Irish Journal of Education

Guidance and Counselling in Irish Second-Level Schools

Author(s): Gerry Shiel and Mary Lewis
Source: The Irish Journal of Education / Iris Eireannach an Oideachais, Vol. 27, No. 1/2
(Summer/Winter, 1993), pp. 5-24
Published by: Irish Journal of Education
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/30077365 .
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TheIrishJournalof Education,1993,xxvii,pp. 5-24.

GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING IN IRISH

SECOND-LEVEL SCHOOLS

GerryShiel andMaryLewis
EducationalResearchCentre
St Patrick'sCollege,Dublin

Thepaperbeginswitha description of guidanceandcounsellingin second-level

schoolsin theRepublic of Ireland,tracing
development of theservicefromits
introduction
inthemid-1960s totheearly1990s.Theroleoftheguidance counsellor
is consideredin thecontextsof educational,vocational,andcareerguidance;
andassessment;
appraisal personal andsubject
counselling; teaching.Interactions
betweenguidance counsellorsandschoolcolleagues, andexternal
parents, agencies
alsoreceiveattention.
Following thediscussion
ofissuesrelating and
tothedelivery
effectiveness someofthemoreurgent
oftheservice, research inthe
needsrevealed
reviewareoutlined.
A guidanceand counsellingservice for second-level schools was formally
establishedin Irish schools by the Departmentof Educationin 1966. This
initiativefollowed the appointmentin 1960of the firsteducationalpsychologist
withresponsibilityfor developinga guidanceservice in the schools of the City
of Dublin VocationalEducationCommittee(VEC). The City of Dublin VEC
continuesto provideservices to vocationalschools in its area,while schools in
otherVEC areasareservicedby the Departmentof Education.In this paper,we
considerthe developmentof the Departmentof Education'sservice witha view
to identifyinginformationneeds andresearchissues which requireattentionas
the service approachesits 30th anniversary.While undertakingourreview, we
conducteda searchof journalspublishedin the Republicof Irelandandabroad
to locatearticlesdealingwithall aspectsof theguidanceandcounsellingservice
in Irishschools. We also consultedpersonswho areor weredirectlyinvolvedin
the developmentof the service with the purposeof identifyingotherprimary
informationsourcessuch as official guidelinesand reports.
THEDEVELOPMENT
OFTHEGUIDANCE SERVICE
ANDCOUNSELLING
The formal establishmentof a guidanceand counsellingservice has been
thattook
attributedto a numberof factorsincludingthe rapidindustrialization
place in Irelandduring the 1960s, a slowing down in emigration,and the
availabilityof a widerrangeof careersfor young people (Chamberlain,1983).
Whateverfactorsoutsidetheeducationalsystemgave riseto its introduction,the

5
6 SHIEL
GERRY LEWIS
ANDMARY

notion of providingguidance and counselling was readily acceptedin schools,

manyof which were alreadydoing so on aninformalbasis (O'Connors Walshe,
1979). Following the introductionof the service, provision was at a relatively
high level by internationalstandardsuntil 1983. Up until that year, a guidance
counsellor could be appointed in addition to regular teaching staff, on an
`ex-quota'basis, in schools with 250 or more students.In 1983, this threshold
was raised to 500. In effect, this meant that if schools with fewer than 500
studentswished to employ a guidance counsellor,they had to do so within the
overall staff allocation of the school. In 1991, provision for expansion of the
service was made in a proposalfor the `recognitionon an ex-quotabasis of 0.5
of a whole-timepost for guidancein schools in the 350-499 enrolmentcategory'
(Ireland,1991). It was envisagedthatthe servicewould be expandedon a phased
basis, startingwith schools at the upperend of the specified enrolmentcategory.
Relatively little published informationis available on the evolution of the
guidanceand counselling service in schools. In a paperpreparedby officials of
the Departmentof Education in 1979, it was reportedthat as many as 400
guidancecounsellors were active in schools (O'Connors Walshe, 1979). The
findings of a survey conductedby membersof the Departmentof Education's
PsychologicalService in 1984-85 showed that69 of 316 second-levelschools
offereda guidanceandcounselling service, butthatthe extent of the service had
been substantially reduced since 1983 in 25 of the schools (Ireland.
Department of Education, 1987). In a survey of 78 second-level schools
conductedby the Departmentof Education's School GuidanceCommittee in
1985, 78 of the schools were found to have a guidancecounselloron the staff
on an `ex-quota'(36%), not `ex-quota'(35% or shared-between-schools(7%
basis (Ireland.Departmentof Education,1987). In a survey of 667 second-level
schools conductedby the Instituteof GuidanceCounsellorsduringthe 1989-90
school year, although78 of schools were found to offer some guidance and
counselling, 5 of community/comprehensiveschools, 18 of secondary
schools, and34 of vocationalschools offeredno service(Instituteof Guidance
Counsellors, 1990). Finally, McCarthy(1993b reportedthat lack of access to
guidanceandcounsellingwas a problemin needof attentionin ruralareaswhere
schools generallyhave fewer than 350 students,and/or where studentsattend
vocationalschools.
Currentinformationneeds regardingthe natureand extent of the guidance
and counselling service include a breakdownof the distributionof the service
by school type, size, andlocation.In addition,informationon the extentto which
guidanceandcounsellingareprovidedon an `ex-quota'basis andteachersother
thantrainedguidancecounsellorsareengagedin these activitieswouldbe useful.
 GUIDANCE
ANDCOUNSELLING
SERVICES

