Chapter One

1. What is Anatomy?
Anatomy is the study of the structures of body parts and how they relate to
one another
2. What is Physiology?
Physiology is the study of the function of those body parts.
3. What different types of Anatomy are there?
a. Gross Anatomy: study of large body structures visible to the naked eye
b. Systematic Anatomy: Anatomy studied system by system
c. Regional Anatomy: All the structures in a particular region of a body
d. Surface Anatomy: the study of internal structures and how they relate to
the skin surface
e. Microscopic Anatomy: Structures too small to see with the naked eye
• Histology: the study of tissues
• Cytology: the study of cells
f. Developmental Anatomy: Structural changes that occur in the body
throughout the lifespan.
• Embryology: developmental changes that occur before birth.
4. What is the principle of complementary of structure and function?
What a structure can do (function) depends on it’s specific form
(structure)
5. What are the levels of structural organization?
Chemical -> Cellular -> Tissue -> Organ -> Organ System -> Organism
6. What is necessary to maintain life functions?
Maintaining boundaries: meaning the outside of the body must stay
separated from the internal body structures.
Movement: activities promoted by the muscular system.
Responsiveness: the ability to sense changes in an environment and
respond accordingly to them.
Digestion: Breaking down of food substances into molecules that
distribute nutrients into the body.
Metabolism: All chemical reactions that occur within the body.
Excretion: Removing waste from the body via the digestive system.
Reproduction: Makin babies.
Growth: getting taller
7. What are the 11 organ systems?
Cardiovascular
Blood vessels transport blood while the heart pumps the blood
Lymphatic
Red bone marrow, thymus, lymphatic vessels, thoracic duct,
spleen, lymph nodes. This system is basically the immune system.
Digestive
Oral Cavity, esophagus, liver, stomach, small intestine, large
intestine, rectum, anus. This system breaks down food and
eliminates foodstuffs that are indigestible as feces.
Reproductive
 Male: prostate gland, penis, testis, scrotum, ductus deferens.
Female: Mammary glands, ovary, uterus, vagina, uterine tube
Respiratory
Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, lung, bronchus. Keeps
blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon
dioxide.
Nervous
Brain, spinal cord, nerves. Fast-acting control system of the body

Muscular
Skeletal muscle- allows manipulation of the environment,
locomotion and facial expression.
Integumentary
Hair, skin, and nails. Forms the external body covering and
protects deeper tissues from injury.
Urinary
Kidney, Ureter, Urinary bladder, Urethra. Eliminates nitrogenous
wastes from the body.
Endocrine
Pineal gland, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, thymus, adrenal gland,
pancreas, ovary, testis. Glands secrete hormones that regulate
processes like growth, reproduction, and metabolism by body cells.
Skeletal
Bones and joints. Protects and supports the body organs and
provides an overall framework for the muscles used to cause
movement. Also used in mineral storage.
8. What are our survival needs?
Nutrients, Oxygen, Water, Normal Body Temperature, Appropriate
Atmospheric Pressure.
9. What is homeostasis?
The ability to maintain stable internal conditions even though the external
conditions are constantly changing.
10. What are the components of homeostatic control?
 11. What are negative feedback systems?
Most homeostatic control mechanisms are negative feedback mechanisms,
the output shuts off the original effect of the stimulus or reduces it’s
intensity.
12. What are positive feedback systems?
The result or response enhances the original stimulus so that the response
is accelerated. An example is when you cut your skin and your blood starts
to clot.
13. What are the terms discussed to indicate anatomical position, regions and
directions?

Pg. 12
Chapter 3
14. What are tight junctions and how to they work?
Tight junctions form an impermeable membrane that encircles the cell.
They help prevent molecules from passing through the extracellular space
between adjacent cells.
15. Where are tight junctions found?
Tight junctions between epithelial cells line the digestive tract keeping
digestive enzymes and microorganisms in the intestine from seeping into
the bloodstream.
16. What are Desmosomes?
Desmesomes are anchoring junctions between cells. They’re abundant in
tissues that are subject to great mechanical stress like the skin and the
heart muscle.
17. What are Gap Junctions?
Gap junctions are communicating junctions between cells. They are
present in electrically excitable tissues like the heart, and smooth muscle
where ion transport from cell to cell helps synchronize their electrical
activity and contraction.
Chapter 4
18. What is epithelial tissue?
Epithelial tissue is a sheet of cells that coves the body surface or lines the
internal surfaces of the body. It occurs in the body as covering or lining of
the epithelium and secondly as glandular epithelium.
19. What is the function of epithelial tissue?
 It’s function is protection, absorption, filtration, excretion, secretion, and
sensory reception.
20. What are the special characteristics of epithelial tissue?
Polarity: all epithelial tissues have an apical surface and a basal surface.
Most apical surfaces are lined with microvilli (which extend the surface
size of epithelial tissue) While others have cilia that help propel
substances along their free surfaces, such as the digestive system.
Specialized Contacts: (except for glandular epithelium) All epithelium fit
closely together to form tight sheets- connected by tight junctions and
desmosomes.
Supported by Connective Tissue: All are supported by connective tissues.
Just deep to the basal lamina is the basement membrane which reinforces
the epithelial sheet, helping it to resist stretching and tearing forces while
defining the epithelial boundary.
Avascular but Innervated: Epithelial tissue is innervated (supplied by
nerve fibers) it is also avascular (contains no blood vessels)
Regeneration: They reproduce themselves quickly.
21. How are these cells classified?
The first name indicates the number of cell layers present and the second
layer describes the shape of it’s cells.
Simple = single layer
Stratified = more than one layer
Squamous = flat cell
Cuboidal = cube shaped cell
Columnar = column shaped cell

