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Modern telecommunications user companies often purchase one product from vendor A, another product from vendor B, and so
forth. No single vendor necessarily integrates the entire end-to-end transmission project. The telecommunications user company
must design its own facilities, purchase the correct products from the many vendors, install and test the products properly, and
document what it has for future reference. Unfortunately, the first step (engineering design) sometimes is loosely considered until
the installation fails to test correctly. This document addresses engineering planning and design of a T1 repeatered line so service
can be delivered on a more predictable schedule.



The 1.544 Mbps bipolar Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) line signals of T1-type terminal equipment (such as channel banks, data
terminals, and repeatered lines) are designated DS-1, meaning "digital signal first level." At the standard cross-connect point for DS-
1 signals, DSX-1, the voltage level of pulses is about +3 volts and -3 volts. DS-1 means that the signal meets the interface
specification for DS-1 signals (1.544 Mbps, bipolar +3 and -3 volt pulses, 50% duty cycle, etc.). The data pattern means the 192 bits
of payload data contains live traffic (that's 24 time slots and 8 bits per time slot) or some test pattern. After each 192 bits, there is a
framing bit for #193. That bit is either one or zero depending on whether it must follow the special pattern for Superframe Format
(SF, also referred to as D4) or Extended Superframe Format (at this point, the use of SF or ESF is purely at customer discretion
based on the types of channel banks and other network elements present in the network). See Figure 1. This 193-bit frame is
repeated 8000 times per second. This is also called a frame rate of 8 kHz. Each of 24 channels is sampled and transported 8000
times per second. If a terminal receiver cannot determine the start and finish of a frame, then receivers will always be "out of frame
sync" with respect to transmitters and very poor performance is noted. There is one more qualifier on the signal, and that is Line
Code. The two line codes are Alternate Mark Inversion (the old standard) and B8ZS (bipolar eight zero substitution). For network
elements that carry live traffic, this is very important.

Figure 1

What does Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI) mean? In the data communications world, all digital data is either One or Zero,
nicknamed either Mark or Space. If the data bore a pattern of All Ones, then the first One is transmitted on the AMI transmission link
as +3 volt pulse, then the next One as -3 volt pulse, then the next One as +3 volt pulse. In a live traffic signal with mixed Ones and
Zeros, there will be Zeros between the positive and negative pulses as depicted in the following figure. See Figure 2. Internally to
the electronics of equipment, the 1.544 Mbps signal might be unipolar, but everywhere accessible to the user, the signal is bipolar.
DS-1 signals may fall into one of three categories: SF, ESF, and possibly Unframed. Sometimes test equipment will use an
unframed DS-1 test signal to check a transmission facility, but most terminal equipment must be selected for SF or ESF only. If
terminal equipment expects to see SF and it receives ESF instead, it will probably not be able to lock its framer circuit onto the input
signal and everything will stay in alarm.











A T1 repeatered line provides a physical 4-wire transmission path for cable carrier systems that transmit bipolar pulse streams at bit
rates of 1.544 Mbps. At each central office, cable pairs connect to an office repeater. Between offices, line repeaters are located at
nominal spacing of 32 dB at 772 kHz. Automatic line build out (ALBO) equalizers in each repeater can compensate for a range of
losses in the preceding cable section. Note that the following overview diagram (Figure 3) is simplified by the use of one line in each
direction to symbolize one twisted pair of wires. Other diagrams use one line to indicate both directions (two twisted pairs), and still
other diagrams use four lines to indicate both pairs. The nature of the diagram dictates which symbol convention is used. The
triangular symbol indicates a digital regenerator, which is somewhat related to an amplifier. Note that office repeaters use a
regenerator in only one direction, and line repeaters use regenerators in two directions. With this view of DS-1 signals, let's examine
other network elements that may connect.
 Figure 3

A T1 Channel Service Unit (CSU) interfaces a typical piece of customer equipment (such as a channel bank) with a public T1
transmission facility. There are several specific types of CSUs and the most common type has a DS-1 signal interface on each side
of the unit (the Data Terminal side and the Network side). In some respects, this CSU resembles an office repeater; however,
additional diagnostic features are present on most CSU products. One of the most common functions is that of Ones Density
Enforcement (also referred to as Ones Stuffing). Customer DS-1 signals are not allowed onto the public network containing very
long strings of zeros (since there may be network elements that require occasional ones for timing purposes). As a result, most CSU
devices change a zero to one to suppress the 16th consecutive zero, depending on specific requirements for a public facility. If the
traffic has simply voice circuits, an occasional forced error of this sort is a negligible problem. If, on the other hand, the traffic is high-
priority unrestricted data, then an occasional error is not acceptable. If this is the case, then the Line Code must be selected as
B8ZS and not standard AMI. B8ZS uses selected bipolar violations (BPVs) as a means of signaling the far end that strings of zeros
are in the customer data. Therefore, no errors are introduced and the system works fine. If B8ZS Line Code is used, then each and
every network element in the path must be provisioned for B8ZS instead of AMI (or else the element must completely ignore Line
Codes). Note that some T1 office repeaters are aware of B8ZS and others are not aware. Note that these repeaters will not be
disrupted by one line code or the other, but many have BPV monitors that will detect the unintentional BPVs but ignore the
intentional BPVs that are part of B8ZS coding.



