Cotton Australia

Secondary Education Kit

www.cottonaustralia.com.au

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 1. Overview

Introduction
Cotton is grown so the fibre can be made into products we use each day, including
jeans, T-shirts, sheets and towels. Fibre from the cotton plant is made into yarn and
fabric, the seeds are crushed for oil and animal feed, and the leaves are turned into
mulch.

Cotton is a natural fibre and makes up just under half of all the fibre sold in the world.
Produced on a plant, cotton is a member of the Hibiscus family and is botanically known
as Gossypium hirsutum or Gossypium barbadense. By nature it is a perennial shrub
that reaches a height of 3.5m. Commercially it is grown as an annual and only reaches a
height of 1.2m.
The most common type of cotton grown in Australia is Gossypium hirsutum, more
commonly known as American Upland. It is a leafy, green shrub that briefly has cream
and pink flowers that become the ‘fruit’ or cotton bolls.

Cotton plant at flowering stage

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History of Cotton
The word cotton comes from an Arabic word qutun or kutun used to describe any fine
textile.
Cotton is one of the oldest known fibres — some of the earliest fabric relics found in
excavations of ancient civilisations have been cotton. Archaeologists found cotton fabric
5,000 years old at Mohenjo Daro, an ancient town in the Indus River Valley of West
Pakistan, and similarly aged examples have been found in Egypt and in Mexico.
Although the cotton plant is thought to have initially grown wild in East Africa, it was first
cultivated in the country now known as Pakistan where its early uses were as a textile
for clothing, bindings for sandals and harnesses for elephants. The Greek historian,
Herodotus (484 – 425 BC) wrote about a tree in Asia that bore cotton ‘exceeding in
goodness and beauty the wool of any sheep.’

Australian history of cotton growing

1788 The First Fleet brings cottonseed to Australia.
1830 First export shipment of three bags of cotton sent to England.
1857 Small quantities of raingrown (dryland) cotton grown in Queensland.
1861-65 American Civil War caused American cotton production to fall and
Australia attempted to fill the gap with exports to the English mills. In
1862, 29 (225kg) bales of cotton exported to England.
1871 Early cotton production peaks in Australia but falls away as world
prices for cotton declined.
1926 Queensland Cotton Marketing Board established and a government
subsidy introduced to promote cotton production in Central Qld.
1934 Cotton production reaches 17,000 bales.
1954 Cotton industry almost non-existent.
1958 Keepit Dam completed on the Namoi River in NSW providing water for
irrigation in the Namoi Valley. This was instrumental in the revival of
the Australian cotton industry.
1960 Limited irrigated cotton production in south-west Queensland.
1961 A commercial crop planted at Wee Waa using water from Keepit Dam
to irrigate the crop.
1963 A bounty on raw cotton introduced to encourage expansion of the
industry. Cotton production begins on the Ord River irrigation scheme
in Western Australia’s Kimberley region.
1966 Cotton established in the Macquarie Valley in NSW following
completion of the Burrendong Dam. Cotton production also begins at
Bourke.
1968 Emerald Irrigation Area in Queensland established and first exportable
surplus produced.
1971 Raw Cotton Bounty removed at the request of the industry. Cotton
production reaches 87,000 bales.
1972 Commercial cotton grown in St. George, Queensland, using water from
Beardmore Dam.