In the absence of such information,it is difficult to describe the extent of the

service or to identifyits immediateneeds.
Recent international(OECD, 1991 as well as national (Ireland, 1992
publications have called for the recruitmentof more guidance counsellors,
particularly for schools located in areas of disadvantage. However, while
commitmentsto increase the numberof guidance counsellors are reflected in
financialprovisionsincludedin the budgetin recentyears,thereis no information
which would allow us to assess the effects of any new appointmentsthat have
been made on the inequalitiesin the guidanceservice notedabove.
From an outsider'sperspective,the institutionalframeworksupportingthe
guidanceandcounsellingserviceseemswelldeveloped.Inthefirstinstance,support
is offeredthroughthe educationandtrainingof guidancecounsellors,particularly
by way of provisionof specialist universitycourses. Guidancecounsellorsare
generallyrecruitedfromthe ranksof servingsecond-levelteachersandmusthave
a minimumof threeyearsteachingexperience.Typically,theyhavea primarydegree
in arts or commerce(O'Connors Walshe, 1979 and they usuallycompletean
additionalone-yearfull-timepost-graduate diplomacoursein guidancecounselling
at a third-levelinstitution.Two such courses are currentlyoffered one was
establishedat UniversityCollege Dublinin 1967, the otherat UniversityCollege
Corkin 1981. Altogether,about25 teachersenrolin these two courseseach year.
Counsellors in trainingare paid full salary and their schools may appoint a
replacementteacher.A post-graduate degreewitha guidanceandcounsellingoption
is offeredat TrinityCollege,Dublin.However,while a numberof optionsexist for
teacherswishingto pursuea careerin guidanceandcounselling,no evaluationhas
been carriedoutthatmighthelp to assessthe adequacyof the trainingprovided.
A second formof supportfor theguidanceandcounsellingserviceis available
from educational psychologists who are employed by the Department of
Education.These psychologists or inspectorsof guidanceservices, as they are
also known, are nominally responsiblefor supervising the work of guidance
counsellors and for assisting them in a consultativeand advisory capacity. In
practice,dependingon the natureof particularcircumstances,the relationship
between guidance counsellors and the psychologists may be closer than this
descriptionsuggests. However, the fact thatonly one psychologist is available
for every 17,000 studentsmustbe regardedas a seriousconstrainton the amount
of official supportthat guidancecounsellorscan typically expect to call on. If,
for example, as is not unusual,a psychologist or inspectorof guidanceservices
is allocated50 schools, this means,in effect, thathe or she can spend an average
of only three days in the school year dealing with cases referredfrom each of
those schools.
 GERRY
SHIEL
ANDMARY
LEWIS

Additionalsupportfor guidancecounsellorsis providedby the IrishInstitute

of GuidanceCounsellors.The Institute,a professionalorganizationwhich was
set up in 1968, organizesconferences,workshops,andseminarsfor its members,
of whom there were in excess of 600 in 1993. The Institutealso publishes
professionalguidelines,policy documents,and a journal.
THEROLE
OFTHEGUIDANCE
COUNSELLOR

The role of guidance counsellors in schools has received a fair amount of

attentionin researchstudies since the late 1970s (see Chamberlains Delaney,
1977;Ireland.Departmentof Education,1987;McCarthy,1985;O'Brien,Tuite,
McDonagh, s Deffely, 1982-83; O'Connor s Walshe, 1979; O'Leary s
Adams, 1986; O'Leary s McCay-Morrissey, 1987; Ryan, 1993). There is
considerablevariationin the natureand size of the samples on which studies
were based. For example, the range of studies includes a relativelysmall-scale
local study in 18 Cork schools (O'Learys McCay-Morrissey,1987), a major
study of subject provision, choice, and allocation involving a nationally
representativesampleof second-level schools in which 68 counsellorsprovided
informationabout their work (Hannan,Breen, Murray,Watson, Hardiman,s
O'Higgins, 1983), and a study based on a sample drawnfrom the membership
of the Instituteof GuidanceCounsellorsinvolving340 counsellors(Ryan, 1993).
In official documentation,the role of the guidance counsellor is discussed
in relation to threebroadareas:the provisionof informationabouteducational,
vocational, and careerchoices; appraisaland assessment;and counselling for
those experiencing learning or personal difficulties (Ireland, 1992). This
classification,which is adoptedin the presentreview, is broadlyin line with the
categorizationof differentaspectsof the guidancecounsellor'srole in published
research.It is useful to the extent that it points up the broadrangeof activities
envisaged as part of the guidance counsellor's role. In practice,the emphasis
given to each of these activities is likely to vary dependingon such factors as
school ethos, the interestsand preferencesof counsellors themselves, and the
functions assignedto otherteachersin a school.

