell phone and a hands-free headset
or car kit. This was one of the earliest applications to become popular.
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• Wireless networking between PCs in a confined space and where little bandwidth is
required.
• Wireless communications with PC input and output devices, the most common being
the mouse, keyboard and printer.
• Transfer of files between devices with OBEX.
• Transfer of contact details, calendar appointments, and reminders between devices
with OBEX.
• Replacement of traditional wired serial communications in test equipment, GPS
receivers, and medical equipment and traffic control devices.
• For controls where infrared was traditionally used.
• Sending small advertisements from Bluetooth enabled advertising hoardings to other,
discoverable, Bluetooth devices.
• Wireless control of a games console—Nintendo Wii and Sony PlayStation 3 both use
Bluetooth technology for their wireless controllers.

8.RFID: Radio Frequency Identification

Short for radio frequency identification, a technology similar in theory to bar code
identification. With RFID, the electromagnetic or electrostatic coupling in the RF portion of
the electromagnetic spectrum is used to transmit signals. An RFID system consists of an
antenna and a transceiver, which read the radio frequency and transfer the information to a
processing device, and a transponder, or tag, which is an integrated circuit containing the RF
circuitry and information to be transmitted.

RFID systems can be used just about anywhere, from clothing tags to missiles to pet tags to
food -- anywhere that a unique identification system is needed. The tag can carry information
as simple as a pet owners name and address or the cleaning instruction on a sweater to as
complex as instructions on how to assemble a car. Some auto manufacturers use RFID
systems to move cars through an assembly line. At each successive stage of production, the
RFID tag tells the computers what the next step of automated assembly is.

One of the key differences between RFID and bar code technology is RFID eliminates the
need for line-of-sight reading that bar coding depends on. Also, RFID scanning can be done at
greater distances than bar code scanning. High frequency RFID systems (850 MHz to 950
MHz and 2.4 GHz to 2.5 GHz) offer transmission ranges of more than 90 feet, although
wavelengths in the 2.4 GHz range are absorbed by water (the human body) and therefore has
limitations. RFID is also called dedicated short range communication (DSRC).

9.WLAN: Wireless LAN

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Wireless LAN is simply trying to imitate the structure of the wired LANs, using another
medium to transfer data rather than cables. This medium is electromagnetic waves, which are
mainly either radio frequency (RF) or infrared frequency (IR).

Wireless LANs consist mainly of two entities: clients or end-user devices and Access Points
(AP). Clients' are equipped with devices that allow the user to use the RF medium to
communicate with other wireless devices. AP functions like a regular switch or router in wired
network for the wireless devices. Moreover, it represents a gateway between the wireless
devices and a wired network.

Fig. Wireless LAN

The basic structure of a Wireless LAN is called BSS (Basic Service Set), in which the network
consists of an AP and several wireless devices. When these devices try to communicate among
themselves they propagate their data through the AP device. In order to form the network, AP
keeps broadcasting its SSID (Service Set Identifier) to allow others to join the network.

Fig. WLAN: BSS Structure

10.WMAN : Wireless MAN

The idea behind using WMAN is to offer a broadband Internet service using wireless
infrastructure. The idea is very similar to a TV broadcast network (shown in Fig.10). The
theoretical speed of WMAN is 75Mbps extended to several miles, which offer a replacement
to cable and DSL connections in the future.
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WMAN is also called BWA (Broadband Wireless Access) as a formal title along with the
industry icon acronym WiMAX. The main target of implementing WiMAX technology is to
provide a convenient solution to the "last mile access", where the fast data backbone traffic is
to be distributed among consumers. This also helps expand the Internet covered areas
especially in rural areas.

Fig. Wireless MAN

WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) is a wireless industry coalition

whose members organized to advance IEEE 802.16 standards for broadband wireless access
(BWA) networks. WiMAX 802.16 technology is expected to enable multimedia applications
with wireless connections. WiMax also has a range of up to 30 miles, presenting provider
networks with a viable wireless last mile solution.
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PROGRAM NO.-2

AIM: To study the wireless network standards.

Wireless network

Wireless network refers to any type of computer network that is wireless, and is commonly
associated with a telecommunications network whose interconnections between nodes is
implemented without the use of wires. Wireless telecommunications networks are generally
implemented with some type of remote information transmission system that uses
electromagnetic waves, such as radio waves.

Wireless network standards

IEEE 802.11 is a set of standards carrying out wireless local area network (WLAN) computer
communication in the 2.4, 3.6 and 5 GHz frequency bands. They are created and maintained
by the IEEE LAN/MANStandards Committee (IEEE 802).The 802.11 family includes over-
the-air modulation techniques that use the same basic protocol.The most popular are those
defined by the 802.11b and 802.11g protocols, which are amendments to the original standard.
802.11-1997 was the first wireless networking standard, but 802.11b was the first widely
accepted one, followed by 802.11g and 802.11n. Other standards in the family (c–f, h, j) are
service amendments and extensions or corrections to the previous specifications.

802.11 Standards

1) 802.11-1997 (802.11 legacy)

The original version of the standard IEEE 802.11 was released in 1997 and clarified in 1999,
but is today obsolete. It specified two net bit rates of 1 or 2 megabits per second
(Mbit/s), plus forward error correction code. It specified three alternative physical
layer technologies: diffuse infrared operating at 1 Mbit/s; frequency-hopping spread
spectrum operating at 1 Mbit/s or 2 Mbit/s; and direct-sequence spread spectrum
operating at 1 Mbit/s or 2 Mbit/s. The latter two radio technologies used microwave
transmission over the Industrial Scientific Medical frequency band at 2.4 GHz. Some
earlier WLAN technologies used lower frequencies, such as the U.S. 900 MHz ISM
band.

2) 802.11b

802.11b has a maximum raw data rate of 11 Mbit/s and uses the same media access method
defined in the original standard. 802.11b products appeared on the market in early 2000, since
802.11b is a direct extension of the modulation technique defined in the original standard. The
dramatic increase in throughput of 802.11b (compared to the original standard) along with
simultaneous substantial price reductions led to the rapid acceptance of 802.11b as the
definitive wireless LAN technology.802.11b devices suffer interference from other products
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operating in the 2.4 GHz band. Devices operating in the 2.4 GHz range include: microwave
ovens, Bluetooth devices, baby monitors and cordless telephones.

3) 802.11a

The 802.11a standard uses the same data link layer protocol and frame format as the original
standard, but an OFDM based air interface (physical layer). It operates in the 5 GHz band with
a maximum net data rate of 54 Mbit/s, plus error correction code, which yields realistic net
achievable throughput in the mid-20 Mbit/s

Since the 2.4 GHz band is heavily used to the point of being crowded, using the relatively
unused 5 GHz band gives 802.11a a significant advantage. However, this high carrier
frequency also brings a disadvantage: the effective overall range of 802.11a is less than that of
802.11b/g. In practice, 802.11b typically has a higher range at low speeds (802.11b will
reduce speed to 5 Mbit/s or even 1 Mbit/s at low signal strengths)..

4) 802.11g

In June 2003, a third modulation standard was ratified: 802.11g. This works in the 2.4 GHz
band (like 802.11b), but uses the same OFDM based transmission scheme as 802.11a. It
operates at a maximum physical layer bit rate of 54 Mbit/s exclusive of forward error
correction codes, or about 22 Mbit/s average throughput. 802.11g hardware is fully backwards
compatible with 802.11b hardware and therefore is encumbered with legacy issues that reduce
throughput when compared to 802.11a by ~21%.The then-proposed 802.11g standard was
rapidly adopted by consumers starting in January 2003, well before ratification, due to the
desire for higher data rates as well as to reductions in manufacturing costs.Like 802.11b,
802.11g devices suffer interference from other products operating in the 2.4 GHz band.

5) 802.11n

802.11n is a recent amendment which improves upon the previous 802.11 standards by adding
multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) and many other newer features. The IEEE has
approved the amendment and it was published in October 2009. Prior to the final ratification,
enterprises were already migrating to 802.11n networks based on the Wi-Fi Alliance's
certification of products conforming to a 2007 draft of the 802.11n proposal.when this
standard is finalized, 802.11n connections should suuport data rtae of over 100mbps.802.11n
also offers somewhat better range over earlier Wi-Fi standards due to its increased signal
intensity ..