 




In most central offices, there is a DSX-1 cross-connect jackfield located between the channel bank and the office repeater, or
between any two dissimilar elements in a whole end-to-end system. The jackfield serves as a maintenance test point for craft people
and as a wire wrap interconnection point between the two elements. See Figure 4. If a transmit port must send a DS-1 signal only
50 to 100 feet to the DSX-1 panel (typical in small equipment rooms), then it can send a "normal" DS-1 signal waveform. That
waveform won't be affected much by only 50 to 100 feet of cable capacitance if the cable is good, so the waveform looks perfect at
the DSX-1 panel when viewed on an oscilloscope. That is the objective, to get a perfect signal waveform presented to the DSX-1
panel. This standard signal is referred to as having a level of 0 dBdsx. A standard signal that has been attenuated by several
hundred feet of cable might have a level of -3 dBdsx.
 Figure 4

Looking at the outbound DS-1 signal going from the terminal equipment toward the span line, if it is perfect at the DSX-1 panel, then
it gets minimally affected by the 50 to 100 feet of cable capacitance, so the signal still looks fairly normal at the receiver. Often the
assumption is made that the transmit cable distance to the DSX-1 is the same as the receive cable distance from the DSX-1 (on the
same side of the DSX-1). If the cable distance to the DSX-1 is much longer, say 655 feet, and then a normal signal is going to be
attenuated and "rounded off" due to cable capacitance. In many pieces of equipment, a pre-equalizer is used in the DS-1 interface
on the transmit port. This pre-equalizer "sharpens up" the pulse edges to exaggerated amplitudes. This is launched down through
the 655 feet of cable and the sharp edges become smoothed down ("rolled off") due to cable capacitance. When it arrives at the
DSX-1 panel, it should be exactly a perfect waveform (see Figure 5). When the signal comes into an office repeater port after
passing 655 feet of cable from the DSX-1, it can be successfully received without errors. It might be possible to attenuate the signal
even more without degradation, say from 700 or 800 feet, but errors in transmission might also appear (which would be
unacceptable). It depends on the specific equipment and cable in use. Some types of Inside Plant equipment are only capable of
transmitting and receiving a signal through 0 to 133 feet to the DSX-1 panel. It is relatively important to have each and every
network element meeting the "perfect waveform" mask, which is an industry standard.
 Figure 5

The idea is to consider each direction of signal flow. Know what type of cable is in use and roughly what its attenuation
characteristics are (22 gauge ABAM cable has a nominal capacitance of 14 to 16 pF/foot @ 772 kHz). Also consider that a 24
gauge cable has approximately 25% higher attenuation than standard 22 gauge. Know what signal levels should be present at each
point and what the receive sensitivity is for each device. Many problems are traced to the use of cable that is not intended for T1
use. Office repeaters are somewhat more complex, since they have one set of capabilities on the Equipment side (inside) and one
set on the Facility side (outside). A typical office repeater has a digital regenerator only on the receive side (receive from facility),
and has enough sensitivity to regenerate a signal from a line repeater that is about 3000 to 4000 feet away. It has a typical inside
cable specification for 0 to 655 feet, depending on the exact pre-equalization. See Figure 6.









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Pulses generated by the terminal equipment (e.g. channel bank) and repeaters are subject to distortion by attenuation and phase
characteristics of the cable. In the line and office repeater units, just preceding the actual regenerator is an ALBO equalizer which
restores adequate pulse shape for detection and regeneration. Pulses generated in the terminal equipment must reach the office
repeater in a predictable fashion even if it is in the same room. In many office repeaters, the line build out (LBO) setting tells it
through how many feet of cable the signal has traveled since the DSX-1 cross-connect. The office repeater adapts to that
attenuated signal. Most LBO settings assume the use of 22 gauge twisted-pair cable (with around 14 to 16 pF per foot of
capacitance). Note that a 24 gauge cable has approximately 25% more loss than 22 gauge. By default, many office repeaters are
shipped set for 0 to 133 feet of cable (assuming 22 gauge). For transmission calculations, the cable attenuation at 772 kHz is used.
This is half of the 1.544 Mbps clock rate, but this is valid because the power spectrum of the pulse stream is maximum at
approximately 772 kHz.




Pulses sent along the repeatered line are regenerated at each repeater point. The repeater looks at each time slot and decides
whether or not a pulse is present. If the logic circuit determines that there is a pulse, the repeater outputs a new pulse that is free of
noise, distortion, or interference. As a result of many possible factors, a few pulses may be incorrectly regenerated. A Zero is sent
instead of a One, or vice versa. The ratio of error pulses to the total number of time slots is called the error rate or the bit error rate
(BER). One error in 1000 is referred to as BER 10-3. One error in a million is BER 10-6. For strictly voice circuit application to T1, a
BER of 10-6 or 10-7 might be considered acceptable performance, although a BER of 10-8 or 10-9 might be required for some data
purposes. In the most common systems, once live traffic errors have crept into the transmission stream, they cannot be sorted out
or corrected. Error rates tend to accumulate through an end-to-end system, although the rates tend to be low for digital systems
compared to analog systems. The exception to this is found in a few sophisticated microwave radio systems where forward error
correction is used. However, its expense limits application.


 


Each repeater in the series adds a small amount of jitter to every pulse of the bit stream. A conservative limit of 200 tandem
repeaters in a system ensures that the accumulated jitter won't exceed the synchronization capability of terminal equipment or
higher-order multiplexers. Based on the accumulation of error rates in tandem repeater sections, and particularly in end sections
(the repeater section next to the central office), the system should not include more than ten tandem span lines (nine intermediate
offices).




Long-range design of the span line is necessary to plan the expected cross section of the span. The selection of one-cable or two-
cable operation, locations for the line repeaters, and repeater section length will depend on the future requirements of the route.
Also, the cable plant must be carefully studied in terms of the number, type, age of cables; freedom from bridge taps and branches;
splicing integrity; suitability for line repeater locations; and minimum exposure to electrical and mechanical hazards. Major factors
that control the design of the span include:

!Ultimate number of systems within the cable

!Cable pair attenuation at 772 kHz

!Crosstalk coupling loss between cable pairs

"!Central office noise

#!Ambient temperature range

 $

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In normal one-cable operation, low-level repeater inputs and high-level repeater outputs appear at the same point of the cable. As a
result, near-end crosstalk (NEXT) is the limiting factor in repeatered line design. The number of systems that can be installed in a
single cable is mainly controlled by the physical separation of the pairs in the two directions of transmission. Greater separation
increases the coupling loss, resulting in decreased interference. A general rule is that if transmit and receive pairs are in the same
cable binder group, the maximum section loss should be reduced to 15 dB to prevent crosstalk.

In two-cable operation, NEXT does not limit the number of systems for one cable. The choice of one-cable or two-cable operation is
based on cable route, circuit requirements, availability of suitable cables, and economics.