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1973 Cotton production on the Ord River Scheme ceases due mainly to
insect resistance to pesticides.
1975 Cotton production reaches 110,000 bales.
1976 Cotton established at Moree in the Gwydir Valley in NSW using water
from the newly constructed Copeton Dam.
1977 The construction of the Pindari and Glenlyon Dams allows cotton to be
grown in the Macintyre Valley in Queensland.
1980 Cotton production reaches 435,000 bales.
1985 Cotton production reaches 1.1 million bales.
1990 Cotton industry self-funds First Environmental Audit, leading to
introduction of Best Management Practices (BMP).
1992 Australia’s world record yields lead to record 2.2 million bale harvest.
1995 Cotton production falls to 1.5 million bales due to drought.
1996 The first transgenic cotton variety (Ingard®) introduced to Australia.
1997 Cotton production reaches 2.7 million bales a record cotton crop.
1998 A new record set — cotton production exceeds 3 million bales.
Industry’s Best Management Practices program.
2000 The second edition of the BMP manual is released.
2001 The first bale of cotton produced using the Best Management Practices
(BMP) program. A record 3.4 million bales produced.
2003 Worst drought in 100 years leads to 60% reduction in crop size.
2003 Cotton industry undertakes Second Environmental Audit.
2003 Transgenic cotton variety (Bollgard II®) introduced to Australia.
2005 Australian crop sets new world record yield, leading to a 2.9 million
bale crop.
2007 Over 95% of Australian cotton growers plant transgenic varieties,
accounting for over 80% of the total crop.

Where is Cotton Grown?

Cotton is grown in over 100 countries around the world, most of which are newly
industrialising countries. However, 75% of world production comes from China, USA,
India, Pakistan and Brazil. Australia is a relatively minor producer, growing between 2-3
million bales (227 kg per bale) each year compared to China’s 28 million bales and the
USA’s 22 million bales.

In Australia cotton is grown in southern, central and north-western NSW and central and
southern Queensland. The majority of these cotton farms are family owned.
Approximately two-thirds of Australian cotton is grown in NSW and the remainder
produced in Queensland.

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Cotton growing regions of Australia

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Properties of Cotton
Cotton has many special properties including the following special properties:
♦ Cotton is hypoallergenic meaning it doesn’t irritate sensitive skin or cause allergies
♦ Cotton is very soft, which is why it is particularly favoured in underwear ranges and
other garments that are worn close to the skin. The ends of cotton fibres are spun
very tightly into the yarn so that the fabric doesn’t irritate skin or cause static
electricity
♦ Cotton is long lasting if looked after well
♦ Cotton can be easily blended with other fibres such as synthetics
♦ Cotton can be dyed various colours
♦ Stains can be easily removed from cotton
♦ Cotton is a good conductor of heat. In other words, it draws heat away from your skin
to keep you cool, making it very comfortable to wear
♦ Cotton absorbs moisture easily and can take up to one fifth of its weight in water
before it actually feels damp. Examples of products taking advantage of this quality
are medical products such as bandages and cotton balls, that can be used to soak
up blood or other liquids
♦ Cotton does not contain any chemicals and therefore is a natural product
♦ The cool properties of cotton are ideal for the Australian environment. Australians are
one of the highest cotton consumers in the World due to our specific climate and
lifestyle.

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Cotton Products
COTTON COTTONSEED COTTONSEED
FIBRE OIL

Dresses Margarine Animal feed

Jeans Rubber Compost
Jumpers Salad oil Cotton seed for planting
Pyjamas Cooking oil
Socks Soap
Tents Plastics
Blankets Cosmetics
Towels Insecticides
T-shirts Fungicides
Underwear Water proofing
Sheets Candles
Cotton buds
Cotton wool
Bank notes
Cotton/lycra blends
Cotton/polyester blends
Wool/denim blends
Cotton/wool blends

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Bed linen Candles

Cosmetics Paper

Soaps Cooking oils

Quilt Clothing

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Current Facts
Area of cotton grown in Australia
In Australia, cotton is grown mainly in south, central and north western NSW and central
and southern Queensland. The total cotton growing area for Australia for the 2006/07
season was 157,000 hectares. Of this, 115.000 hectares were in NSW and the
remaining 42,000 hectares were in Queensland.
The amount of cotton planted varies depending on the weather, price and the availability
of water. In other words, if dam storage levels are low at the beginning of the season
growers will generally plant less cotton.

Yields
While China and the USA lead the world in total production of cotton, Australia produces
about double the cotton per hectare of both countries.