802.16 Standards

IEEE 802.16 is a series of Wireless Broadband standards authored by the IEEE. The current
version is IEEE 802.16-2009 amended by IEEE 802.16j-2009.IEEE 802.16 is written by a
working group established by IEEE Standards Board in 1999 to develop standards for the
global deployment of broadband Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks. The Workgroup is a
unit of the IEEE 802 LAN/MAN Standards Committee.Although the 802.16 family of
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standards is officially called WirelessMAN in IEEE, it has been commercialized under the
name “WiMAX” (from "Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access") by the industry
alliance called the WiMAX Forum. The mission of the Forum is to promote and certify
compatibility and interoperability of broadband wireless products based on the IEEE 802.16
standards.The most popular implementation of the IEEE 802.16 standard is the Mobile
WirelessMAN originally defined by the 802.16e-2005 amendment that is now in process of
being deployed around the world in more than 140 countries by more than 475 operators.

WIMAX

WiMAX, meaning worldwide interoperability for microwave access,is a telecommunications

technology that provides wireless transmission of data using a variety of transmission modes,
from point-to-multipoint links to portable and fully mobile internet access. The technology
provides up to 10 Mbps broadband speed without the need for cables. The technology is based
on the IEEE 802.16 standard (also called Broadband Wireless Access). The name "WiMAX"
was created by the WiMAX Forum, which was formed in June 2001 to promote conformity
and interoperability of the standard. The forum describes WiMAX as "a standards-based
technology enabling the delivery of last mile wireless broadband access as an alternative to
cable and DSL.The 802.16 standards are sometimes referred to colloquially as "WiMAX",
"mobile WiMAX", "802.16d" and "802.16e." Their formal names are as follow:

• 802.16-2004 is also known as 802.16d, which refers to the working party that has
developed that standard. It is sometimes referred to as "fixed WiMAX," since it has no
support for mobility.
• 802.16e-2005, often abbreviated to 802.16e, is an amendment to 802.16-2004. It
introduced support for mobility, among other things and is therefore also known as
"mobile WiMAX".

Uses
The bandwidth and range of WiMAX make it suitable for the following potential applications:

• Connecting Wi-Fi hotspots to the Internet.

• Providing a wireless alternative to cable and dsl for "last mile" broadband access.
• Providing data, telecommunications and IPTV services (triple play).
• Providing a source of Internet connectivity as part of a business continuity plan. That
is, if a business has both a fixed and a wireless Internet connection, especially from
unrelated providers, they are unlikely to be affected by the same service outage.
• Providing portable connectivity.
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Broadband access

Companies are evaluating WiMAX for last mile connectivity. The resulting competition may
bring lower pricing for both home and business customers or bring broadband access
to places where it has been economically unavailable.

Subscriber units (client units)

WiMAX subscriber units are available in both indoor and outdoor versions from several
manufacturers. Self-install indoor units are convenient, but radio losses mean that the
subscriber must be significantly closer to the WiMAX base station than with professionally-
installed external units. As such, indoor-installed units require a much higher infrastructure
investment as well as operational costdue to the high number of base stations required to cover
a given area. Indoor units are comparable in size to a cable modem or DSL modem. Outdoor
units are roughly the size of a laptop PC, and their installation is comparable to the installation
of a residential satellite dish.With the potential of mobile WiMAX, there is an increasing
focus on portable units. This includes handsets ,PC peripherals (PC Cards or USB dongles),
and embedded devices in laptops, which are now available for Wi-Fi services. In addition,
there is much emphasis from operators on consumer electronics devices such as Gaming
consoles, MP3 players and similar devices. It is notable that WiMAX is more similar to Wi-Fi
than to 3G cellular technologies.Current certified devices can be found at the WiMAX Forum
web site. This is not a complete list of devices available as certified modules are embedded
into laptops, MIDs (Mobile internet devices), and private labeled devices.Deploying WiMAX
in rural areas with limited or no internet backbone will be challenging as additional methods
and hardware will be required to procure sufficient bandwidth from the nearest sources — the
difficulty being in proportion to the distance between the end-user and the nearest sufficient
internet backbone.

Wi-Fi

Wi-Fi is a trademark of the Wi-Fi Alliance that may be used with certified products that
belong to a class of wireless local area network devices based on the IEEE 802.11 standards.
Because of the close relationship with its underlying standard, the term Wi-Fi is often used as
a synonym for IEEE 802.11 technology.Today, an IEEE 802.11 device is installed in many
personal computers, video gam consoles, smartphones, printers.

A Wi-Fi enabled device such as a personal computer, video game console, mobile phone, MP3
player or personal digital assistant can connect to the Internet when within range of a wireless
network connected to the Internet. The coverage of one or more interconnected access
points — called a hotspot — can comprise an area as small as a few rooms or as large as many
square miles covered by a group of access points with overlapping coverage. Wi-Fi
technology has been used in wireless mesh networks, for example, in London. In addition to
private use in homes and offices, Wi-Fi can provide public access at Wi-Fi hotspots provided
either free of charge or to subscribers to various commercial services.

• In September of 2003, Pittsburgh International Airport became the first airport to allow
and offer free Wi-Fi throughout its terminal.
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• In 2005, Sunnyvale, California became the first city in the United States to offer city
wide free Wi-Fi.
• Carnegie Mellon University built the first wireless Internet network in the world at
their Pittsburgh campus in 1994, long before the Wi-Fi standard was adopted.

Wi-Fi uses both single-carrier direct-sequence spread spectrum radio technology (part of the
larger family of spread spectrum systems) and multi-carrier orthogonal frequency-division
multiplexing (OFDM) radio technology. The deregulation of certain radio-frequencies for
unlicensed spread spectrum deployment enabled the development of Wi-Fi products, its
onetime competitor HomeRF, Bluetooth, and many other products such as some types of
cordless telephones.

Advantages

• Wi-Fi allows local area networks (LANs) to be deployed without wires for client
devices, typically reducing the costs of network deployment and expansion.
• The price of chipsets for Wi-Fi continues to drop, making it an economical networking
option included in even more devices. Wi-Fi has become widespread in corporate
infrastructures.
• Any standard Wi-Fi device will work anywhere in the world.
• New protocols for Quality of Service make Wi-Fi more suitable for latency-sensitive
applications (such as voice and video), and power saving mechanisms (WMM Power
Save) improve battery operation.

Bluetooth

Bluetooth is a proprietary open wireless protocol for exchanging data over short distances
(using short length radio waves) from fixed and mobile devices, creating personal area
networks (PANs). Bluetooth uses a radio technology called frequency-hopping spread
spectrum, which chops up the data being sent and transmits chunks of it on up to 79 bands of 1
MHz width in the range 2402-2480 MHz. This is in the globally unlicensed Industrial,
Scientific and Medical (ISM) 2.4 GHz short-range radio frequency band.The Bluetooth
specifications are developed and licensed by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG). The
Bluetooth SIG consists of companies in the areas of telecommunication, computing,
networking, and consumer electronics.

List of applications

• Wireless control of and communication between a mobile phone and a hands-free

headset. This was one of the earliest applications to become popular.
• Wireless networking between PCs in a confined space and where little bandwidth is
required.
• Wireless communication with PC input and output devices, the most common being
the mouse, keyboard and printer.
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• Replacement of traditional wired serial communications in test equipment, GPS

receivers, medical equipment, bar code scanners, and traffic control devices.
• For controls where infrared was traditionally used.
• For low bandwidth applications where higher USB bandwidth is not required and
cable-free connection desired.
• Sending small advertisements from Bluetooth-enabled advertising hoardings to other,
discoverable, Bluetooth devices
• Wireless bridge between two Industrial Ethernet (e.g., PROFINET) networks.

The technology is useful when transferring information between two or more devices that are
near each other in low-bandwidth situations. Bluetooth is commonly used to transfer sound
data with telephones (i.e., with a Bluetooth headset) or byte data withhand-held computers
(transferring files).Bluetooth protocols simplify the discovery and setup of services between
devices. Bluetooth devices can advertise all of the services they provide. This makes using
services easier because more of the security, network address and permission configuration
can be automated than with many other network type.