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A span line includes one or more repeater sections. Typical maximum section loss is 32 dB (normal section) measured at 772 kHz.
In the end section next to the central office, maximum loss is limited to 50 to 70% of the normal loss limit, or about 23 dB. In some
early line repeaters, the ALBO equalizer has a range of 6 dB to 31 dB. See Figure 7. In many newer line repeaters, the ALBO has a
range of 0 dB to 35 dB. This means that the signal can be attenuated through up to 35 dB of cable loss and still become
regenerated properly. In practice, repeater sections are designed with a safety factor of several dB, so spacings of 28 to 32 dB are
quite common.
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The minimum section loss is frequently set at 9 dB because of repeater design and to attenuate reflections. In other words, loss is
generally added via a XMT span pad or via a 7.5 dB equalizer in the office repeater for the end section. Equalizers help control near
end crosstalk (NEXT) by simulating cable attenuation characteristics whereas the pad displays flat loss.

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If a maximum length section is engineered, cable loss should be measured before the final repeater location is established. This
allows for changes and small errors. Note that aerial cable can be exposed to higher ambient temperatures compared to buried
cable and ducted cable. Higher temperature equates to higher copper attenuation and DC resistance. For design purposes, the
losses for aerial cable are estimated at about 5% higher than for buried cable.

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22 AWG PIC, D-shield,
0.083 4.19 4.37
filled
22 AWG PIC, D-shield,
0.083 4.58 4.75
filled
24 AWG PIC, D-shield,
0.083 5.17 5.39
filled
24 AWG PIC, D-shield,
0.083 5.73 5.87
filled

Example: One section of 6250 feet of 22 AWG PIC, D-shield, filled, buried has a loss of approximately 26.2 dB. That leaves a nice
safety margin.

Example: One section of 6000 feet of 24 AWG PIC, D-shield, unfilled, aerial has a loss of approximately 35.2 dB. This exceeds the
line repeater capability and could be a problem performer. This exceeds the 35 dB limit for typical line repeaters.
Example: One end section of 2200 feet of 24 AWG PIC, D-shield, unfilled, buried has a loss of approximately 12.6 dB. This is far
less than the 50% guideline, so it is somewhat wasteful. This should be stretched out.

Example: One end section of 5200 feet of 22 AWG PIC, D-shield, unfilled, aerial has a loss of approximately 24.7 dB. This exceeds
the 70% guideline and should be avoided.

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In the case of a CO to CO T1 repeatered line, there is normally one Originating Office Repeater and one Terminating Office
Repeater. The convention is that the Originating end powers the line with simplex readings of +V and -V, where the -V is typically 10
volts more in magnitude with respect to the +V. If both ends originate power, then there may be a simplex power loop strap set at
one of the line repeaters out in the middle of the span. Note that the voltage will appear at the span line interface even if that is open
loop. Current will not flow into an open loop, however, so the voltage sensed across the 10 ohm current sensing resistor is the best
indication of the validity of the simplex current. The newer ASPR Originating Office Repeaters may be "universal" which means that
a mid-span loop strap is not required and powering is shared by each end.


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In one-cable operation, errors can be caused by NEXT between cable pairs in opposite directions of transmission. Physically
separating the different groups of pairs as much as possible is preferred. Refer to Figure 8. Shortening the repeater spacings will
reduce the level differential and the sensitivity to NEXT. One single T-1 system in a cable has only itself with which to interfere
(transmit signal with respect to receive signal). Twenty systems in a cable makes many more cases for NEXT. Not only does one
single system have itself for interference, but nineteen other systems are also producing NEXT. If a particular cable use is expected
to grow over time to its maximum capacity, then the correct safety margin must be calculated into the design. This cannot be
corrected later.

Figure 8


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As stated earlier, in the end section next to the central office, maximum loss is limited to 50 to 70% of the normal loss limit (32 dB),
or about 23 dB. The 23 dB limit includes the loss in the tip cable and in the office wiring to the line terminating shelf for office
repeaters. If exchange service is mixed in the same cable with T1, then an extra safety factor of 8 dB should be allowed to tolerate
impulse noise. This brings down the end section to a maximum of 15 dB. An end section of 15 dB represents approximately 3700
feet of cable, depending on the exact type. If this cable distance is too short to be economically tolerable, then consider leaving out
the exchange service pairs to gain back the 8 dB safety margin.


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Office wiring typically goes from the cable vault directly to the office repeater shelf, from the office repeater shelf to the Automatic
Protection Switch (if equipped), and from there to the channel bank, radio mux, or other terminal equipment. Along the way, there
may be one or more DSX-1 cross connect panels. Western Electric ABAM cable is a traditional selection to connect among all of
these elements. Use a loss figure of approximately 0.4 dB per 100 feet of office cabling, assuming 22 AWG. Remember that 14 to
16 pF per foot is the normal cable capacitance. Cable with higher capacitance will give you problems on the longer cable runs. CAT
5 LAN cable was not intended for T1, but it has low capacitance, so it makes a good substitute.

In some rural service areas, the incidence of lightning strikes on aerial cable is so frequent that one extra measure is applied at the
cable vault. The outside cable might be 22 gauge and the tip wiring to the line terminating shelf might be 22 gauge, but one short
section of higher gauge (smaller diameter) cable is added at the cable vault. This 25 to 50 foot length of 24 or 26 gauge cable is
called fuse cable. As its name implies, it acts as a fuse element that will open when huge currents from lightning appear. This
technique is effective in keeping lightning surges out of the central office, but it has side effects. The 24 or 26 gauge insert may be
short, but it interjects one extra attenuation factor in cable loss estimation. Further, when the fuse cable opens up, that pair must be
abandoned. That is a lot of work to correct.


2


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If route junctions are present along the cable, then it is advisable to adjust repeater section spacings to place repeater housings at
the junctions. Otherwise, there is greater possibility of signal level differences from adjoining cable branches, which would contribute
to crosstalk. If a "repeaterless junction" is necessary, T1 span pads may be used to equalize levels between branches. See Figure
9. Manufacturers of repeater housings typically offer several configurations depending on number of line repeater units in the "nest,"
whether there are attached stub cables, the length of such stubs, presence or absence of lightning protectors, etc. It often seems as
though each repeater housing vendor has chosen to describe T1 pairs by different methods. Just be aware that in a single direction,
the transmit pair from one repeater becomes the receive pair 6000 feet away. The east-west transmit is separate from the west-east
transmit.