Informationabout Educational, Vocational,and Career Choices

A consistent finding of researchstudies is that educational,vocational,and
careercounselling is the main activity of guidance counsellors (Hannanet al,
1983; McCarthy,1985;O'Learys McCay-Morrissey,1987;Ryan, 1993). This
dimension of the counsellor's role encompasses providing students with
guidance in subject choice, information about careers, information about
 ANDCOUNSELLING
GUIDANCE SERVICES

vocationaltrainingopportunities,and assistancein the applicationprocedures

foradmissionto advancedsecond-levelandthird-levelcoursesin Irelandandother
countries.Mosteducationalandcareercounsellingis conductedat thesenior-cycle
level.Forexample,in one studyit was foundthat64 of a guidancecounsellor's
timewas devotedto studentsin theseniorcycle (Ireland.Department of Education,
1987).However,someguidancein subjectchoiceis oftenprovidedatthebeginning
of thejuniorcycle as well (Hannanet al, 1983).
The fact that students'post-schooloptions are largelydeterminedby their
performancein public examinationslimits the extent to which a guidance
counselloris in a positionto help studentsarriveat decisionsrelatingto career
choice. Nevertheless,the guidancecounsellor'srole in providinginformation
aboutcareersand courses of study has become morecomplex in recentyears.
Reasonsfor this developmentincludean increasein the proportionof students
who stay in school afterthe JuniorCertificateexamination;an increasein the
rangeof senior-cyclecoursesandpost-LeavingCertificatecourses(PLCs);and
the expansionof third-leveleducationandtrainingoptionsat home andabroad.
While counsellorsmay be involved in vocationalpreparationcourses and
transitioneducationprogrammes(see Hannan,1986;Kellaghans Lewis, 1991
andmay set up opportunitiesfor studentsto obtainexperienceof workin local
industries,the specific natureof their involvementin this area has not been
documented. The uncertainty regarding the nature of career information
providedby guidance counsellors is reflected in a recent call by the Irish
Businessand Employer'sFederation(IBEC for the appointmentof a corpsof
careerguidanceofficers who would be independentof the school system and
otherinstitutionsand would `providea structuredsystemof workexperienceat
second level, supply careerinformationto schools, and establishappropriate
linkages with local employmentand traininginterests' (IBEC, 1993, p.16).
Whetheror not such a move would be welcomed by schools in generaland
counsellorsin particularis a matterfor discussion. In any event, some of the
uncertaintysurroundingthe provisionof careerguidancecould be reducedif
researchwere undertakento establishthe effectiveness of currentapproaches
andidentifyaspectsthatmay need improvement.

Appraisaland Assessment
Appraisalandassessmentof studentsis also animportantpartof theguidance
counsellor's work (Chamberlains Delaney, 1977; O'Leary s McCay
Morrissey,1987). Accordingto the governmentGreenPaper,Educationfor a
ChangingWorld,thepurposeof appraisalandassessmentis to `enabletheschool
to understandthe needs of the student,as well as helping studentsand their
to SHIEL
GERRY ANDMARY
LEWIS

parentsto understandthemselvesbetter'(Ireland,1992, p. 107). The available

literaturetells us little about how counsellors combine formal and informal
assessmentinformationto advisestudentsregardingtheirchoice of subjectsand
suitabilityfor careersand/oradvancedcourses, or how counsellorsgatherand
use assessmentinformationin orderto advisestudentsaboutpersonalproblems.
However,some researchhasbeenpublishedon therangeof teststhatcounsellors
use in assessing studentsandon the characteristicsandusefulnessof such tests.
In a survey of guidance counsellorsin 74 second-level schools in County
Dublin,MacNamara(1989 foundthatcounsellorsmostfrequentlyadministered
group tests of `aptitude'such as the DifferentialAptitudeTests (Educational
ResearchCentre,1975 andtheAH4 GroupTest of GeneralIntelligence(Heim,
1970). The primaryreasonscited by the counsellorsfor using such tests were to
help students choose senior-cycle subjects and make career choices. The
counsellorsalso indicatedthatthe resultsof psychologicaltests providedmore
usefulinformationthanthatobtainedthroughinterviewingparents,interviewing
pupils, or examiningpublic examinationresults.Only interviewswith subject
teachersappearedto providemore useful informationthanthe tests.
A difficulty in using the results of psychological tests to predictacademic
performanceat the end of second-leveleducation,and hence the probabilityof
gaining entry into specific third-levelcourses, is that the correlationbetween
such tests and performanceon the LeavingCertificateExaminationmay not be
very high. Martinand O'Rourke(1984 found that, dependingon the points
scheme that is used for Leaving CertificateExaminationresults and student
gender,between26 and44 of variancein overallperformanceon theLeaving
CertificateExaminationcould be accountedfor by performanceon the verbal
andnumerical(VR-NA subtestsof the DifferentialAptitudeTests (DAT taken
some 30 monthsearlier.The DAT predictedoverall examinationperformance
betterthanit predictedperformancein individualsubjects.
The use in Irish schools of personalityquestionnaireswhich have been
conceptualizedandnonmedelsewherewas questionedin a studyby Greaneyand
Martin (1984 who concluded that the American High-School Personality
Questionnaire(HSPQ),whichsome Irishcounsellorsadminister,was unsuitable
for guidanceand counsellingpurposesin this country.Two reasonswere given
for this conclusion: the low levels of reliability(internalconsistency of the
factorstappedby the test andthe lack of normativedatafor an Irishpopulation.
These observationssuggest thatcounsellorsshould exercise considerablecare
in selectingquestionnairesandtests, interpreting results,andcommunicatingthe
resultsto students.
 GUIDANCE
ANDCOUNSELLING
SERVICES 11