Computer Requirements
A personal computer must have a Bluetooth adapter in order to communicate with other
Bluetooth devices (such as mobile phones, mice and keyboards). While some desktop
computers and most recent laptops come with a built-in Bluetooth adapter, others will require
an external one in the form of a dongle.Bluetooth allows multiple devices to communicate
with a computer over a single adapter.
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PROGRAM NO.-3
AIM: To study call delivery mechanism in mobile environment.

Accessing a GSM network

In order to gain access to GSM services, a user needs three things:

• A subscription with a mobile phone operator. This is usually either a Pay As You Go
arrangement, where all GSM services are paid for in advance, or a Pay Monthly option
where a bill is issued each month for line rental, normally paid for a month in advance,
and for services used in the previous month.
• A mobile phone which is GSM compliant and operates at the same frequency as the
operator.
• A SIM card which is issued by the operator once the subscription is granted. The card
comes pre-programmed with the subscriber's phone "identity" and will be used to store
personal.

After subscribers sign up, information about their phone's identity and what services they are
allowed to access are stored in a "SIM record" in the Home Location Register (HLR). The
Home Location Register is a database maintained by the "home" phone company for all of its
subscribers. It is used to answer queries like, "Where on the mobile phone network is the
device associated with this phone number?" and "What services is this subscriber paying for?”

Once the SIM card is loaded into the phone and it is powered on, it will search for the nearest
mobile phone mast, also called a Base Transceiver Station or BTS. If a mast can be
successfully contacted, then there is said to be coverage in the area.

As the SIM card is loaded into the phone and it is powered on, it will search for the nearest
mobile phone mast, also called a Base Transceiver Station or BTS. If a mast can be
successfully contacted, then there is said to be coverage in the Register.

The Visitors LR will tell the Home LR where the phone is connected to the network (which
VLR), and will ask it for a copy of the SIM record (which includes, for example, what
services the phone is allowed to access). The current cellular location of the phone (i.e. which
BTS it is at) is entered into the VLR record and will be used during a process called paging
when the GSM network wishes to locate the mobile phone.

How outgoing calls are made from a mobile

Once a mobile phone has successfully attached to a GSM network as described above, calls
may be made from the phone to any other phone on the global Public Switched Telephone
Network assuming the subscriber has an arrangement with their "home" phone company to
allow the call.
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The user dials the telephone number, presses the send or talk key, and the mobile phone sends
a call setup request message to the mobile phone network via the mobile phone mast (BTS) it
is in contact with.

The element in the mobile phone network that handles the call request is the Visited Mobile
Switching Center (Visited MSC). The MSC will check against the subscriber's temporary
record held in the Visitor Location Register to see if the outgoing call is allowed. If so, the
MSC then routes the call in the same way that a telephone exchange does in a fixed network.

If the subscriber is on a Pay As You Go tariff, then an additional check is made to see if the
subscriber has enough credit to proceed. If not, the call is rejected. If the call is allowed to
continue, then it is continually monitored and the appropriate amount is decremented from the
subscriber's account. When the credit reaches zero, the call is cut off by the network. The
systems that monitor and provide the prepaid services are not part of the GSM standard
services, but instead an example of intelligent network services that a mobile phone operator
may decide to implement in addition to the standard GSM ones.

How incoming calls are made to a mobile

As soon as the owner switches on his mobile phone, it registers with the network provider via
the nearest base station. At the network provider, data on the identity of the user, the serial
number of the mobile phone and the identity of the base station over which registration has
occurred is logged and stored. This is done even if no conversation takes place. Moreover,
every time a number is dialed, this event is stored, irrespective of whether a connection is
established or not. This takes place in three steps.

I. CALL ORIGINATION OPERATION

II. CALL DELIVERY OPERATION
III. CALL TERMINATION OPERATION

I. CALL ORIGINATION OPERATION

1. Mobile station sends the call origination

request to MSC
2. MSC forwards the request to VLR to check
the user information.
3. VLR checks the users profile and ask MSC
to grant call request.
4. MSC sets up trunk access to std. PSTN call
setup.
5.

II. CALL DELIVERY OPERATION

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1. Call from the source reaches to the PSTN

2. PSTN forwards the call to the home MSC of the target mobile.
3. MSC gets the routing information about
the target mobile from HLR
4. HLR in turn passes request to VLR
5. VLR sends the routing information to
HLR
6. HLR passes this information to MSC
7. MSC when have got this routing
information routes the call to the MSC1
8. MSC which is the present location of the
target mobile passes the call to the destination
mobile.

III. CALL TERMINATION OPERATION

1. The calling subscriber dials the mobile subscriber.

2. The mobile network prefix digits cause the call to be routed to the mobile network
gateway MSC.
3. The gateway MSC uses information in the called address digits to locate the mobile
subscribers HLR.
4. The HLR has already been informed of the location (VLR address) for the mobile
subscriber and requests a temporary routing number to allow the call to be routed to the
correct MSC.
5. The MSC/VLR responds with a temporary routing number that will be valid only for the
duration of this call.
6. The routing number is returned to the GMSC (gateway MSC).
7. The call is made using standard ISUP (or similar) signaling between the GMSC and the
visited MSC.

Fig. Mobile terminated call

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PROGRAM NO-4
AIM: To study the GPRS service in the GSM environment.
General packet radio service (GPRS) is a packet oriented mobile data service available to
users of the 2G cellular communication systems global system for mobile communications
(GSM), as well as in the 3G systems. In 2G systems, GPRS provides data rates of 56-
114 kbit/s .GPRS data transfer is typically charged per megabyte of traffic transferred, while
data communication via traditional circuit switching is billed per minute of connection time,
independent of whether the user actually is using the capacity or is in an idle state. GPRS is a
best-effort packet switched service, as opposed to circuit switching, where a certain quality of
service (QoS) is guaranteed during the connection for non-mobile users. GPRS enables a
variety of new and unique services to the mobile wireless subscriber. These mobile services
have unique characteristics that provide enhanced value to customers. These characteristics
include the following:

• Mobility: The ability to maintain constant voice and data communications while on the
move
• Immediacy : Allows subscribers to obtain connectivity when needed, regardless of
location and without a lengthy login session.
• Localization : Allows subscribers to obtain information relevant to their current
location.

Hardware for GPRS

Devices supporting GPRS are divided into three classes:

• Class A
Can be connected to GPRS service and GSM service (voice, SMS), using both at the
same time. Such devices are known to be available today.
• Class B
Can be connected to GPRS service and GSM service (voice, SMS), but using only one
or the other at a given time. During GSM service (voice call or SMS), GPRS service is
suspended, and then resumed automatically after the GSM service (voice call or SMS)
has concluded. Most GPRS mobile devices are Class B.
• Class C
Are connected to either GPRS service or GSM service (voice, SMS). Must be switched
manually between one or the other service.

GPRS Architecture
GPRS is a data network that overlays a second-generation GSM network. This data overlay
network provides packet data transport at rates from 9.6 to 171 kbps. Additionally, multiple
users can share the same air-interface resources simultaneously.Following is the GPRS
Architecture diagram:
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Fig1. GSM Architecture

GPRS attempts to reuse the existing GSM network elements as much as possible, but to
effectively build a packet-based mobile cellular network, some new network elements,
interfaces, and protocols for handling packet traffic are required.Therefore, GPRS requires
modifications to numerous GSM network elements as summarized below:

GSM Network Element Modification or Upgrade Required for GPRS.

Mobile Station (MS)
BTS
BSC
GPRS Support Nodes (GSNs)
Databases (HLR, VLR, etc.)
New Mobile Station is required to access GPRS services.
These new terminals will be backward compatible with GSM
for voice calls.
A software upgrade is required in the existing base
transceiver site.
The base station controller (BSC) requires a software upgrade
and the installation of new hardware called the packet control
unit (PCU). The PCU directs the data traffic to the GPRS
network and can be a separate hardware element associated
with the BSC.
The deployment of GPRS requires the installation of new
core network elements called the serving GPRS support node
(SGSN) and gateway GPRS support node (GGSN).
All the databases involved in the network will require
software upgrades to handle the new call models and
functions introduced by GPRS.
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• GPRS Mobile Stations:

New Mobile Station are required to use GPRS services because existing GSM phones do not
handle the enhanced air interface or packet data. A variety of MS can exist, including a high-
speed version of current phones to support high-speed data access, a new PDA device with an
embedded GSM phone, and PC cards for laptop computers. These mobile stations are
backward compatible for making voice calls using GSM.