So why are some countries able to produce higher yields per hectare than other
countries? The major reasons are the abilities of the farmers and researches as well as
the proportion of the total crop that is irrigated. In Australia, approximately 7% of the
yearly cotton yield is produced by dryland growing, which has a much lower average
yield per hectare. In Australia, irrigated cotton produces, on average, 8 bales per
hectare, whereas dryland cotton produces approximately 2.6 bales per hectare.

Export dollars
The main cotton exporters are the United States, India and Uzbekistan along with
countries such as Australia, and some African countries. Australia is the third largest
exporter of cotton in the world, exporting about 2.1 million bales in 2005-06, the USA
exports over 12 million bales and India about 4.2 million bales.

Destinations of Australian cotton

Around 2% of the cotton grown in Australia is spun by local spinning mills; the remaining
98% is exported, largely to Asia.
China, Indonesia and Thailand are the main buyers followed by South Korea, Japan,
Taiwan, Pakistan and Italy.

World fibre market share

Cotton is the biggest selling natural fibre in the world, accounting for around 40% of the
world fibre market compared to wool at just less than 4%. Over the past 30 years natural
fibres have lost market share to synthetic fibres. Despite cotton’s fall in the share of the
world fibre market, consumption of cotton is increasing overall due to increases in
population growth.
The main cotton producing countries in the world are China, USA, India, Pakistan, Brazil
and Pakistan. These countries account for nearly 80% of world production. Cotton is
grown in over 100 countries, 75 of which are developing countries. Australia is a
relatively small producer, but is the fourth largest exporter in the world cotton
marketplace. China, Brazil and India process almost all their cotton locally. China has,
in some years of poor crops, imported lint to process locally. Pakistan is also a major
grower and spinner.

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Latest Research
Targeted research has proven to be the industry's most valuable investment. The
majority of research funds are invested in the areas of crop protection, reducing
dependence on chemicals, sustainable farming practices and the breeding of new cotton
varieties. Australian cotton growers pay a compulsory levy of $2.25 per bale towards
research.

$30 million is spent on direct research funding each year by organisations such as the
Cotton Research and Development Corporation (CRDC), the Cotton Cooperative
Research Centre and government departments. 70% of the Cotton Research and
Development Corporation budget is invested into environmental sustainability programs.
In an informal sense, there is considerable money spent by growers in relation to on-
farm experimentation.

Some of the benefits of gene technology include: reducing environmental stress,

improved plant performance, lower food production costs, and more sustainable
production.

Scientific work is underway that may lead to cotton strains that are drought resistant,
need less water, improve fibre qualities like increasing flame resistance and reducing
wrinkles in fabrics.

Glossary
Agronomist A specially trained and qualified person who advises
cotton growers on how to manage soils and plants to
achieve highest quality
Anhydrous ammonia A colourless gas containing a high percentage of
nitrogen
Barbadense Species of long fine cotton. Includes Egyptian, American
Pima and the rare Sea Island cottons
Beneficials Insects or spiders that help the cotton plants by attacking
pests
Biological control Natural control of pests, using natural diseases or other
predators from the environment
Bobbin A cone shaped object that holds yarn
Boll The ‘fruit’ of cotton plants that holds the seeds and lint
Canvas (or duck) Heavy plain weave fabric with coarse weft and the warp
yarns woven in pairs. Common in tents, tarpaulins and
awnings, as well as some trousers, including those
issued to convicts transported to Australia
Carbohydrate An energy-producing substance or a type of sugar

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Carding Cotton lint fibres that have been untangled and left lying
in the same direction
Cellulose A carbohydrate that forms the cell walls in plant fibres
Channel A type of large drain that takes water to the cotton fields
and farms
Chipping Removing weeds manually by hand with a hoe
Clay soil A soil with very fine particles and very high in nutrients.
The clay soil turns sticky when it is wet, and cracks when
it is dry
Combs Carded cotton that has had most of the trash and short
fibres combed out. This enables finer yarns to be spun
from a given quality of cotton, producing strong, smooth
cloth
Consumer A person who buys and uses any goods like food and
clothing. You are a consumer