22. Different types of Epithelial Tissue:

Simple Squamous epithelial tissue- found in the kidney, air sacs of
lungs, lining of heart, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels, lining of
ventral body cavity. The function allows this epithelial tissue passage of
materials by diffusion and filtration in sites where protection is not
important.
Simple Cuboidal Epithelial Tissue- Found in kidney tubules, ducts and
secretory portions of small glands, ovary surfaces. The function of this
epithelial tissue is secretion and absorption.
Simple Columnar Epithelial Tissue- Nonciliated type lines most of the
digestive tract (stomach and anal canal) gallbladder and excretory ducts of
 some glands, ciliated variety lines small bronchi, uterine tubes and some
regions of the uterus.
Pseaudostratified Columnar Epithelium- noncliliated type found in
males sperm-carrying ducts and ducts of large glands; ciliated type lines
the trachea, most of the upper respiratory tract.
Stratified Squamous Epithelium- Non-keratinized type forms the moist
linings of the esophagus, mouth and vagina; keratinized type forms the
epidermis of the skin, a dry membrane.
Transitional Epithelium- Lines the ureters, urinary bladder, and part of
the urethra. The function of this epithelial tissue stretches readily and
permits distension of urinary organ by contained urine. My favorite:)
23. What is connective tissue?
Connective tissue is found everywhere in the body, it is the most abundant
and widely distributed of the primary tissues.
24. What are connective tissue’s special characteristics?
-Connective tissue all arise from mesenchyme (an embryonic tissue)
-All connective tissue have different degrees of vascularity, cartilage is
avascular, dense connective tissue is poorly vascularized, but the other
types of connective tissue have rich blood supplies.
-All connective tissue has an extracellular matrix which allows connective
tissue to withstand great tension and endure abuses.
25. What are the classifications of connective tissue?
- Connective tissue proper
- Cartilage
- Bone tissue
- Blood
26. What are the main functions of connective tissue?
- Binding and support
- Protection
- Insulation (and as blood)
- Transportation of substances within the body
27. What are the structural elements of connective tissue?
- Ground substance (unstructured material that fills the space between
cells and contains the fibers)
- Collagen fibers which are made of collagen
- Elastic fibers which are long thin fibers that form branching networks in
the extracellular matrix. They contain elastin which allows them to stretch;
elastic fibers stretch connective tissue back to its normal shape.
- Reticular fibers are short, fine, collagenous fibers that branch extensively
surrounding small blood vessels and supporting soft tissue of organs.
- Fibroblast: found in connective tissue proper
- Chondroblast: found in cartilage
- Osteoblast: found in bone
(after these cells assume their less active mature state they get the suffix
cyte)
- Mast Cells: these cells detect foreign microorganisms (bacteria) and
initiate local inflammatory responses.
- Macrophages: are large irregularly shaped cells that eat foreign particles
found within the cell.

28. What are the different types of connective tissue?

Print off page 123 table 4.1
29. What is muscle tissue?
Highly cellular, well-vascularized tissues that are responsible for most
types of body movement. Muscle fibers have myofilaments. There are
three types of muscle tissue: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth.
30. What is nervous tissue?