GPRS Base Station Subsystem:

Each BSC requires the installation of one or more Packet Control Units (PCUs) and a software
upgrade. The PCU provides a physical and logical data interface to the base station subsystem
(BSS) for packet data traffic. The BTS can also require a software upgrade but typically does
not require hardware enhancements.When either voice or data traffic is originated at the
subscriber mobile, it is transported over the air interface to the BTS, and from the BTS to the
BSC in the same way as a standard GSM call. However, at the output of the BSC, the traffic is
separated; voice is sent to the mobile switching center (MSC) per standard GSM, and data is
sent to a new device called the SGSN via the PCU over a Frame Relay interface.

GPRS Support Nodes:

Following two new components, called GPRS support nodes (GSNs), are added:

Gateway GPRS Support Node(GGSN)

The Gateway GPRS Support Node acts as an interface and a router to external networks. The
GGSN contains routing information for GPRS mobiles, which is used to tunnel packets
through the IP based internal backbone to the correct Serving GPRS Support Node. The
GGSN also collects charging information connected to the use of the external data networks
and can act as a packet filter for incoming traffic.

Serving GPRS Support Node(SGSN)

The Serving GPRS Support Node is responsible for authentication of GPRS mobiles,
registration of mobiles in the network, mobility management, and collecting information for
charging for the use of the air interface.

Internal Backbone:
The internal backbone is an IP based network used to carry packets between different GSNs.
Tunneling is used between SGSNs and GGSNs, so the internal backbone does not need any
information about domains outside the GPRS network. Signaling from a GSN to a MSC, HLR
or EIR is done using SS7.

Routing Area:
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GPRS introduces the concept of a routing area. This is much the same as a Location Area in
GSM, except that it will generally contain fewer cells. Because routing areas are smaller than
Location Areas, less radio resources are used when a paging message is broadcast.

Following diagram shows the GPRS protocol stack and end-to-end message flows from the
MS to the GGSN. The protocol between the SGSN and GGSN using the Gn interface is GTP.
This is a Layer 3 Routing Area:

Fig 2.Layer 3 routing area

One of the most important things to note here is that the application communicates via
standard IP, which is carried through the GPRS network and out through the gateway GPRS
looks like a normal IP sub-network to users both inside and outside the network.Also notice
that packets travelling between the GGSN and the SGSN use the GPRS tunneling protocol so
the internal backbone network does not have to deal with IP addresses outside the GPRS
network. This GTP is run over UDP and IP.Between the SGSN and the MS a combination of
SubNetwork Dependent Convergence Protocol and Logical Link Control is used. SNDCP
compresses data to minimize the load on the radio channel. The LLC provides a safe logical
link by encrypting packets. The same LLC link is used as long as a mobile is under a single
SGSN.When the mobile moves to a routing area that lies under a different SGSN the LLC link
is removed and a new link is established with the new Serving GSN X.25 services are
provided by running X.25 on top of TCP/IP in the internal backbone.

Data Packet Routing:

The main functions of the GGSN involve interaction with the external data network. The
GGSN updates the location directory using routing information supplied by the SGSNs about
the location of an MS. It routes the external data network protocol packet encapsulated over
the GPRS backbone to the SGSN currently serving the MS. It also decapsulates and forwards
external data network packets to the appropriate data network and collects charging data that
is forwarded to a charging gateway (CG).

There are three important routing schemes:

• Mobile-originated message: This path begins at the GPRS mobile and ends at the host
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• Network-initiated message when the MS is in its home network: This path begins at
the host and ends at the GPRS mobile
• Network-initiated message when the MS roams to another GPRS network: This path
begins at the host of visited network and ends at the GPRS mobile

The GPRS network encapsulates all data network protocols into its own encapsulation
protocol called the GPRS tunneling protocol (GTP). The GTP ensures security in the
backbone network and simplifies the routing mechanism and the delivery of data over the
GPRS network.

Routing Updates:
When an MS that is in an active or a standby state moves from one routing area to another
within the service area of one SGSN, it must perform a routing update. The routing area
information in the SGSN is updated, and the success of the procedure is indicated in the
response message.A cell-based routing update procedure is invoked when an active MS enters
a new cell. The MS sends a short message containing the identity of the MS and its new
location through GPRS channels to its current SGSN. This procedure is used only when the
MS is in the active state.The inter-SGSN routing update is the most complicated routing
update. The MS changes from one SGSN area to another, and it must establish a new
connection to a new SGSN. This means creating a new logical link context between the MS
and the new SGSN and informing the GGSN about the new location of the MS.The GPRS
access modes specify whether or not the GGSN requests user authentication at the access
point to a PDN (Public Data Network). The available options are:

• Transparent: No security authorization/authentication is requested by the GGSN.

• Non-transparent: In this case, GGSN acts as a proxy for authenticating

Processes in GPRS

The basic processes used in GPRS networks:

• Attach process: Process by which the MS attaches (connects) to the SGSN in a GPRS
network
• Authentication process: Process by which the SGSN authenticates the mobile
subscriber
• PDP activation process: Process by which a user session is established between the MS
and the destination network
• Detach process: Process by which the MS detaches (i.e., disconnects) from the SGSN
in the GPRS network
• Network-initiated PDP request for static IP address: Process by which a call from the
packet data network reaches the MS using a static IP address
• Network-initiated PDP request for dynamic IP address: Process by which a call from
the packet data network reaches the MS using a dynamic IP address

GPRS stands for General Packet Radio System. GPRS provides packet radio access for mobile
Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) and time-division multiple access
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(TDMA) users.GPRS is important as a migration step toward third-generation (3G) networks

and allows network operators to implement an IP-based core architecture for data applications,
which will continue to be used and expanded for 3G services for integrated voice and data
applications.GPRS is a new bearer service for GSM that greatly improves and simplifies
wireless access to packet data networks, e.g., to the Internet. It applies a packet radio principle
to transfer user data packets in an efficient way between GSM mobile stations and external
packet data networks. Packets can be directly routed from the GPRS mobile stations to packet
switched networks.Networks based on the Internet Protocol (IP) (e.g., the global Internet or
private/corporate intranets) and X.25 networks are also supported in the current versions of
GPRS.

Benefits of GPRS:
• Higher Data Rate:
Users of GPRS benefit from shorter access times and higher data rates. In conventional
GSM, the connection setup takes several seconds and rates for data transmission are
restricted to 9.6 kbit/s. GPRS in practice offers session establishment times below one
second and ISDN-like data rates up to several ten kbit/s.
• Easy Billing:
GPRS packet transmission offers a more userfriendly billing than that offered by circuit
switched services. In circuit switched services, billing is based on the duration of the
connection. This is unsuitable for applications with bursty traffic. The user must pay for
the entire airtime, even for idle periods when no packets are sent (e.g., when the user reads
a Web page).In contrast to this, with packet switched services, billing can be based on the
amount of transmitted data. The advantage for the user is that he or she can be "online"
over a long period of time but will be billed based on the transmitted data volume.

Applications
• Communications: E-mail, fax, unified messaging and intranet/Internet access etc.
• Value-added services: Information services and games etc.
• E-commerce: Retail, ticket purchasing, banking and financial trading etc.
• Location-based applications: Navigation, traffic conditions, airline/rail schedules and
location finder etc.
• Vertical applications: Freight delivery, fleet management and sales-force automation.
• Advertising: Advertising may be location sensitive. For example, a user entering a
mall can receive advertisements specific to the stores in that mall.
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PROGRAM NO.-5
AIM: T o study different Operating Systems for the mobile phones.