Figure 9


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In most areas, 22 AWG is the preferred cable for most types of T1. In some metropolitan areas, limited 24 AWG and 26 AWG are
used. Keep in mind the different attenuation characteristics of each. Larger sizes, such as 19 AWG, were never very popular for T1
because of the economics of buying copper wire versus buying electronic systems. D-shield is a type of cable with one half of the
pairs (transmit in one direction) organized into one D-shaped half of the cable, as viewed in cross-section. This shielding effectively
makes one-cable operation almost as good as two-cable operation in terms of crosstalk reduction. Consult the cable manufacturers
for complete details. Filled cable contains a gel that prevents ground water from easily leaking into the cable. Although this cable
has higher initial cost, it tends to produce longer cable life in rainy regions. Note that filled cable has slightly different cable
attenuation figure compared to unfilled cable.




T1-class cables are commonly manufactured with multiples of 25-pair bundles. For single-cable operation, the standard choice is
the east-west direction of transmission to be in one bundle and the west-east direction to be in a separate bundle. Furthermore, 104-
pair cables are organized with two bundles for each direction and four pairs for the various voice-frequency circuits associated with
T1 lines (order wire, fault locate, etc.). If the cable does not have this bundle organization, then it becomes necessary to test for
potential crosstalk (distortion factor, or D-factor) from every cable pair to every other cable pair to determine which pairs have the
most coupling loss.


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Although modern line repeaters are very reliable, they are used in a hostile environment (temperature extremes, vibration, lightning,
automobile damage, rodent damage, etc.). As a result, line repeaters can fail any time. Poor cable splicing techniques might lead to
intermittent noise after installation. When channel banks or customer services have gone into alarm at the central office, how long
the service disruption will remain is a function of the restoration technique. Most user companies have implemented spare span
lines within each T1 trunk cable. When a working span begins to fail, the traffic at the ends is rerouted to the spare span line. Some
choose to do this manually (via patch cords) at each attended office. Others who place more value on availability of the span line for
live traffic have chosen to implement automatic transfer equipment.

The Automatic Protective Switch (APS) is located at each end of a span line facility and takes care of signal failure detection and
automatic transfer. APS products generally fall into two categories: one-for-one switching (1:1) or one-for-N switching (1:N). The
term 1:1 means that there is one protection line for each normal working line. Another way of stating this is one standby line and one
normal line. This is most commonly used in ring networks and in applications involving mixed transmission media (one fiber facility
and one copper facility, for example). In contrast, 1:N means that there is one protection line for a number (N) of normal working
lines. In practice, the integer N could be 1, and the upper limit on N may be dozens. The number N is commonly 2 to 8. This type is
most commonly used on "straight T1 cable carrier" applications, especially for subscriber loop carrier.




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If a copper T1 span line has failed, it can be very time-consuming to isolate the fault. Traditional fault location is a technique for
determining precisely which line repeater or cable section has failed within one span line. Fault location utilizes one loaded VF pair
within the T1 cable (T1 pairs are always unloaded).

When central office alarms indicate that a span line has failed, normal traffic is blocked or removed from it at the office repeater. A
special T1 test set injects so-called fault locating codes into the span line. These fault codes contain bipolar violations that are
repeated at a discrete audio frequency. This is most easily thought of as sending T1 frequency modulated with an audio tone. At the
first repeater housing an audio tone filter with frequency "A" is present. There is a special output from each regenerator that is fed to
the audio tone filter. If that regenerator has a good signal containing "A" tone, the tone will pass down through the filter to the loaded
pair named Fault Locate. If tone "A" successfully passes back to the central office and can be read on a meter, then assume that
regenerator #1 is OK.

If tone "B" is sent from the central office, it may be intended for the regenerator in the second repeater housing. If a cable fault has
stopped the signal, then the "B" tone will not get as far as the second repeater (in fact, nothing will if the actual fault is between #1
and #2). The "B" tone will not pass through the filter and the "B" tone will not be measured back at the central office. The technician
can make the assumption that some type of cable problem has occurred between repeaters #1 and #2, possibly including the line
repeater plug-in at #2.

 
 

Fault locating schemes can be developed with a dozen or more audio frequencies to cover very long span lines of many repeaters.
Filter frequencies are usually assigned in alphabetical order along the span line. The newest fault locate test sets are automated to
send all of the frequencies in sequence and monitor the tone receive level for each one. It decides which repeater is likely to have
the fault.

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After traditional fault locating was established, some newer types of T1 line repeaters were invented for the purpose of eliminating
the fault locating filters and the associated cable pair. These non-traditional repeaters had a programmable looping feature which
works fine in principle. However, one big headache occurs after a lightning hit to the cable. Each of these looping repeaters takes a
period to reset itself after the preceding repeater in the series string. For a long repeatered line, this can be a sizable time delay
(minutes).


;

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The order wire is simply a loaded voice frequency pair that runs through the T1 cable and appears inside each line repeater
housing. When one technician is troubleshooting at the remote housing and one technician is at the central office, it is very
convenient to have a place to plug in a technician's telephone ("butt-in phone"). The order wire is typically terminated to an
automatic ring down line at the office repeater area of the central office. If the copper order wire is not implemented, then the
technician at the remote housing must have a two-way radio or cellular telephone with plenty of battery and talk time.


;




Lightning is an electrical discharge pulse in the atmosphere, which averages 20 kA or more in current. Commonly, these discharges
are viewed as a flash from cloud to ground, although it can flash from the ground to the cloud. Once ionization of the atmosphere
occurs, this becomes a luminescent, conductive plasma (a lightning "bolt") sometimes reaching 60,000 degrees F. Lightning can
deliver a tremendous discharge of energy at any grounded object. It can easily explode a tree with a direct strike.