31. What are exocrine glands?

All exocrine glands secrete their products onto the skin surface or into
body cavities. The unicellular glands do this by exocytosis.
32. What are the different types of unicellular exocrine glands?
Mucous cells and goblet cells which produce mucin. Which when this is
combined with water produces mucus.
33. What are the different types of multicellular exocrine glands?
They all have two basic parts: an epithelium derived duct and a secretory
unit. Most multicellular exocrine glands are merocrine glands, meaning
they secrete their products by exocytosis as they are produced. The other
type of multicellular exocrine glands is holocrine glands- which
accumulate their product until they rupture (they die for their cause)
 34. Know the following:
Cutaneous- skin
Mucosus (or mucosae)- membrane that line body cavities that open to the
exterior.
Serous (or serosae)- moist membranes found in closed ventral body
cavities.
Chapter 5
35. What are the components of our skin (integument)?
Consists of three major regions
Epidermis – outermost superficial region
Dermis – middle region
Hypodermis (superficial fascia) – deepest region
36. What are the cells of the epidermis?
Keratinocytes- produces keratin, which gives the epidermis it’s protective
properties.
Melanocytes- produces the pigment melanin
Epidermal dendritic cells (langerhans cells)- arise from bone marrow and
migrate to the epidermis, they ingest foreign substances and are key
activators of our immune system.
Tactile (Merkel) cells – intimately associated with a disclike sensory nerve
ending, these cells act as a sensory receptor for touch.
37. What are the layers of thin skin?
38. What are the layers of thick skin? And where is this thick skin found?
Stratum Corneum
Stratum Lucidum
Stratum Granulosum
Stratum Spinosum
Stratum Basale
Thick skin is ONLY found on the palms, fingertips, and soles of the feet
39. What cells are found on each layer of thick/thin skin?
Stratum Corneum- dead cornified or horny cells.
Stratum Granulosum- Keratinocytes
Stratum Spinosum- Epidermal dendritic cell
Stratum Basale- actively mitotic stem cells, Melanocytes.
40. What is the Dermis?
Second major skin region containing strong, flexible connective tissue.
Composed of two layers – papillary and reticular.
Cell types include fibroblasts, macrophages, and occasionally mast cells
and white blood cells.
41. What are the components of the papillary layer?
Areolar connective tissue with collagen and elastic fibers
Its superior surface contains peglike projections called dermal papillae
Dermal papillae contain capillary loops, Meissner’s corpuscles, and free
nerve endings
42. What are the components of the Reticular layer?
Accounts for approximately 80% of the thickness of the skin
Collagen fibers in this layer add strength and resiliency to the skin
Elastin fibers provide stretch-recoil properties
43. What pigments are associated with skin color?
Melanin – yellow to reddish-brown to black pigment, responsible for dark
skin colors
-Freckles and pigmented moles – result from local accumulations
of melanin
Carotene – yellow to orange pigment, most obvious in the palms and soles
of the feet
Hemoglobin – reddish pigment responsible for the pinkish hue of the skin
44. Where are Melanin, Carotene, and Hemoglobin generated?
Melanin is made in the skin. Carotene is made in certain plants, like
carrots. Hemoglobin is found in the red blood cells circulating through the
dermal cavity.
45. What are the different types of sweat glands?
Eccrine sweat glands – are coiled, tubular glands found in palms, soles of
the feet, and forehead (these sweat glands form the pores of a person’s
complexion which are actually the external outlets of hair follicles) these
glands help prevent overheating of the body.
 Apocrine sweat glands – found in axillary and anogenital areas. They are
merocrine glands which release their product by exocytosis. Their ducts
empty into the hair follicle. This is what produces body odor.
Ceruminous glands – modified apocrine glands in external ear canal that
secrete cerumen
Mammary glands – specialized sweat glands that secrete milk
46. What are sebaceous glands?
Are simple branched alveolar glands that are found all over the body
except in the thick skin of the palms and soles. These glands secrete an
oily substance called sebum, and release sebum as holocrine glands do.
The function of sebaceous glands are to lubricate the hair and skin,
prevent hair from becoming brittle, and slows down water loss from the
skin when the external humidity is low. It also has a bacterial killing
action.
47. What are the components of hair follicles?
Filamentous strands of dead keratinized cells produced by hair follicles
Contains hard keratin which is tougher and more durable than soft keratin
of the skin
Made up of the shaft projecting from the skin, and the root embedded in
the skin
Consists of a core called the medulla, a cortex, and an outermost cuticle
Pigmented by Melanocytes at the base of the hair
48. What is the function of hair follicles?
Helping to maintain warmth
Alerting the body to presence of insects on the skin
Guarding the scalp against physical trauma, heat loss, and sunlight
49. What is the structure of a hair follicle?
Root sheath extending from the epidermal surface into the dermis
Deep end is expanded forming a hair bulb
A knot of sensory nerve endings (a root hair plexus) wraps around each
hair bulb
Bending a hair stimulates these endings; hence our hairs act as sensitive
touch receptors
50. What are the different types of hair?
Vellus – pale, fine body hair found in children and the adult female
Terminal – coarse, long hair of eyebrows, scalp, axillary, and pubic
regions
51. How does hair grow?
Each follicle goes through a growth cycle. In each cycle an active growth
phase, ranging from weeks to years, is followed by a regressive phase.
During that regressive phase the matrix cells die. The follicle then enters a
resting phase for one to three months, and then continues to grow.
52. What is alopecia, and how is it different from true baldness?
Alopecia is where the hair follicles are not replaced as fast as they shed.
True baldness is a genetically determined, sex-influenced condition.
caused by follicular response to DHT.
 53. What are the components of nails?
Scale like modification of the epidermis on the distal, dorsal surface of
fingers and toes.