A mobile operating system also known as a Mobile OS, a Mobile platform, or a Handheld
operating system, is the operating system that controls a mobile device similar in principle to
an operating system such as Linux or Windows that controls a desktop computer or laptop.
Types of Mobile Computing System
The term mobile device is used to mean a wide range of consumer electronics. Usually mobile
device is used to describe the devices that can connect to the Internet. However, some will
classify digital cameras and standard MP3 players as mobile devices as well. The category of
mobile devices includes the following devices

FIG 1:Mobile Operating System Framework

Operating systems
The operating system is responsible for determining the functions and features available on
your device, such as thumbwheel, keyboards, WAP, synchronization with applications, e-mail,
text messaging and more. The mobile operating system will also determine which third-party
applications can be used on your device. Some of the more common and well-known Mobile
operating systems include the following

Symbian OS

Symbian OS has become a standard operating system for smart phones, and is licensed by
more than 85 percent of the world's handset manufacturers. The Symbian OS is designed for
the specific requirements of 2.5G and 3G mobile phones.
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FIG 5: Symbian OS

Windows Mobile

The Windows Mobile platform is available on a variety of devices from a variety of wireless
operators. You will find Windows Mobile software on Dell, HP, Motorola, Palm

and i-mate products. Windows Mobile powered devices are available on GSM or CDMA
networks.

FIG 6: Windows Mobile OS

Windows Mobile operating system is compact OS, combined with a suite of basic applications
for mobile devices based on the Microsoft Win32 API. Windows Mobile OS comes in two
flavors

Pocket PC Edition

The Pocket PC Edition was meant for the both the Pocket PC devices without mobile phone
capabilities as well as devices with mobile phone capabilities. Windows Mobile professional
The current name of Windows Mobile for use on Pocket PCs devices with mobile phone
capabilities is "Windows Mobile 6 Professional" and that for devices without mobile phone
capabilities is "Windows Mobile 6 Classic".
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Palm OS

Since the introduction of the first Palm Pilot in 1996, the Palm OS platform has provided
mobile devices with essential business tools, as well as capability to access the Internet or a
central corporate database via a wireless connection.

FIG 7: Palm OS

Mobile Linux

The first company to launch phones with Linux as its OS was Motorola in 2003. Linux is seen
as a suitable option for higher-end phones with powerful processors and larger amounts of
memory.

FIG 8: Mobile linux

MXI

MXI is a universal mobile operating system that allows existing full-fledged desktop and
mobile applications written for Windows, Linux, Java, and Palm are enabled immediately on
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mobile devices without any redevelopment. MXI allows for interoperability between various
platforms, networks, software and hardware components.

FIG 9: MXI
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PROGRAM NO.-6

AIM: To study the cache management for the mobile computing

environment.

Introduction

With the explosive growth of wireless techniques and mobile devices such as laptops,
personal digital assistants, people with battery powered mobile devices wish to access various
kinds of services at any time any place. However, existing wireless services are limited by the
constraints of wireless networks such as narrow bandwidth, frequent disconnections, and
limitations of the battery technology. Thus, mechanisms to efficiently transmit information
from the server to a massive number of clients (running on mobile devices) have received
considerable attention.
Caching frequently accessed data items on the client side is an effective technique to
improve performance in mobile environment Average data access latency is reduced as some
data access requests can be satisfied from the local cache thereby obviating the need for data
transmission over the scarce wireless links. Due to the limitations of the cache size, it is
impossible to hold all the accessed data items in the cache. As a result, cache replacement
algorithms are used to find a suitable subset of data items for eviction. Cache replacement
algorithms have been extensively studied in the context of operating system virtual memory
management and database buffer management. In this context, cache replacement algorithms
usually maximize the cache hit-ratio by attempting to cache the items that are most likely to be
accessed in the future.

Proxy caching is one of the basic methods to decrease the amount of remote network
access, load on the servers and long response delays. Therefore, it is desirable to have a cache
management strategy which should consider exclusively low resources and mobility of the
users.
The studies about proxy caching in mobile and wireless environments are mostly based
on cache invalidation, cache replacement, cache relocation and cache organization. Cache
invalidation is the process of keeping the newest version of the data in the cache. Since the
copy of the object in the cache can be stale as more recent versions are made available at
remote servers and clients may want to receive newer versions of the data instead of the old
ones. Cache organization is the way to allocate cache capacity, namely global cache allocation
and personal cache allocation. Cache replacement is to delete from the cache when the free
space is insufficient for accommodating an object to be cached. Cache relocation is to move
user related cache to the mobile client’ new location. Given the limited cache on mobile users,
the first three issues are very important to wireless data access performance.
Specifically, we define the situation of overload as the number of mobile hosts for
which the proxy needs to release some amount of cache space for each to be able to provide a
fair service. For example, if the proxy needs to give 2 MB cache space for the new MH in its
service area, but it has only 1.5 MB free space, then an overload occurs, 0.5 MB needed to be
released at proxy for this particular mobile host. Our technique predicts the future number of
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overloads in the cell ahead of time and adapts the proxy cache accordingly in order not to
suffer from the heavy traffic by using a very efficient cache replacement policy.

Specifically, we propose two techniques to improve the performance of mobile wireless

environments.

(1) Predict the number of overloads ahead of time to reduce the effect of real time heavy
traffic.
(2) Replace the cache by using mobility-aware cache replacement policy when needed.

We call our system as CacheRight because in every traffic condition every mobile host
in the cell has a right to access some part of the total cache in the right way.
Proxy caching has been considered an important technique to improve the capability and
quality of mobile environments. However, the problems of wireless environments make the
design of proxy cache management a challenge. There are four important issues involved in
proxy cache management:

1. Cache Replacement
2. Organization of Cache Capacity
3. Cache Relocation
4. Cache Invalidation

Cache Replacement in Wireless Environments:

Cache replacement algorithms, which dynamically select a suitable subset of documents

for caching, play a central role in the design of wireless environments. Proposed studies for
wireless environments mostly take at least one of the following criteria as their main concern
while ranking objects for cache replacement:

• access frequency
• document size
• cost of cache miss
• validity range of location-dependent data

The traditional cache replacement policies are based on the assumptions that recently
accessed objects are likely to be accessed again (Least Recently Used - LRU), objects that were
queried frequently in the past will continue to be queried frequently in the future (Least
Frequently Used - LFU).
One well-known problem with cache replacement is that when a relatively large
document is requested, it may end up replacing many small size documents in the allocated
cache space. In order to avoid this problem, the authors claim that cache hit ratio can be
optimized when small size documents are stored, given the fixed capacity of cache. The
proposed algorithm always evicts the largest documents when cache is full. The drawback of
this method is not to take the relative recency or access frequency of each document into
consideration, not to evict those stale yet small documents even if they are never visited again.
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In the extreme case, the cache could be fraught with tiny useless documents. To overcome this
drawback, researchers at Virginia Tech University came up with several ideas to store small
recently used documents. Lowest Relative Value(LRV) cache replacement algorithm
includes the cost and size of a document in the calculation of a value that estimates the utility of
keeping a document in the cache. The algorithm evicts the document with the lowest value.
FAR (Furthest Away Replacement) cache replacement algorithm uses the current
location and movement direction of mobile clients. Objects in the cache are grouped into two
sets, namely out direction set and in direction set. Data objects in the out direction set are
always evicted first. Objects in each set are evicted in order based on their distance from the
client.

Organization of Cache Capacity:

Two categories of cache capacity allocation schemes have been reported in the
literature, namely global cache and personal cache. Most of the studies about proxy cache
assume the use of “global cache allocation” in which the whole cache capacity is shared by all
users. Popular data objects in global view are kept in the cache and those which are not popular
enough are replaced. Although global cache allocation optimizes the overall system
performance, the fairness issue is a problem.
In personal cache capacity allocation, each user is allocated with a cache capacity
dedicated to him with a predetermined size. Personal cache capacity allocation avoids the
fairness problem caused by global cache capacity allocation. It also facilitates cache relocation
more easily because instead of overall cache utilization, personal cache capacity allocation
concerns the utilization of each separate user. However, this kind of cache allocation has two
main disadvantages. First, many copies of the same data object may be stored in the proxy,
hence reducing the storage utilization and scalability of the proxy. Second, each personal space
is of equal size and it is exclusive for its owner. This organization wastes the storage if the
required size of the personal cache of a user is smaller than that of allocated one.
A hybrid cache capacity allocation (HCA) scheme was introduced to combine two types
of cache allocations, global and personal. The whole cache capacity is first divided into two
pools, a global pool and a personal pool. The global pool stores data objects of high interest
from the system’s respect. To avoid the fairness problem in global cache capacity allocation,
each user is assigned a personal cache allocated in personal pool to store data objects which are
hot according to the user’s interest. Moreover, personal cache of each user is shared with others,
and each data object is cached at most once in a proxy in order to avoid the problem of personal
cache capacity allocation.