Lightning strikes are somewhat predictable over a geographical region. The isokeraunic level is the number of thunderstorm days
per year. This isokeraunic number varies from over 100 along the Gulf coast of Florida to less than 5 in the Pacific Northwest.
Nevertheless, virtually all areas in North America are subject to lightning strikes to some degree. Exterior equipment, rooftop
equipment, and equipment connected to aerial and buried copper cables are subject to possible damage. In low lightning areas,
protected-type line repeaters are used along aerial cable and unprotected-type line repeaters are used along buried cable. In
contrast, in areas of heavy lightning activity, it is quite common to use protected-type line repeaters regardless of whether the cable
is aerial or buried.

Aerial cables are especially susceptible to lightning strikes. The huge energy pulse from lightning momentarily raises the potential of
ground at that strike point and then travels along the copper pairs to the central office where it finds a lower ground potential. At the
central office, primary protection consists of three-element gas tube protectors, typically installed at the well-grounded protection
frame or near the cable vault. In some central offices, gas tubes are installed at the top of the relay rack with office repeaters.

Primary protectors must be present and grounded properly. Many items of transmission equipment, such as office repeaters, have
secondary protection in the form of solid state surge limiters, but they are not effective if primary protection is bad. When the
lightning voltage causes the primary gas tube to conduct, it represents a short circuit to the span powering regulator.

In a typical T1 transmission line, span power is fed only from the Central Office. In some cases, additional power comes from the far
end unit. During normal operation, the 60 mA simplex current flows normally, the gas tubes sit idly, waiting for a lightning strike, and
the DS1 traffic moves along. In the instant of a lightning strike (somewhere mid-span), the lightning acts as a huge current pulse that
raises the ground potential at that strike location. If the cable is not properly grounded everywhere, the lightning can enter the
copper pairs and flow toward wherever the best ground point might be, which might be toward the nearest Central Office or, in the
other direction, toward the remote end. The lightning might be in the form of a metallic voltage appearing from tip to ring on a pair. It
might be in the form of a metallic voltage appearing from tip to ground or from ring to ground. Or, it might be in the form of a
longitudinal current surge.

If a metallic voltage appears at a three-element gas tube protector (called the primary protector), the tube will fire either tip to
ground, ring to ground, or tip to ring. This assumes that the gas tube is both working and grounded correctly. Some companies,
however, fail to periodically test their gas tubes with a gas tube checker. If measured with a simple meter, gas tubes appear to be an
open circuit whether they are working or not working, making it unreliable. If the gas tube has an improper voltage rating, it will not
work correctly. If the voltage rating is too high, lightning voltage can seep in before it fires (thereby stressing equipment). If the
voltage rating is too low, the normal DC voltage applied, at the simplex power feed end of the span, and is enough to set it off
prematurely, or at least, to hold the gas tube in "glow" mode after the strike (thereby forcing a failure situation after the lightning
strike).

When the gas tube fires on schedule, it is effectively producing a short to ground. If there is some span power feed repeater nearby,
this acts as a dead short on its current loop, which causes a big current surge. Various T1 products have built-in secondary surge
protectors to withstand this secondary surge, called the current surge. But if the primary surge protector is not doing its job, it will
most likely burn out the equipment or anything around it. In some cases, this surge protector is in the form of extra series resistance
to limit current peaks. In other cases, this protector is in the form of a fuse that will open up at a high current point. In yet others, the
protector is a combination resistor and fuse.

As a general rule, however, two-element protectors are not recommended for T1 circuits. Two-element protectors are suitable for
plain old telephone service (POTS) on a two-wire circuit. Due to the nature of T1 and its simplex current loop, equipment may be
damaged through the use of anything other than three-element gas tubes.

Some telephone operating companies have the policy that T1 is only placed on new cables, dedicated for T1. This is because the
headaches of rehabilitating old exchange cable can be severe. The job of eliminating every last bridge tap is difficult on some older
cables. Impulse noise from ordinary analog subscriber loops can become a problem when mixed side-by-side with T1.


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Office repeaters are located at the central office where noise-free -48 VDC power is plentiful. Line repeaters seldom have any local
source of AC or DC power. Instead, the power for line repeater electronics is fed down the copper pairs from the office repeater.
Inside a line repeater, there are two digital regenerators designated side 1 and side 2. Line repeaters are powered by DC current
flow through a loop formed from the simplexes of the two cable pairs associated with side 1 and side. The line repeater must have
current flowing though it in the right polarity for proper operation. In this case, the repeater represents an equivalent resistance of
100 to 120 ohms on a common 60 mA simplex loop. Note that in most cases the loop must be completed at the office repeaters for
this to be a valid loop, and office repeaters must have some type of switch or jumper specifically for this purpose. In a few cases, the
simplex loop is not made this way. Sometimes the power is fed all the way into some CPE terminal equipment and the loop is made
there, but this is not the most common case.

After this simplex power loop is engineered and installed correctly, a voltage drop can be measured across side 1 of a line repeater
(about 7 VDC). Similarly measure from the span receive side of the office repeater to the span transmit side (about 7 to 12 VDC). In
many far end office repeaters, T1 Channel service units, "Smart Jacks" and Network Interface Units (NIUs) that receive power from
the span line, this simplex arrangement presents a voltage drop of 11 to 12 VDC. This is one method of verifying that the current
has the correct polarity. If it is wrong, then the voltage measurement is only 0 to 1 VDC. Here is the way to remember it: The positive
current flows in the same direction as the PCM signal direction. Note that there are alternative schemes of powering each element in
a T1 transmission facility, but the most common one is illustrated here. See Figure 10.
 Figure 10

In the classic T1 repeatered line, the simplex power planning must account for the equivalent DC resistances of office repeaters, line
repeaters, attenuation pads and equalizers, and the copper conductors themselves. The longer the span line is, the more repeaters
must be in series, hence, the more voltage must be applied at one end to feed the current loop. In a short length repeatered line,
this voltage might be only 20 to 30 VDC, but as the length is stretched out to 10 to 15 miles, this might become ±130 VDC. As it gets
extremely long, simplex current might be fed from both ends with the simplex looping back both ways in the middle. If these DC
calculations must be made and there are no further engineering guidelines, assume that 22 gauge cable has an equivalent DC
resistance of about 18 ohms per 1000 feet. Of course, 24 gauge and 26 gauge have much higher resistance. Assume that each line
repeater is 120 ohms and one unpowered office repeater is 170 ohms.