Given thatschools areprovidedwith financialassistanceby the Department

of Educationto purchasepsychologicaltests,andthatcounsellorswhoroutinely
administersuch tests claim thatthe informationthey obtainis valuableto them,
it is surprisingthatvirtuallyno researchhasbeenconductedon theuses to which
such tests are put by guidance counsellors, or on how studentsthemselves
interpretanduse testresultsin arrivingatcareer-related
decisions.Oneimportant
issue relatesto the criteriathatcounsellorsadoptin interpretingtest resultsfor
students.We may ask, for example,to whatextent counsellorsoperatefrom a
talent-matching perspective,attemptingto matchstudentswithcareersforwhich
they appearto be suitable,or froman educationalperspective,emphasizingthe
developmentof skills, knowledge,andexperiencesthatwould enablestudents
to make and implementtheir own decisions (see Watts, 1993). In additionto
researchwhich would examine how counsellors and their studentsinterpret
differencesin performanceacrosstests, andthe implicationsof suchdifferences
forcareer-related decisions,thereis also needforresearchthatwouldinvestigate
how counsellorsgatherbiographicaldata,whatvocationalpreferencemeasures
they use, and how they advise studentson the outcomesof assessment.

Personaland Social Counselling

In additionto providingcareer,educational,and vocationalguidance,and
conductingassessments, many counsellors provide personal counselling to
individualstudentswho requestit. In fact, guidancecounsellorshavedescribed
personalcounselling as one of their most importantactivities after career
guidance.Between 70 and 80 of counsellorsin Hannanet al's (1983 study
claimedeithersignificantor maininvolvementin personalcounsellingatjunior
andsenior-cyclelevels, thoughthis involvementwas less importantthansenior
cycle subject-advisoryfunctions,andsubstantiallyless importantthaninvolve
mentin facilitatingcareerchoiceat bothlevels.The61 counsellorswhoresponded
to the 1985 surveyof the SchoolGuidanceCommitteerankedindividualpersonal
counsellingas the activityin whichtheyengagedmost frequentlyatjunior-cycle
level. The same counsellorsrankedindividualpersonalcounsellingfifth behind
vocationalandeducationalcounselling(for individualsandclass-sizegroups at
the senior-cyclelevel (Ireland.Departmentof Education,1987).
Whilemost of the 340 counsellorsin a surveyconductedby Ryan(1993 also
indicatedthatthey regardedpersonalcounsellingas a majorpartof theirwork,
the amountof time they devotedto this activityvariedin differentpartsof the
country. Counsellors working in urban schools reportedthat they spent
significantly more time on personal counselling than their counterpartsin
schools locatedin smalltowns andruralareas.If guidancecounsellorshavethe
12 ANDMARY
SHIEL
GERRY LEWIS

mainresponsibilityfor the provisionof personalcounselling in theirschools, as

Hannan and his colleagues reported, it would seem that schools that have
counsellorsand are located outside large urbanareasshouldbe especially alert
to the possibility that they may not be adequately meeting the personal
counselling needs of their students.
An important aspect of personal counselling is the range of problems
addressedby counsellors and the supportthat they receive in addressingthese
problems.From Ryan's (1993 data, it is clear that many counsellorsprovide
adviceto studentson a wide rangeof problemsrelatingto family, sex, social and
emotional development, bullying, unreasonableacademic expectations, and
alcohol anddrugabuse.Most counsellorswho participatedin Ryan's study felt
that the functions of career guidance and personal counselling should be
integratedin the treatmentof these problems.However,they reportedthatsome
of their guidancecolleagues and officials in the Departmentof Educationtook
a different view, suggesting that counselling should be related primarilyto
education, and should concentrateon improvingstudy skills and confidence,
instilling discipline, and developing relationships with teachers. While,
ultimately,the best approachis one which suitsthe particularneeds of individual
schools and takes accountof the availabilityand adequacyof referralservices,
it would seem importantthatcounsellorsandtheirsupervisorsworktogetheron
goals andstrategiesthatareappropriateandsufficientlybroadto enableschools
to meet the needs of students.
The extent to which the work of counsellorsis effective in assisting students
with personal problems is unclear. This issue was raised in a recent study
involving interviewswith young people who hadleft second-leveleducationfive
years earlier.The studyconcludedthat `thereis a need to considerablyimprove
the content and quality of personal and social development education and
pastoral-careprogrammesin schools. These goals are given very high priority
by school leavers, and ratherlow satisfactionmarks result for their schools'
(Hannans Shortall,1991, p. 6). Given thatguidancecounsellorsprovidesome
instructionin personaland social developmentskills (see Chamberlain,1988),
they may need more informationand feedbackto plan and develop this aspect
of the service in ways which would enable them to address a wide range of
studentneeds.To begin with, informationmightbe obtainedwhich would allow
appraisalof overall provision of personalcounselling services with a view to
identifying strengthsand weaknesses. Then, using a case-study approach,an
examination of how personal counselling is conducted, and its effects on
counsellors, students, and their parentscould be undertakenin a number of
schools.
 ANDCOUNSELLING
GUIDANCE SERVICES 13