Cache Relocation:

If the wireless infrastructure provides for handovers between base stations, some part of
the proxy cache which a mobile user is using has to be reconstructed each time the mobile user
crosses the boundaries of a cell. When an intra-service handover occurs, some cache misses
may occur since the data objects of the user’s interest may not be cached in the new proxy yet.
The problem of cache relocation deals with how to move the cached data objects from the
previous proxy into the new one when an intra-service handover occurs.
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The concept of relocating the personal cache of the mobile host was introduced. In this it
was assumed that the proxy is located in each base station of wireless environment and it
contains personal cache of each mobile host in the cell. The personal cache follows the
movement of its owner. When a mobile host changes its current location, its cache will be
located to its next location prior to the realization of handovers. It is also assumed that the
mobile user’s user profile incorporates path prediction algorithms, which provide indications on
which cells the user is likely to be handed-over if it keeps on moving.
It is also assumed that the mobile user’s user profile incorporates path prediction
algorithms, which provide indications on which cells the user is likely to be handed-over if it
keeps on moving. The relocation of the cache is performed prior to realization of handovers
depending on the outcome of movement prediction algorithms.

The CacheRight Cache Management:

Below given is an example of a typical wireless environment which the CacheRight

addresses. Some mobile hosts are moving towards one direction on freeways, some going
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Mobile host

Library

Freeway

Example of an un-uniform heavy traffic

towards a particular building, say library, and others moving freely among the cells at different
speeds causing non-uniform heavy traffic. Management of heavy loaded proxy caches becomes
a challenge for this kind of situations. While the proxy caches in the area of freeways and
library are heavily loaded, the ones in the other BSs can serve MHs without having any
problems. Sudden increase on the network traffic may cause fairness problems to MHs in the
service area of those BSs. MHs which are changing their current cell may have to drop some of
their applications because of not having any space in the proxy cache.
We propose a method to predict future overloads in the proxy cache and adapt it for
those changes beforehand to provide a continuous service during the period of topology
changes, overload-driven CacheRight.
Once the mobile host enters the current cell, after a certain amount of time, a prediction-
trigger is emitted and the prediction scheme predicts the behavior of the mobile host until its
next handoff. A prediction scheme can also predict the amount of time before the mobile user’s
next handoff. In this thesis, we do not address any mobility prediction technique. We assume
that with the help of any proposed mobility prediction algorithm we have the information of
how much more time the mobile host will stay in a particular cell.
In order to provide continuous cache service, it is important to reserve some portion of the
proxy cache for incoming MHs before they come with the help of traffic topology and
mobility prediction algorithms. According to the system needs, it might be required to release
some cache space for incoming MHs beforehand if the CacheRight decides there would not be
enough space in the cache when they come. Hence, when they change their location to this
particular cell they will find their place ready in the cache and get a continuous service.
In other words, these incoming MHs will not have to wait for the proxy to release some
cache space for them to put their objects. In order not to sacrifice current MHs cache space for
the incoming ones, it is a challenge to determine appropriate amount of cache to release.

Specifically, the CacheRight tries to solve the problems of:

• How to predict the number of overloads for the next time interval.
• How to decide release amount under different workloads (different overload numbers).
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• How to decide which objects from which mobile hosts’ caches to release, how much and
when to release from personal part or global part of the cache.

CacheRight Algorithm:

The CacheRight deals with two types of cache release requests depending on the
predictions of the number of overloads. Below is the high level algorithm which the CacheRight
follows for these requests:

1. On-demand request
2. Overload-driven cache adaptation request.

On-demand request: When a MH moves into a new cell, it requests cache space from
the proxy to put a number of objects that it uses frequently. If there is enough space in the
proxy, request will be accepted by allocating some amount of cache for this MH according to
the heaviness of the traffic. Otherwise, the CacheRight needs to release some objects kept for
other MHs in the cell.

Overload-driven cache adaptation request: Periodically, the CacheRight predicts how

many incoming MH will cause overloads for the next time interval by using overload records of
previous periods. According to the predicted overload number it decides how much cache to
release for the incoming MHs. In order to improve cache hit ratio, the CacheRight will also
determine which objects should be removed from the cache by using its mobility-aware cache
replacement algorithm.

Cache Architecture:

The proxy cache associated with each cell is divided into two segments global cache and
personal cache (as shown below). Global cache is used to store popular objects that are accessed
by multiple mobile hosts. Personal cache is divided into regions assigned to each user. This
partition affects the cache performance for the following two reasons.

1. Mobile Hosts in the cell may have different interest areas and request different objects.
If we employ only global allocation, it may cause the problem of fairness. In addition, it is
difficult to design a cache reallocation for global cache capacity allocation. Maintaining global
cache for all individually requested objects causes more overhead.

2. If the proxy does not allocate cache space for global use, common popular objects that
can be shared by multiple mobile hosts will waste cache space by individual requests.
Methods for Cache Management

We now describe three caching methods. As can be seen later, depending on the transaction
properties, FLB, FPS and FCB have their own advantages.

i) FLB (Caching from Local Buffer)-

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Clearly, since the server has its own local buffer, it could get cache data from its local buffer
directly. In general, the server will fetch cache data due to cache miss in the beginning of
transaction execution. This is usually called cache warm-up.

ii) FPS (Caching from the Previous Server)-

For a transaction with higher intra-transaction locality and lower inter-transaction locality,
getting the cache data from the previous server is useful and effective for mobile computing.
Let server SA contains the cache pages 44, 26 and 17, and the coordinator contains the cache
pages 44, 39 and 40 after server SC writes its cache buffer. These transactions also share one
page 44. Under the assumption that the characteristics of workload are of high temporal
locality and with few common pages, the mobile user requests the cache pages 44, 26 and 18.
As such, when service handoff occurs, getting the cache data from the previous server will be
more effective than other schemes.

iii) FCB (Caching from Coordinator Buffer)-

If the transaction property is update-intensive and transactions possess higher inter-transaction
locality, getting cache data from the coordinator buffer will be cost-effective. Let the sharing
pages are 44 and 39. Assume that the mobile user is using the data pages 44, 39 and 18. When
server SB which the mobile user is with gets the cache data from the coordinator, server SB
will have the most recent pages 44 and 39, and only incur one cache miss for page 18 and one
cache replacement for page 40. Clearly, FCB performs better than FPS in this case.

Working of Cache Management

Three Phases of a Transaction-

As pointed out earlier, DAR, the dynamic and adaptive cache retrieval scheme we shall
devise in this paper will employ proper cache methods to deal with the service handoff
situation. The transaction processing can be divided into three phases, namely the initial
phase, the execution phase and the termination phase
During the initial phase, the transaction sets up the processing environment (explicitly, the
transaction identification, local variables, and cache entry table are created). The server creates
the ‘cache entry table’, and two cache methods, FCB and FLB, will be considered. Note that
since the transaction just started, FPS is not proper for this initial phase. These two methods
will be evaluated to decide which one to be used for the initial
phase. The second phase is the execution phase when the server is processing the transaction.
If the server needs to do the service handoff when a mobile unit enters
a new service area, the running transactions will migrate to a new server. The new server
should then take over the running transactions seamlessly. As the new server sets up
the running environment, cache data will be retrieved by the new server using three schemes:
FLB, FCB and FPS.
We will evaluate these three schemes based on the corresponding transaction properties. The
last phase of a transaction is the termination phase. In this termination phase, as the transaction
execution finishes, the transaction will do the coordinator buffer write as well as activate the
cache invalidation scheme to invalidate other caches in this mobile system. In essence, the
dynamic and adaptive cache retrieval scheme (DAR) we devise will
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utilize the transaction properties and take the corresponding cost into consideration (i.e., cache
miss and replacement) to evaluate effective cache retrieval methods in each transaction-
processing phase.