There are small additional resistances for LBO networks and other pads in the circuit, and these must be added into the calculation.
If you know this total equivalent resistance in the loop and you know the current is 60 mA, then apply Ohm's Law to solve for the
minimum necessary voltage. Note that many of the most modern Automatic Span Powering Repeaters simply need local -48 VDC
and they will develop the necessary voltage to regulate 60 mA into the simplex loop up to a maximum loop of 4000 to 4200 ohms.

However, in many high-rise building installations, the T1 span line is rather short, perhaps from the basement equipment room to the
tenth floor. So short, in fact, that no line repeaters are needed. We can name it the Un-repeatered T1 Span Line. In these, we might
see an office repeater at the near end and a "Smart Jack" or Network Interface Unit (NIU) at the far end, only 3000 cable feet away.
In this short span line case, the voltage necessary to drive the simplex current loop is only 20 VDC, but the current loop must still be
connected at the ends for the current flow to be correct. One small aggravation is that experienced T1 transmission people will refer
to simplex power, loop current, simplex voltage, plus a few other terms, and they use these terms interchangeably to mean about
the same thing. Obviously, the voltage applied to a loop resistance yields a loop current. Just keep in mind that equivalent
resistance through cable is based on one twisted pair acting as parallel resistance (resistance of one wire ÷2). However, the simplex
loop current must pass out the cable length then pass back the same length (×2). This, effectively, makes equivalent resistance the
same as one wire for the one-way length.



#;








Pulses sent along the repeatered line are regenerated at each repeater point. The repeater looks at each time slot and decides
whether or not a pulse is present. If the repeater logic determines that there is a pulse, the repeater puts out a new pulse free of
noise, distortion, or interference incurred in the preceding repeater section. Owing to degradation factors, a small number of pulses
may be incorrectly regenerated; that is, a pulse will be transmitted where it was not present or vice versa. The ratio of transmitted
time periods (pulse or no pulse) that are received incorrectly at the end point to the total number of time periods is called the "error
rate."

The total error rate is the arithmetic sum of the error rates of the individual repeater sections. Because of the effect of impulse noise
from central office equipment, end sections (the section nearest the central office) are the principal source of errors and, therefore,
are shortened to increase the signal-to-noise ratio at the office repeater. Between the terminal ends, a maximum error rate of 1 in
106 results in good voice communications. Pulse errors cause transients in the individual voice channels, but at this rate they are
not noticeable to the average listener. On the other hand, a higher error rate of 1 in 105 (BER=10-5) results in acceptable voice
transmission although audible clicks are noticeable. Many data systems are less tolerant of bit errors, and facilities are engineered
to meet error rates of 1 in 108, 109, or 1010 wherever possible. Any bit error on the span line results in a Bipolar Violation (BPV).

There is one specific type of error that could show up in a T1 span line. A BPV occurs as a result of bad wiring connections
anywhere. A normal DS-1 signal uses Alternate Mark Inversion as the line code. In other words, if the terminal data stream is
11111111, then the line code is transmitted as marks (pulses) of alternating polarity, so we would see +1, -1, +1, -1, +1, -1, +1, -1. If
a one BPV has been created, we would see two consecutive pulses of the same polarity. In this case, we might see +1, -1, +1, +1, -
1, +1, -1, +1. B8ZS is a different line code that intentionally sends and receives BPVs in a specific pattern to carry a special meaning
related to 64 kbps Clear Channel unrestricted data. This is often used for Primary Rate ISDN.

Most basic transmission line elements such as line repeaters are completely transparent to any type of framing (SF, ESF, or
otherwise). In contrast, most pieces of DS-1 terminal equipment, such as channel banks, are very sensitive to proper framing
format. Between these two types of elements, there might be intermediate elements, such as higher order multiplexers and
automatic protection switches. These elements may or may not be sensitive to framing format. Some elements even convert from
one framing format to another. A few also have the ability to auto-configure depending on the signal format that is first received.

=

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Normal simplex loop current is 60 mA for modern line repeaters. A few older repeaters use more current (100, 120, or 150 mA).
Occasionally, problems with AC power induction can be overcome by increasing the loop current within the tolerance of the
repeaters. However, in the absence of 60 Hertz induction, most simplex loops are set between 55 mA and 65 mA. Copper cable
tends to have more resistance at higher ambient temperatures (it will take more voltage to drive the constant current through the
loop), so knowing the expected cable temperature extremes for a locality helps set a strategy for optimizing loop current for best
performance. Aerial cable is exposed to much hotter temperatures than buried cable, and this must be calculated into the design.


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NIUs are sometimes referred to as "Smart Jacks" in that they have intelligent functions that are necessary for the demarcation point
between the telco and the customer premises. NIUs bear a strong resemblance to terminating office repeaters that do not feed span
power to the facility. They also bear a resemblance to T1 Channel Service Units (CSUs). Different NIUs have different feature sets,
but diagnostic loopbacks are most commonly found.

The interesting situation is when there are no line repeaters. If the total length of the facility is less than 3000 to 4000 feet, then
probably no mid-span T1 line repeaters are necessary. In that case, the DC polarity might accidentally be applied backwards at the
CO and there is nothing on the copper line to fail until it gets to the NIU. So, if the NIU does not work on Day 1, first establish that
DC is going correctly (this takes a DC voltmeter across the span side, and test for a 6 to 8 VDC voltage drop). Then move to tracing
the high frequency signal. A DS-1 signal at 1.544 MHz is pretty unique and can be traced from point to point with the right kind of
full-featured DS-1 test set, not a "receive only" DS-1 monitor. Remember that simplex current is only seen from the office repeater or
NIU to the outside. Once DS-1 signals are inside the CO, inside from the office repeater, then simplex is no longer present. Inside,
the DS-1 signals are +3 volt and -3 volt pulses with no simplex.