54. What are the functions of the integumentary system?

Protection – chemical, physical, and mechanical barrier
Body temperature regulation is accomplished by:
i. Dilation (cooling) and constriction (warming) of dermal
vessels
ii. Increasing sweat gland secretions to cool the body
Cutaneous sensation – exoreceptors sense touch and pain
Metabolic functions – synthesis of vitamin D in dermal blood vessels
Blood reservoir – skin blood vessels store up to 5% of the body’s blood
volume
Excretion – limited amounts of nitrogenous wastes are eliminated from the
body in sweat
55. What are the three classes of burns?
First-degree – only the epidermis is damaged
i. Symptoms include localized redness, swelling, and pain
Second-degree – epidermis and upper regions of dermis are damaged
ii. Symptoms mimic first degree burns, but blisters also appear
Third-degree – entire thickness of the skin is damaged
iii. Burned area appears gray-white, cherry red, or black; there is
no initial edema or pain (since nerve endings are destroyed)
56. Why are third degree burns so dangerous?
Fluid loss and infection, which is why skin grafting must usually take
place with third- degree burns.
Chapter 6
57. What is the structure of skeletal cartilage(s)?
Surrounded by the perichondrium (dense irregular connective tissue) that
resists outward expansion.
58. What are the types of skeletal cartilage?
hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage.
59. Where is hyaline cartilage found? And what is its function?
Provides support, flexibility, and resilience
Is the most abundant skeletal cartilage
Is present in these cartilages:
i. Articular – covers the ends of long bones
 ii. Costal – connects the ribs to the sternum
iii. Respiratory – makes up larynx, reinforces air passages
iv. Nasal – supports the nose
60. Where is Elastic cartilage found? And what is it’s function?
Similar to hyaline cartilage, but contains elastic fibers, it’s Found in the
external ear and the epiglottis (flap thing)
61. Where is fibrocartilage found? And what is its function?
Highly compressed with great tensile strength
Contains collagen fibers
Found in menisci of the knee and in intervertebral discs
62. How does cartilage grow?
Appositional – cells in the perichondrium secrete matrix against the
external face of existing cartilage
Interstitial – lacunae-bound chondrocytes inside the cartilage divide and
secrete new matrix, expanding the cartilage from within
Calcification of cartilage occurs
i. During normal bone growth
ii. During old age
63. What is the difference between the axial skeleton and the apical skeleton?
The axial skeleton contains the bones of the axial region; the body bones
of the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage
The apical skeleton contains the bones of the upper and lower limbs,
shoulder, and hip
64. What are the different classifications of bones?
Long bones- longer than they are wide
(e.g., humerus)
Short bones- Cube-shaped bones of the wrist and ankle. Bones that form
within tendons- sesamoid bones (e.g., patella)
Flat bones – thin, flattened, and a bit curved (e.g., sternum, and most skull
bones)
Irregular bones- bones with complicated shapes (e.g., vertebrae and hip
bones)
65. What are the functions of bones?
Support – form the framework that supports the body and cradles soft
organs
Protection – provide a protective case for the brain, spinal cord, and vital
organs
Movement – provide levers for muscles
Mineral storage – reservoir for minerals, especially calcium and
phosphorus
Blood cell formation – hematopoiesis occurs within the marrow cavities of
bones
66. What are the structure terms associated with a long bone?

67. What are the membranes found within bones?

Periosteum – double-layered protective membrane
i. Outer fibrous layer = dense regular connective tissue
ii. Inner osteogenic layer composed of osteoblasts and osteoclasts
iii. Richly supplied with nerve fibers, blood, and lymphatic
vessels, which enter the bone via nutrient foramina
iv. Secured to underlying bone by Sharpey’s fibers
Endosteum – delicate membrane covering internal surfaces of bone
68. How is an osteon organized?
Haversian system (or osteon) – the structural unit of compact bone
i. Lamella – weight-bearing, column-like matrix tubes composed
mainly of collagen
ii. Haversian, or central canal – central channel containing blood
vessels and nerves
iii. Volkmann’s canals – channels lying at right angles to the
central canal, connecting blood and nerve supply of the
periosteum to that of the Haversian canal