Dynamic and Adaptive Cache Retrieval Schemes-

In this section, we shall first evaluate the performance of cache retrieval methods (i.e., FLB,
FCB and FPS), and then use the results obtained to devise DAR. Explicitly, cache retrieval
methods for the initial phase are examined in Section 1 and those for the
execution phase are examined in Section 2. Decision rules for DAR are derived in Section 3.
1 Caching Schemes for the Initial Phase-
Consider the example scenario in Figure 5 where a short transaction is executed by a mobile
computer. The transactions are update-intensive and have many sharing
pages. The transaction properties are taken into consideration to decide which scheme to use.
Qualitatively speaking, since the transaction is update-intensive and has inter-transaction
locality, FCB tends to perform better.
Due to the inter-transaction locality, the buffer in the coordinator maintains many sharing
pages and the server is thus very likely able to get pages from the coordinator buffer. On the
other hand, when intertransaction locality is absent, FLB tends to perform better than FCB
because that cache retrieved from FCB will incur cache replacement, which does not happen
when FLB is used.
2 Caching Schemes for the Execution Phase-
We now consider caching schemes for a transaction in the execution phase. With the
transaction execution time being long enough, the transaction processing will migrate to a new
server due to the movement of a mobile unit. It can be seen from the examples in Section 2
that temporal locality is a very important factor to be evaluated for determining which caching
scheme to employ.
3 Deriving Decision Rules for DAR-
By taking into consideration the transaction properties and the costs of cache miss and cache
replacement, DAR will select an appropriate method in each phase of transaction processing.
We shall conduct formula analysis and provide criteria for using DAR.
Intra-transaction page probability represents the percentage of pages that demonstrate the
intra-transaction locality, whereas inter-transaction page probability represents the
percentage of pages that demonstrate the inter-transaction locality. The attributes of
intertransaction page, such as read or update, depend on the update probability for inter-
transaction pages. Each transaction is assumed to process an average of T pages. Also, the
size of cache in the server buffer is S. CM and CR denotes the cache miss and the cache
replacement cost of each page, respectively.

PROGRAM NO.-7

AIM: To study Java to Micro Edition environment.

Java Platform, Micro Edition or “Java ME” (also referred to as Java 2 Platform, Micro
Edition or J2ME), is a collection of Java APIs for the development of software for resource-
constrained devices such as PDAs, cell phones and other consumer appliances. Java ME is
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formally a specification, although the term is frequently used to also refer to the runtime
implementations of the specification. Java ME was developed under the Java Community
Process as JSR 68. The evolution of the platform has abandoned the umbrella Java
Specification Request in favor of separate JSRs for the different flavors of Java ME.

Java ME was designed by Sun Microsystems and is a replacement for a similar technology,
PersonalJava. Java ME has become a popular option for creating games for cell phones, as they
can be emulated on a PC during the development stage and easily uploaded to the phone.

Java ME devices implement a profile. The most common of these are the Mobile Information
Device Profile aimed at mobile devices, such as cell phones, and the Personal Profile aimed at
consumer products and embedded devices like Set-top boxes and PDAs.

Configurations and Profiles

A configuration specifies three basic elements:

• a set of Java programming language features

• a set of Java virtual machine features
• a set of supported Java libraries and application programming interfaces (APIs)

Figure The J2ME platform consists of a set of layers that support a basic runtime environment
with core Java libraries and a Virtual Machine (VM), a set of system-level application
programming interfaces (APIs) in a configuration, and a set of application-level APIs in a
profile.

Theoretically, a configuration could specify the very same support as the J2SE platform
libraries. This is unlikely in the real world because, as you now know, J2ME is targeted at
devices that are far less powerful than desktop computers.

Configuration specifications require that all Java classes adapted from J2SE be the same as or
a proper subset of the original J2SE class. That is, a class cannot add methods not found in the
J2SE version. Configurations can include additional classes in their specifications, however;
configurations themselves are not necessarily proper subsets of J2SE. Both configurations that
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have been defined to date add classes not present in J2SE in order to address device attributes
and constraints.

The Connected Device Configuration (CDC)

The Connected Device Configuration (CDC) intends to capture just the essential capabilities
of each kind of device in the category of devices it targets, namely, devices with 2 MB or
more of total memory, including both RAM and ROM.

a configuration specifies both the set of Java VM features that are supported and a set of class
libraries. The CDC specifies the use of the full Java 2 platform VM, which, in this context, is
called the Compact Virtual Machine (CVM).

The CVM
Although the CVM supports the same features as the J2SE VM, it is designed for consumer
and embedded devices. This means that the standard J2SE VM has been reengineered to suit
the constraints of limited-resource devices. The features of the resulting offspring CVM are:

• advanced memory system

• small average garbage collection pause times
• full separation of VM from memory system
• modularized garbage collectors
• generational garbage collection

In particular, the CVM has been engineered to offer the following features:

• portability
• fast synchronization
• execution of Java classes out of read-only memory (ROM)
• native thread support
• small class footprint
• provision of interfaces to and support for real-time operating system (RTOS)
services
• mapping Java threads directly to native threads
• support for all Java 2, v1.3 VM features and libraries: security, weak references,
Java Native Interface (JNI), Remote Method Invocation (RMI), Java Virtual Machine
Debugging Interface (JVMDI)

The Foundation Profile.

A configuration, together with a profile, creates a J2ME runtime environment. The system-
level features and services supported by a configuration are more or less hidden from the
application developer. In reality, the application developer is prohibited from accessing them
directly. If this were not the case, the application would not be considered J2ME compliant.
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Personal Profile
The Personal Profile specification was created through the Java Community Process, resulting
in JSR–62. The Personal Profile provides an environment with full AWT support. The intention
of its creators is to provide a platform suitable for Web applets. It also provides a J2ME
migration path for Personal Java applications.

RMI Profile
The RMI Profile is a profile designed for platforms that support the CDC configuration. It has
been defined by JSR-66 by various companies participating through the Java Community
Process.

The RMI Profile requires an implementation of the Foundation Profile and is built on top of it.
RMI Profile implementations must support the following features:

• full RMI call semantics

• marshaled object support
• RMI wire protocol
• export of remote objects through the UnicastRemoteObject API
• distributed garbage collection and garbage collector interfaces for both client and
server side
• the activator interface and the client side activation protocol
• RMI registry interfaces and export of a registry remote object

Connected, Limited Device Configuration (CLDC)

The second of the two J2ME configurations, the Connected, Limited Device Configuration
(CLDC), supports personal, mobile devices, which constitute a significantly less powerful
class of devices than the one that the CDC supports. The CLDC specification identifies
devices in this category as having the following characteristics:

• 160 to 512 KB total memory available for the Java platform

• 16-bit or 32-bit processor
• low power consumption, often battery powered
• intermittent network connectivity (often wireless) with potentially limited
bandwidth

The goal of the CLDC is to define a standard Java platform for these devices. Because of the
wide variety of system software on various personal devices, the CLDC makes minimum
assumptions about the environment in which it exists. For example, one OS might support
multiple concurrent processes, another might or might not support a file system, and so forth.

The CLDC is different from, yet also a subset of the CDC. The two configurations are
independent of each other, however, so they should not be used together to define a platform.
Figure 1.2 shows the relationship between the two configurations and the J2SE platform.
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Figure The CLDC is a proper subset of the CDC. Neither the CLDC nor the CDC is a proper
subset of the J2SE platform, however, because both of these configurations add new classes
necessary to deliver services on their respective families of devices.

Like the CDC, the CLDC specifies the level of support of the Java programming language
required, the required functional support of a compliant Java VM, and the set of class libraries
required.

Java Language Support. The CLDC specification omits support for the following features of
the Java language:

• floating point calculations

• object finalization

Mobile Information Device Profile.

Because the category served by the CLDC encompasses so many different types of personal
devices, potentially many different profiles are necessary to support them all. The most
popular and well known of these is the Mobile Information Device Profile (MIDP), sometimes
called the MID Profile. The MIDP layers atop the CLDC and defines a set of user interface
(UI) APIs designed for contemporary wireless devices.