';




Study all associated vendor information and compare to transmission engineering standards for your organization. Prepare a
complete facility sketch, showing all outside plant involved with this project (include cable pairs, repeater housing details, fault locate
scheme, etc.). Prepare a similar sketch of all inside plant involved (include floor plan, bay layout, signal wiring, power wiring, alarms,
etc.). Show transmission calculations that justify repeater spacing for the particular cable. After engineering approval, supply copies
of all sketches to the installation crew, the local central office files, and headquarters files.

Once the installation has been completed, the installation crew must supply "as-built" drawings for files. These may very well be the
original untouched drawings or they may have notations from the crew for the changes that they had to make during installation.
Examples include setting option switches differently to achieve better performance, using different cable pairs from the plan, and
installing plug-in cards into specific slots.

In some operating companies, this is all handled on paper drawings. In others, this is handled exclusively with electronic files.


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Every installation team and maintenance technician must have a good T1 bit error rate test (BERT) instrument. In many cases, a
single BERT is adequate, but in other cases having one BERT at each end of a facility is an advantage. The primary BERT must
have transmit and receive capability. Often, receive-only T1 monitor instruments are useful in conjunction with the primary set. The
best BERTs feature two receive ports instead of one. The second port becomes handy for a synchronization troubleshooting
situation.

For 98% of troubleshooting, all that is needed is a good BERT. One of the most common test instruments is generically called a T-
BERD and is manufactured by TTC. In a really complex case of "finger-pointing" over the exact DS-1 waveform, the only way to
solve it is to use a good high-frequency dual trace oscilloscope. With an oscilloscope, use two calibrated high-impedance probes set
for A-B, or differential mode. Tie the two probe grounds together at the logic ground of the device under test. That way you can see
if there is a DC offset voltage present.

c



There are many brands of DS-1 test sets. A typical example is the TTC FireBERD 209. It has buttons and indicators on the front
panel. When the user is trying to test from a CO out to a Larus NIU, he might insert the 209 signal at the office repeater and send
the so-called Loop-Up Code. Keep in mind that there are several varieties of these codes for loopback purposes. Different products
of different vintages use different loop codes to accomplish this function. There are four-bit, five-bit, and six-bit codes. Just because
the technician pushes the button for Send Loop Up, he may not know exactly what code he is sending. If it happens to be the wrong
code for the Larus unit, it won't be recognized, and that will cause confusion. Some test sets, like the 209, will allow you to walk
down through detailed menus until you can see exactly what code bits are sent from that particular set. Just make sure you know.


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Is this a new installation problem or troubleshooting existing equipment? What are all of the basic symptoms? If you can't get the
symptoms clear enough to write them down in black and white, you will have trouble explaining it to any other troubleshooter. Has
the product practice or user manual been read and understood? Was this caused by a human error, such as accidentally bumping a
working pair of wires? Wires can break. What was the last thing that happened before the symptoms were seen? Segment the
problem and solve the segments before you solve the big picture.

Keep in mind that there is a standard terminology problem that always exists around the telephone industry. In some places T & R
indicates Tip and Ring, which identifies one wire from the other wire in a two-wire pair (don't confuse the term ?@ with the term
?
@). In other places T & R indicates Transmit and Receive. Frequently these are not single wires. In DS-1, these are
Transmit pair and Receive pair. Of the Transmit pair, there is a ?@ wire and a ?@ wire. We could just as easily call them
Transmit pair, wire A and wire B. But by some tradition, they were named  and . Sometimes on a schematic they are named
cc and c (for c
c

c
) and then c and  (for 
c


). On still other
equipment these are named T and R on the transmit pair and T1 and R1 on the receive pair. Again, remind yourself that
theTransmit signal at the near end becomes the Receive signal at the far end. In some places Transmit is abbreviated as XMT or Tx
and Receive is abbreviated as RCV or Rx. There is no consistency, so be aware.

Another set of terms is East and West. In the early days of long-distance circuits, AT&T Long Lines developed standard terminology
to explain what long-haul equipment at one town was connected to what equipment at the next town, etc. So they arbitrarily called
all transmission directions either East-West or West-East. So it is quite common to be tracking a signal from one Office Repeater
Shelf marked "East," meaning this is facing the span to the east. It might then go to another Office Repeater Shelf marked "West,"
meaning this is facing the span to the west. It is often more foolproof to simply draw lots of arrows on a circuit diagram, indicating
the direction of all signals.

7

6
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With DS-1 signals inside the Central Office, you have to verify where the framing format is SF (also erroneously called D4) or ESF.
On a few products, it doesn't matter too much (they automatically detect and set SF/ESF), but it is good to know (i.e. line repeaters
and office repeaters generally don't care). You have to verify whether the Line Coding is AMI or B8ZS. On most products, this
matters. It is good to sketch in these attributes onto the overall facility sketch as you go along. Verify all option settings.

$


Exact symptoms are extremely important. An intermittent problem is much harder to fix than a constant problem. If it is intermittent,
then its pattern of occurrence must be made reproducible. In other words, if it fails once per day every day, then that means
something. If it fails only on the hottest day of the year, then that means something different. If it is an intermittent noise problem on
a DS-1 circuit, then this is a little tougher. In general with an intermittent signal, if you can keep testing it until you can get it to fail
consistently, you are half-way to solving the problem. To a large extent on DS-1 signals,either it works, or it doesn't work at all.
Rarely is there a marginal noisy problem except with grounding problems. If we have a problem with a poor logic bit error rate, then
that can be tracked down. "The test signal measures perfect at A, then again at B, but it is poor at C." We can then concentrate on
the B to C connection. If there is a problem with Bipolar Violations (BPVs), then this means something.

If you see a "clean" BER with one legal DS-1 test pattern, then you see a "dirty" BER with another legal pattern, often this is a clue
to a bridge tap on the copper pair.