SubjectTeaching
The involvement of guidance counsellors in time-tabled non-guidance
subject teaching is an importantissue in the context of available time for
counselling activities.At present `ex-quota'guidancecounsellorsmustprovide
a minimumof eight hoursguidanceandcounsellingif they workin VEC schools
and a minimum of 12 hours if they work in community, comprehensive,or
secondaryschools. In additionthey arerequiredto teach a school subjectfor at
least threehoursper week (Ireland.Departmentof Education,1983).
In the School Guidance Committee's survey (Ireland. Department of
Education,1987), counsellorswho were `ex quota' reportedteachinga school
subject for an average of 5 hours per week, while counsellors who were not
`ex-quota'reportedan average figure of 9 hours per week. In most cases, the
school principal,workingwithin official parameters,decides how the guidance
counsellor's time is allocated.As indicatedearlier,counsellors who engage in
more subject teachinghave less time availablefor counselling in general, and
personalcounselling in particular,than their counterpartswho do not have a
strong involvement in subject teaching. The tensions in combining subject
teachingand counselling are underlinedin the following dilemma.On the one
hand, freeing guidance counsellors from subject teaching duties would allow
them to provide more guidance and counselling; on the other, greater
involvement in subject teaching might afford them valuable contact with
students in a non-guidance setting as well as leading to more effective
relationshipswith colleagueswho areengagedin subject-teachingon a full-time
basis.
In general, the available research findings indicate that counsellors prefer
to do some subject teaching in addition to performing their counselling
duties, but not as much as they are typically assigned (O'Leary, 1987;
O'Leary s Adams, 1986). The principal teachers in O'Leary's (1987 study
were in agreement with guidance counsellors regarding the amount of time
(0 to 6 hours per week that should be allocated to subject teaching. Even so,
these principals also reported that they allocated significantly more
subject-teachinghoursto counsellors; only 50 of teachers in the study were
engaged in teaching for fewer than six hours per week. O'Leary makes the
point that, while the report of the Institute of Guidance Counsellors (1985
did not perceive subject teaching as part of the guidance counsellor's role,
guidance counsellors in her study generally felt that they should do some
subject teaching. A useful research contribution might be to examine what
benefits, if any, accrue from guidance counsellors engaging in non-guidance
subject teaching particularly when it is argued that counsellors have
14 ANDMARY
SHIEL
GERRY LEWIS

insufficient time for guidance and counselling. It would be worthwhile, for

example,to comparehow the role of the counselloris perceivedby teachersand
studentsin settings where counsellorshave little or no involvementin subject
teachingand in settingswherecounsellorsperformsubstantialsubjectteaching
duties.
OFTHEGUIDANCE
THEWORK INSCHOOL
COUNSELLOR
CONTEXTS
ANDEXTERNAL
ORGANIZATION

According to the Green Paper,Educationfor a Changing World(Ireland,

1992),the provisionof guidance`shouldbe seen as a school-wideresponsibility,
involving the collaboration of the school administration, the guidance
counsellor,and otherteachers'(p. 107). This view sees counsellorsas playing
a pivotalrole in manydifferentaspectsof the organizationandco-ordinationof
guidance-relatedactivitiesin schools. However,the availableresearchfindings
indicatethatcounsellorsdo not exercise strongleadershiproles withinschools.
Hannanet al (1983 foundthat,while counsellorswere involvedto some extent
in the initial selection and assessment of students, they had no influence in
determiningthe numberand structureof classes (e.g., whether streamedor
banded or the packagingof subjects.They recommendedthat, in additionto
havingsome inputin these areas,counsellorsshould become moreinvolved in
establishingrelationshipsbetweensubjectteachers,students,andtheirparents,
and in developing and evaluatingcurricularand instructionalinterventionsto
deal with conventionalschool failure.However,it has to be bornein mindthat,
given currentconstraintson guidanceactivities,any attemptsto broadenthe role
of guidancecounsellorsin these areascould mean a reductionof theirservices
in otherareas.

Pastoral-CareProgrammes
An areain which counsellorsmay become more involved in the futureis in
the provision of personal and social education throughthe developmentof
pastoral-careprogrammes.These programmes,which have been a featureof
counselling in second-level schools in Englandand elsewhere for many years
(see Lang, 1993), are usuallydevised by a pastoral-careteam consistingof the
guidancecounsellorandsubjectteacherswho volunteerto actas tutorsor special
class teachersto individualclass groups. According to Chamberlain(1988),
there is substantial overlap between the content of typical pastoral-care
programmes self-awarenesstraining, informationon the transitionfrom
primary to secondary schools, subject choice, study skills, examination
techniques, responsibility/decision-making skills, and life skills and the
 ANDCOUNSELLING
GUIDANCE SERVICES 15

contentthatis often foundin the conventionalguidanceprogrammesofferedin

Irish second-level schools. The widespread development of pastoral-care
programmeswould allow counsellorsto become more involved with subject
teacherson a professionalbasis.Withsome counsellingdutiesdevolvingto the
subject teachers,this arrangementmight providecounsellorswith additional
time in which to concentrateon otheraspectsof theirwork.
Some basic research on the nature and extent of pastoral-careservices
currently operating in second-level schools could contributeto a greater
understandingof pastoralcare, improveits development,and ultimatelyallow
more studentsto experienceits benefits.At present,little is knownaboutthe
involvementof counsellorsin such programmeswhich may also be offeredin
schools as civics, personal and health education, religious education and
chaplaincy,or personalandsocialdevelopmentprogrammes.It wouldbe useful
to look at existing situationsin which guidancecounsellorsare successfully
leadingpastoral-careprogrammeswithinschools witha view to identifyingand
disseminatingelementsof good practice.It mightalso be usefulto comparethe
deliveryandeffectivenessof such programmeswhen they are implementedby
guidancecounsellorsandby otherstaffmembers,includingsubjectteachersand
yearor form heads,who may not have specialisttraining.