Device Application Management Systems

All J2ME applications—MIDlets and others—are real Java applications that run under the
control of a Java VM. But what controls the Java VM, for instance on a mobile phone? There's
no command shell from which you can invoke your favorite Java applications like you do on
your workstation. Starting, stopping, and managing the execution of J2ME applications is
controlled by application management software (AMS) that resides on the device. In fact, the
AMS controls the entire application lifecycle, from installation, upgrade and version
management, to removal of application software.
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The device manufacturer typically provides the AMS software. This is the most logical
scenario because AMS software must work in conjunction with the device's native system
software, which, presumably, the manufacturer knows best. Nevertheless, third parties can
also develop AMS systems for specific devices. AMS software could be written, for example,
in Java or in some native language such as C.
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PROGRAM NO.-8

AIM : To write a program that implements a few sorting algorithms

(bubble, selection etc)for n data. It stops the operation when the counter for
sorting index is at 100,1000,10000 and so on, stores the contents of the
registers, program counter and partially sorted list of data etc. It resumes
the operation after 30 seconds from the point of termination.

j
PROGRAM NO.-9

AIM: To study the mobile transaction in mobile environment.

Introduction
The increasing popularity of mobile devices has led to many commercial transactions to be
executed from the mobile devices, thus enabling business on the move.Commercial transactions
from mobile devices are significantly expensive as it involves computational and storage
complexity.
Normally, M-Commerce applications have concurrent users to access the database
items. Concurrency control is one of the most important features of transaction management
that ensures consistency of the data.Mobile computing environment enables multiple users to
perform on-line transaction processing independent of their physical location. They may
update the data simultaneously which may result in inconsistency of data. To avoid such
inconsistency of data in the database, concurrency control technique that is efficient in mobile
environment is needed. Internet access from mobile devices is very expensive as limited
bandwidth is available on wireless links that is unreliable. So when more number of Mobile
Clients (MC) involve in database transaction with a web portal from a mobile device, the data
access from the server is delayed, increasing the response time thus leading to decrease in
transaction throughput.

Concurrency control Techniques

To avoid inconsistency of data when simultaneous access to data is made, concurrency control
in mobile environment is needed. Some of concurrency control techniques that are discussed
in the literature are given below.
A Binary Lock is associated with each database item and the data item is locked
when the data is accessed. This scheme is too restrictive for database items, because at most
one transaction can hold a lock on a given item which reduces throughput. A Shared/Exclusive
(Read/Write) Lock can read-lock the data item, while other transactions are allowed to read
the data item. A write-lock is exclusively held on the data item . In Two Phase locking all
locking operations precede the first unlock operation in the transaction and this scheme
requires clients to communicate continuously with the server to obtain locks and detect the
conflicts .
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In timestamp ordering each transaction has an ordered list of actions. Before the
transaction performs its action, it is marked with current timestamp. Based on the timestamp,
transactions are serialized. Concurrency control with dynamic time stamp
adjustment protocol requires client side write operations. However because of the delay in
execution of a transaction, it may never be executed . In Mobile speculative locking protocol
is introduced to reduce the blocking of transaction.
This approach requires extra resources. In dynamic timer management is used
for achieving concurrency control. In most of these approaches the basic functionality is
locking of data items. In concurrency control without locking is proposed by introducing
Absolute Validity Interval (AVI) which is a time period in which the data item is said to be
valid. Though this helps in reducing bandwidth and managing disconnections, it calculates
AVI only based on previous update interval. So the AVI is the actual interval in which data is
valid and this technique does not consider the dynamicity of the life time of the data. In the
proposed method the valid life span of the data item is adjusted based on the predicted
probability of updation of the data item. This technique ensures the predicted life span of the
data item to be very close to the actual valid life span.

Cache Invalidation Technique

To increase the availability of data and to decrease the network overhead the frequently
accessed data may be cached. The data in the cache must be consistent with data in the actual
database server. So the value in the cache must be invalidated appropriately when the data
item is updated in the database. Barbara and Imielinski, in one of the earliest works in this
area, proposed three different variants of their approach – Broadcasting Timestamp (TS),
Amnesic Terminals (AT) and Signatures (SIG) - depending on the expected duration of
network disconnection .

However, it is found that the algorithms are effective only if the clients are
not disconnected for a period exceeding an algorithm specific parameter. Otherwise the entire
cache is assumed to be invalid though some of the cached data items might still be valid. Jing
et. al proposed a bit-sequence scheme (BS) in which the invalidation report consists of bit
sequences associated with a set of timestamps . This approach has the drawback of greater
complexity and much larger invalidation reports than the TS or AT methods, particularly
when the number of data items is larger.

A family of adaptive cache invalidation algorithms is proposed in . The

essence of these algorithms is that the type of invalidation report to be sent (TS or BS) is
determined dynamically based on system status such as disconnection frequency and duration
as well as update and query pattern. In adaptive Absolute Validity Interval (AVI) based cache
invalidation scheme is proposed which significantly reduced mean response time and
invalidation report size. But it assumes that only the data base server issues the invalidation
report on need. It does not deal with applications like MCommerce where even at client end,
invalidation of data items can be indicated.

Reference Architecture
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The Figure 1 shows the reference architecture. It consists of two major components, Mobile
Client (MC) and a Fixed Network. Transactions are initiated and terminated at a mobile host
itself. A host that can move while retaining its network connection is a mobile Client.

A static network consists of fixed hosts and Base stations (BS). The
database server is connected to a wired network and a database is accessed through this
database server.

Figure 1 Reference Architecture

Proposed Transaction Framework

The mobile devices which may involve in simultaneous transaction execution, normally
request data from the database server itself. But since many mobile clients may involve in
simultaneous transaction processing like in railway reservation, multiple simultaneous access
requests may increase network overhead. So to reduce such overhead, the proposed
framework assumes that the fixed hosts that serve the mobile hosts may have cache stored in
it. The cache manager module loaded in it will monitor concurrency control, cache data
invalidation and recovery of dependent transactions.

Concurrency Control

As multiple mobile hosts may access the same data item, the access control to the data item
must be enforced to avoid inconsistency. In the proposed framework the cache manager
module initially fetches the data item from the database server and stores it in the cache. All
subsequent requests for the data item will be serviced by the cache manager itself. The cache
manager stores the data as quintuple in the cache. It is (Did, LUT, PLP, Val, ATC) where
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• Did is a unique-Id of the data item.

• LUT represents the Last updated Time.
• PLP is the Predicted Life Period, i.e. predicted time period in which the data item value is
valid.
• Val denotes the current value of the data item.
• ATC denotes number of affiliated transactions, i.e. number of transactions that
simultaneously access the data item. Initially when the cache manager retrieves the data item
from the server, it sets LUT to the current time, PLP to optimal life time based on the nature of
the data item (if it is stock quote then PLP may be few seconds or if it is available inventory
on any commercial product then few minutes). The number of affiliated transactions is set to
1. When subsequent data access requests are made, ATC
is incremented. The data in the cache is valid as long as it is not updated in the server. Any
mobile client that needs to update the data item makes the update request. When this request
reaches the BS that holds the cache, it updates the data item locally. If simultaneous requests
are made then it needs to resolve it in FIFO order. Once the cache manager updates the data
item locally, it immediately sends the cache invalidation indication to all the mobile clients
and fixed hosts that have already accessed the data item. If almost all mobile clients
participate in transaction execution, the invalidation indication is broadcasted to all mobile
clients.

Flow Diagram
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Performance Analysis

It is understood that the probability of transaction getting aborted is very high in mobile client
based AVI approach. It is because, within AVI interval all mobile clients are allowed to copy
the data items to the local memory and they continue with execution locally resulting in local
updation of the data item. But when more number of mobile clints involve in transaction
execution, only the moble client that first commits the execution is ultimately allowed to
update the data item in the server resulting in abortion of all other transactions.

But in the proposed approach though all the mobile clients are allowed to access the data item
simultaneously within PLP, when one of the clients requests for updation, the cache manager
manages the request and sends invalidation indiacation to all other mobile clients. This forces
all the clients to refresh the value of the data item resulting in reduced probability of aborting a
transaction with decreased cost of transaction execution. The probability rise in the proposed
method is due to the delay in transmission of invalidation indication. This is increased as more
number of mobile clients get involved in transaction processing. But the increase is
comparatively low and acceptable.
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Analysis of probability to abort transactions

Conclusion

The proposed transaction framework ensures concurrency control without locking, with
dynamic PLP of data item that increases the transaction throughput. This also provides
decreased response time as the cache is maintained in the fixed host. This results in reduced
complexity in mobile device with notable reduction in probability of aborting transactions.
Thus proposed frame work assures increased throughput, reduced complexity in mobile
clients, improved response time and significant reduction in transaction abortion.