As a general rule, BPVs are generated from two sources. One is a poorly performing T1 line repeater or bad copper T1 line pairs.
The other source is the last ten feet of line coming into the failing product. Very commonly, there is a problem with the last few feet
of DS-1 jumper wires, like a single broken wire (not a broken pair) at a wire-wrap post.Or maybe a9
9 (a wire where the plastic
insulation has been sliced off to reveal the shiny, tinned, copper conductor). Shiners can easily make an intermittent short to a
grounded shelf or anything else. Thermal intermittents are hard to reproduce without a lab temperature chamber. A can of freeze
spray can help once in a while, but this is unusual. Fortunately, thermals are not that common anymore with modern low-power
components. Another easy test is to tap an intermittent shelf with the handle of a screwdriver to see if some intermittent component
will produce a bit error. If you can get an intermittent problem to the point where you can consistently make it come or go, then you
are halfway to solving the problem.


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Many systems and products include complete documentation, covering acceptance testing. Individual circuit packs may have their
own segmented "card-level" tests, but after everything is hooked up end-to-end, a real-world test must be made to verify that the
entire system is fully ready to support live traffic. For many T1 transmission systems, the bit error rate tests use QRSS (Quasi
Random Signal Sequence pattern). There may be a different test strategy for each different type of T1 product, but a few common
strategies are suggested in the following figure, Figure 11. The exact error-free performance requirements vary from one location to
another, but if there are no other guidelines to use, start with BER of 10-8 or better if the live traffic contains only voice channels. If
data channels are present, try to start with BER of 10-10 or better. Over some facilities, still better performance can be measured,
but it takes a tremendous amount of time. For normal telco transmission facilities, acceptance tests are commonly run for periods of
a few hours at most. It is most important to record all information regarding the acceptance tests. It is good form to include a copy of
the product practice that lists the test procedure along with the actual results and a sketch of how the tests were run. Acceptance
tests should be kept on file in every central office or equipment room.
 Figure 11


 ;
5

, 

,)

Analog to digital conversion

, %

Adaptive differential pulse code modulation
Alarm indication signal; a signal transmitted in lieu of the normal signal to maintain transmission continuity, and indicates to the
,


receiving terminal that there is a transmission fault located upstream or at the transmitting terminal
,*

Automatic line build out
,%

Alternate mark inversion
,(

American National Standards Institute
,

Automatic protection switch
,

Automatic span powering repeater
,<5

American wire gauge
Bipolar eight zero substitution; a line coding scheme to substitute 000 + - 0 - + for 00000000 if the preceding pulse was +, and 000 -
*2A


+ 0 + - for 00000000 if the preceding pulse was -. Done to maintain ones density
*

Bit error rate

*c

Bit error rate test

*

Bell Operating Company
$

Bits per second1
*=

Bipolar violation; the detection of any isolated error, whether it deletes a pulse or adds a pulse
1Clear channel capability; allows unrestricted data bearing any number of consecutive zeros to pass through a transmission facility.



This usually requires B8ZS line coding on all elements


Central office; of a telephone company; the location of the switching center


C oder-decoder; converts analog voice to digital and vice-versa


Customer premises equipment
Cyclic Redundancy Check; a method of detecting the existence of errors in the transmission of a digital signal using polynomial



division
>

Channel Service Unit; the interface from CPE to the public T-1 line
"

Fourth generation digital channel bank
Digital access and cross-connect system; a digital switching device for routing T-1 lines and possibly DS-0 portions of lines, among
, 


multiple T-1 ports
*

Decibel
*&

Decibels with respect to the standard level at the DSX-1 cross-connect


Direct current; battery power


Digital loop carrier
 +

Digital signal, level 0; 64 kilobits per second, the international standard rate for digitized voice channels


Digital signal, level 1; 1.544 megabits per second, the North American standard
 

Digital signal, level 3; 44.736 megabits per second, the North American standard
>

Digital service unit; converts RS232, RS422, or V.35 terminal interface data to DSX-1 interface
/

Digital service cross connect, level 1; part of the DS-1 specification
c%ß

Dual tone multi-frequency; TOUCHTONE dialing, as opposed to rotary dialing
B%

Signaling leads on a voice tie line; known as Ear and Mouth
Extended Super Frame, a DS-1 framing format of 24 frames. In this format, 2 Kbps are used for framing pattern sequence, 4 Kbps
ß


are used for the Facility Data Link, and the remaining 2 Kbps are used for CRC
ß*

Framing bit
ß

Federal Communcations Commission
ß

Facility data link; an embedded overhead channel within the ESF format
ß

Forward error correction
3C

Hertz, cycles per second
(

Integrated Services Digital Network
/

Interexchange carrier; a long distance telephone company (not a LEC)
-,

Kiloamperes
-3C

Kilohertz, thousands of cycles per second
,c,

Local access and transport area


Local exchange carrier
%"

Multiplexer that converts one DS-1 line to 24 voice channels for a C.O.
%""

Multiplexer that converts one T-1 of 44 ADPCM channels into two T-1s with PCM encoding
,

Milliamperes
%3C

Megahertz
%&

Multiplexer
(

Network interface; demarcation point between the public network and CPE
(>

Network interface unit; the unit installed at the demarcation which provides loopback test capabilities
ß

Out of frame


Out of synchronization or else out of service
,%

Pulse amplitude modulation
*/

Private branch exchange; a private telephone switching system
 %

Pulse code modulation
ß

Picofarads, a measure of capacitance PIC Polyethylene insulated conductor


Private line; a leased line, not switched


Point of presence; termination of long distance line from a long distance carrier at a central office
c

Plain old telephone service
c(

Public switched telecommunications network
±

Quasi random signal sequence
*

Regional Bell Operating Company
A

Return to zero; DS-1 signals pause at zero voltage between each pulse when making zero crossings


Subscriber loop carrier
ß

Superframe Format; a DS-1 framing format of 12 frames
c

A 1.544 Mbps transmission standard
c *

A trade name for T1 bit error rate tester made by TTC
c%

Time division multiplexer
Time slot interchange; a method of temporarily storing data bytes so they can be sent in a different order than received; a way to
c


switch
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Voice frequency
=5

Voice grade; the common analog telephone line
Violation monitor removal; a function which removes all violations which are detected so that they do not propagate along the span
=%


line
Zero Byte Time Slot Interchange; a method of providing Clear Channel Capability without using B8ZS. This was an interim solution
A*c


advocated by Verilink