PartnershipswithParents
Anotherareain which guidancecounsellors'activitiesmightbroadenin the
futureis in theirpartnershipswithparents.Severalresearchershavepointedout
that parentsare a particularlyimportantinfluence on their children'scareer
decisionsandthatcounsellorsregularlymeetwiththem(Ireland.Departmentof
Education,1987; McCarthy,1993b;O'Brien, Tuite, McDonagh,s Deffeley,
1982-83; O'Leary s McCay-Morrissey, 1987). At this point, however,
relativelylittle is known abouthow counsellorsand parentsworktogetherto
assist the careerchoices of students.While recognitionof the need for greater
parentalinvolvementin guidanceandcounsellinghas been expressed(Hannan
et al, 1983; O'Learys McCay-Morrissey,1987), it seems importantthatthe
developmentof such links be basedon a sharedunderstanding of how parents
andcounsellorscanco-operateto assistyoungpeoplein makingeducationaland
career-relateddecisions. The current involvement of the Departmentof
Education'sPsychologicalServicein a European-wideprojecton enhancingthe
role of parentsin guidancemay providecounsellorswith new insightson how
to involve parentsmoreeffectively in guidance.
16 GERRY
SHIEL
ANDMARY
LEWIS

LinkswithExternalAgencies
Yet anotheraspect of the guidancecounsellor'swork involves liaison with
agencies outside the school including government departments,places of
employmentandtraining,andthird-levelcolleges, in orderto obtaininformation
regardingeducational and career opportunitiesand, increasingly,to secure
work-experienceplacementsfor students.Therespectiveroles of theDepartment
of Enterpriseand Employment(formerlythe Departmentof Labour and the
Departmentof Educationrequirefurtherclarification,particularlyin relationto
the provision of career-relatedinformation(McCarthy,1986). While it is not
difficultto acceptthatthe qualityof guidancemay be affectedby factorsrelating
to theprovisionandflow of career-related information,thepreciseways in which
guidancecounsellorsor studentsmight be affectedin practicaltermsfrom this
administrative arrangement havenotbeenexplored.Further,no researchhasbeen
carriedout on the appropriateness or value of the careerinformation,including
published materials, thatis providedto schools by stateagencies.
Relativelylittleis known eitheraboutthe natureandeffectivenessof the links
between school guidance counsellors and human resources personnel in
industry.Onlyone studyin thisareawas identified.Ina surveyof 150companies
carriedout by the Confederationof IrishIndustry(CII),now knownas the Irish
Business and EmployersConfederation(IBEC), 42 reportedthat a schools
careerguidancecounsellorhad been in contactwith theirfirm in the previous
two years. Smallerfirms were much less likely to have been contacted(19
comparedwith 59 for largerfirms).The most popularinitiativeswith respect
to school-industrylinks were company visits by students, career talks by
industrialists/businesspeople, careerseminars,and careerexhibitions.Of the
150 companies,just 31 felt thatinformationconcerningcareersin industrywas
beingpassedon to post-primary studentsin an appropriatemanner(CII,1990).
Intheabsenceof additionalresearchon therangeandeffectivenessof existing
links between guidance counsellors and industry,it is difficult to determine
whethercurrentarrangementsareoperatingsatisfactorily.Clearly,calls for the
appointmentof externalcareerofficers (see IBEC, 1993 must be evaluatedin
the context of the objectives of the guidanceservice providedin schools, the
links which guidance counsellors have established with industry, and the
initiativestakenby industryto foster links with schools.

Irish-EuropeanGuidanceLinks
The past severalyearshave seen the developmentof links betweenguidance
counsellorsin Irishsecond-levelschoolsandtheircounterpartsin othercountries
in the EuropeanCommunity.These links have been supportedby various
 ANDCOUNSELLING
GUIDANCE SERVICES 17

programmes. One such programme, PETRA, an action programme for

vocational education and training, has provided funding and expertise for
improvingthe qualityof vocationaleducationandtrainingin memberstates.An
importantelement of this initiative has been the establishmentof national
co-ordinationunits(NCUs andnationalguidancecentresin all memberstates.
Two guidance centres were set up in Irelandin 1992 the PETRAINCU
NationalVocationalGuidanceCentre,and the FAS NationalOccupationand
CareerGuidance Centre. The PETRAINCUNational Vocational Guidance
Centre,in partnershipwith.the National Informationin TechnologyCentre
(NITEC),has contributedto the developmentof and access to the QUALIFAX
database.This databasewas designedandcompiledby the Instituteof Guidance
Counsellorsandaims to provideschool leaversin Irelandandin othercountries
withinformationaboutvocational,technical,andhighereducationopportunities
in this country.The PETRAINCUCentrehas also involvedguidancepersonnel
in a varietyof action-research projectsrelatingto guidancein general,andto the
Europeandimensionof guidancein particular.These projects,involvingclose
co-operationwith expertsandcounsellorsin othermemberstates,haveas their
objectivesthe provisionof non-formalguidanceto disadvantagedyouthandthe
developmentof standardsfor guidance.The FAS Centrehas been involvedin
projectsdealing with comparabilityof trainingqualificationsacross member
states, and in providing informationabout training opportunitiesin other
countries to young persons. Finally, the Department of Education's
Psychological Service has been working with its Europeancounterpartsin
Belgium (Flanders), Denmark, the Netherlands, and Portugal, on
PETRA-fundedprojects.Theseinvolvethepreparation of modulesfortheinitial
and continuingtrainingof guidancecounsellorsin the Europeandimensionof
guidance, the developmentof joint quality standardsin guidance, and the
preparationof methods and materialsfor enhancing the role of parentsin
guidance(McCarthy,1993a).
While the numberof school leavers currentlyseeking informationabout
opportunitiesfor vocationaleducationand trainingin Europemay be small, it
can be expectedto increase.Moreover,EuropeanCommunityinitiatives,such
as PETRA, may serve to link the different organizationsinvolved in the
provisionof guidanceservicesin this countryand to familiarizeIrishguidance
counsellorswith a varietyof approachesto serviceprovision.The effectsof the
PETRA-sponsoredprojectsare as yet unclearas only preliminaryreportsare
availableat this time (e.g., Ireland.Departmentof Education,n.d.).To evaluate
the overall impactof the projects,it would be necessaryto look not only at the
effects of individualprojects,butalso at linkagesacrossprojectsandthe extent
18 GERRY ANDMARY
SHIEL LEWIS

to which activitiespromotedby the projectsbecome an integralpartof national

policy and statestructures(McCarthy,1993a).
ANDEFFECTS
THEDELIVERY ANDCOUNSELLING
OFGUIDANCE
In addition to a lack of researchon various dimensions of the guidance
counsellor's role, there is a lack of basic informationabout the delivery of
guidanceservices within schools. No dataare availableon the specific content
of guidance and counselling programmes,or on the ways in which guidance
counsellors present informationto students.It is importantthat the gaps in
information in these areas receive attention if our understandingof how
counsellorspresentinformationto studentsandlead studentsto makeinformed
decisions is to be improved.In the absence of such work, it is difficult to see
how effective guidancepracticescan be recognized,let alone disseminatedor
explainedto parentsandcolleagues.
Overallappraisalof the serviceshouldtakeinto accountthe changingclimate
withinwhichit is beingprovided.Inparticular,suchan appraisalshouldconsider
several recentdevelopmentswhich may be having a considerableinfluenceon
how students and their parents obtain career guidance information.These
developmentsinclude the increasingnumbersof studentswho stay at school
beyond the minimumschool-leavingage; the introductionof new junior and
senior-cycle curriculaand examinations;the increasedrole of the media in
providing informationand advice about post-school options and third-level
provisionin particular;the provisionof publicseminarsandexhibitionsin recent
years on work and careeroptions for second-level students;the expansionof
school-basedwork-experienceprogrammeswhich have careerguidanceas an
objective;andthedevelopmentanduse of careervideos andcomputerizedcareer
informationincludingEuropeandatabases.

Evaluationof GuidanceOutcomes
There are a numberof ways in which evaluationof the effects of guidance
andcounsellingmightbe undertaken.Perhapsthe most basic approachtowards
evaluatingoutcomesmightinvolveobtaininga detaileddescriptionof the nature
and extent of guidancefrom guidancecounsellorsand students.This approach
could be adopted in the context of examining the guidance and counselling
system in general as well as specific interventionsor programmes.A second
approachmight be based on an examinationof students'satisfactionwith their
guidance experiences with a view to determininghow students felt those
experiences had helped them in making personal, educational, and career
 GUIDANCE
ANDCOUNSELLING
SERVICES 19

decisions. Some use of this approachhas alreadybeen madein one Irishstudy.

The findings showed thatstudentsconsideredcounsellorsto have been more
involved than other teachersin providingthem with advice and information
aboutsubjectchoice and careers,but thatthe influenceof counsellorswas less
thanthatof parentsandfriends.Girls,in particular,emphasizedthe importance
of friendsin helpingthemto select careers(Hannanet al, 1983).
These two approacheswould pose relativelyfew methodologicalproblems
to researchers.However, they would not providespecific informationon the
processesof guidanceor on its outcomesin termsof learningoreconomicgains.
A thirdapproachwouldbe requiredto investigatehow studentsfareineducation,
training,andjobs and to relatethese outcomesto the guidancetheyreceivedin
school. A problem with this approach,which would require longitudinal
research,is that it would involve efforts to distinguish the effects of good
guidance(e.g., the developmentof effective decision-makingskills from the
effects of otherinfluences,includingthe ability of the guidancecounsellorto
predict appropriateand likely outcomes for students. A fourth approachto
evaluation,describedby Stoney(1993), would be to measurethe attitudesand
knowledge that students receive from guidance by developing and using
appropriatepre and post-guidanceinstruments.Such an approachcould yield
informationon the effects of differentlevels of guidanceon studentsand the
effects of guidanceon differentgroups of students,taking into accountsuch
factorsas studentgender,family background,andthe geographicallocationof
schools.
CONCLUSION
Publishedresearchon guidanceandcounsellingin Irishsecond-levelschools
has consisted of the collection,analysis,and publicationof surveyresultsand
interviewdata,andhas providedvaluabledescriptionsof thedevelopmentof the
guidanceservice,theconditions,roles,andattitudesof counsellors,andthetypes
of problemsthat counsellorsencounteras they work with studentsin school
settings. Researchhas also providedsome general insights into the natureof
students' guidance needs in the context of current economic and social
difficulties. However,no majorinvestigationhas been carriedout to examine
specificallyprovisionandpracticesrelatingto guidanceandcounsellingin Irish
schools. Neither has there been any evaluationof the trainingprovidedfor
guidancecounsellorsor of the supportservices(includingin-serviceeducation
establishedto assist them.
20 GERRY ANDMARY
SHIEL LEWIS

Underlyingmost of the papers and reportsconsideredin this review is a

recognitionof the need for more comprehensiveresearch.For example, in the
Reportof the School GuidanceCommittee(Ireland.Departmentof Education,
1987), it was noted that `a well plannedsystem of evaluationis necessaryto
improve and develop a guidance and counselling service' (p.79). Similarly,
McCarthy(1993b noted that `the usage of counselling services is largely
untabulatedandthe evaluationof servicesin termsof meetingcustomers'needs
appearsnon-existent'(p. 1). The lack of primaryresearchmay be attributedto
several factors. First, until relatively recently, there has not been a strong
tradition of formal programmeevaluation in Irish education, much less a
traditionof evaluating students' perceptionsof the value of the educational
services they have received. Services which are comparableto guidanceand
counsellingin termsof size andstructure,suchas remedialeducationandspecial
education,have notbeenevaluatedin anycomprehensivemannereither.Second,
althoughspecific aims for guidanceand counselling have been proposed(see
Ireland.Departmentof Education,1987),theredoes notappearto be a consensus
on the emphasesthatcounsellorsshouldplaceon differentaspectsof theirwork,
or on how theirworkshouldaffectstudents.Thiscreatesproblemsfordesigning
an evaluationstudy.Third,since the guidanceandcounsellingfield is relatively
new, mostof the initialefforthasbeenfocusedon developingthe servicewithout
due attention to issues of effectiveness. Clearly, however, policy makers,
counsellors themselves, and, ultimately, students and their parents, would
benefit from systematic evaluationof guidance programmesin schools, and
proposals for providing additional resources or expanding guidance and
counselling services would standon firmerground.
Based on our review, the following issues emerge as importantareas of
concern and researchinquiry.Firstand foremost,thereis need for dataon the
extentof the guidanceandcounsellingservicein second-levelschools, including
a breakdownof the numberof counsellorswho are `ex-quota'andnot `ex-quota'
in differenttypes of schools and in differentlocations.Second, thereis need to
examine the natureof careerguidanceinformationprovidedto studentsand to
evaluate the adequacy of such information.Ideally, this would involve an
examinationof the links betweencounsellorsandexternalagencies,takinginto
account the objectives of provision in schools and other informationsources
including work-experience placements, parents, media output, and public
exhibitions and seminars.Third,there is need to know how counsellors use
formalandinformalassessmentinformationto advisestudentsregardingsubject
choice andtheirsuitabilityforcareersand/oradvancedcourses.Researchon this
issue would have to consider the range and appropriatenessof assessment
 GUIDANCE
ANDCOUNSELLING
SERVICES 21

measuresin use in schools andthe ways in which guidancecounsellorsobtain

informalassessmentinformation.A fourthareaof inquiryconcernsthe rather
sensitive issue of personalcounselling.Researchon this aspect of the service
needs to focus on the relativeneeds of studentsin urbanandruralschools and
in disadvantagedand non-disadvantaged areas.It mightinvolve identification
of the models or approachesthatcounsellorsuse in workingwith students,an
examinationof the links thatevolve betweenparentsandcounsellorsas specific
problemsare addressed,as well as some evaluationof the qualityof personal
counsellingfromthe student'spointof view. Fifth,the natureandeffectiveness
of pastoral-careprogrammesdeservesattention.Specifically,we needto know
moreaboutsuchprogrammesfroma school organizationperspective,aboutthe
involvement of guidance counsellors and other teachers in pastoral-care
programmes,andaboutthe ways in whichsuchprogrammesaffectrelationships
betweencounsellors,students,andotherteachers.Sixth,the use of technology
in guidance and counselling should be explored, taking into account the
contributionof Europeandatabasesand networks,in orderto identifyeffective
practicesand ongoing needs.Access to technologyin schools, the adequacyof
counsellors'skills for using technology,and students'responsesto technology
aresome of the moreobviousissuesthatmightbe examinedin thiscontext.Last,
but not least, it seems imperativethatsome considerationbe given to the ways
in whichthe generaleffectivenessof the guidanceandcounsellingservicemight
be monitoredon an on-goingbasis.
Concernaboutthe abilityof the guidanceandcounsellingserviceto adaptto
changing circumstancesand needs underlies many of the research issues
identified in this review. Obviously, the current educational and social
environmentis very different from the one in which the service was first
established.There are now fewer small schools in the system, many fewer
religiousin schools who in the past would have contributedin no smallpartto
thepastoralcare/guidancedimensionof educationalprovision,andmuchgreater
numbersof studentsparticularlyat senior-cyclelevel. These,togetherwithother
changesoutsidethe school system,whichhaveresultedin a huge increasein the
rangeof options and in the amountof informationavailableto young people,
mustbe regardedas key issues in any appraisalof the guidanceandcounselling
service.
The potentialvalueof researchin generatinginformationaboutthe guidance
and counselling service in schools has been underlinedthroughoutthe paper.
The issues presented for discussion emerge essentially from a research
perspective.We trustthattheyfindsupportin theconcernsof policy-makersand
practitionerswho undoubtedlyhave theirown informationrequirementswhich
22 GERRY ANDMARY
SHIEL LEWIS

we were not in a positionto identifyor expressin this paper.In conclusion,we

may emphasize again the need to resource substantial improvements in
information about guidance and counselling in schools. Without such
information,it is impossibleto know if the administratorsand counsellorswho
runthe service or the pupilsand parentswho use it arebeing well served.
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