Contour banks Mounds of earth constructed along the contours of the

terrain (i.e. at right angles to the direction of the slope) to
minimise erosion of topsoil by rain
Cultivated Soil that has been dug up or turned before planting to
help control weeds and pests
Defoliation A process where a chemical is sprayed onto the cotton
plants which artificially induces Autumn causing the
plants to lose their leaves
Delinting Removal of fibres that remain on the surface of
cottonseed after ginning. 1. Mechanical, in which one or
two cutting processes remove linters, making the seed
suitable for crushing. 2. Chemical, where acid dissolves
all remaining linters, leaving clean seed for treatment
and planting
Denim A sturdy 2 and 1 twill weave bottom weight unbleached
fabric, in which the weft is white and the warp is usually
dyed indigo. It is produced in Australia for both local
garment makers and for export
Dryland A method of growing cotton relying only on the local
natural rainfall (i.e. not using irrigation water)
Erosion When fields are damaged through loss of soil carried
away by wind or water
Fabric Cloth or material used to make a variety of cotton
products
Fertilised When the male and female reproductive material
combine to make a new plant seed or animal
Fertiliser A type of nutrient or food that plants use

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Fibre A hair-like substance that can be spun or woven into
fabric
Frosts Very cold weather where temps fall below zero degrees
Celsius
Fungicide A chemical that helps plants avoid fungal infections
Furrow The lower part of the ground between the rows in a field
Gene A unit of inherited material, composed of DNA, that holds
the data (or instructions on how to produce) on the
particular features of a plant or animal that can be
passed on to the next generation
Germinate The stage during which a seed starts to grow into a plant
Gin A factory where lint is separated from the seed and then
further processed. Gins are located in growing areas and
perform many other functions such as cleaning, baling
and weighing. Gin is short for engine
Ginning The separation of picked cotton into seed and lint
Gossypium hirsutum A common type of cotton grown in Australia, more
commonly known as American Upland
Heliothis The main insect that destroys cotton and other crops
Herbicides A chemical used by growers to control weeds
Hessian A rough, tough material made from jute
High Volume Refined testing apparatus for quick and accurate
Instrument (HVI) measurement of fibre reflectance/yellowness
(grade/colour), fibre length, micronaire, strength and
extensibility. Modern versions optionally (but less
accurately) analyse neps, trash, fineness and maturity
and predict yarn tenacity
Insecticides A chemical used to control pest insects
Integrated Pest A specific method of controlling pests using a range of
Management (IPM) techniques including physical, biological and chemical
methods
Irrigated cotton Cotton that is watered (irrigated) using stored water from
reservoirs and dams.
Irrigation When water is transported from reservoirs to fields for
growing crops. Three main types are used in cotton
growing:
Mechanical irrigation — water supplied from pipes
overhead
Flood irrigation — water flows down the furrows and is
collected at the end in a taildrain
Subsurface drip irrigation — water delivered via pipes to
the plants

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Knitting Making patterns from fabric by looping yarns together
Larvae An insect in the early stages of its life cycle, resembling
a caterpillar
Lint The raw material of the cotton spinning industry. It is the
most valuable product of ginning and is transported in
bales of about 227 kg
Linters Shorter, furry fibres separated from the seed after
ginning
Merchant A person who negotiates prices of cotton between
growers and spinners
Micronaire Measure of mass per unit length of cotton fibre
Mill A factory where fibre is spun into yarn, or yarn is made
into fabric
Module A large, tightly packed ‘brick’ of seed cotton that is
transported from the farm to the gin
Mulch Dead plant matter that degenerates into a compost-like
substance
Muslin (or calico) Common top weight plain weave carded fabric, grey or
finished, traded as a commodity in New York. Includes
printcloth; often dyed or printed, as well as resist- printed
fabric in bold colours (as in calico cat). Used both in
sheets and apparel
Neps Small knots of fibres
Neutron probe An instrument used by growers to check moisture levels
in the soil
Nitrogen A colourless, odourless gas that is a part of air. It can be
added to the soil to help the plants grow usually in a
granular form
Nutrients Food for plants and animals
Pesticides Chemicals used to kill specific plant or animal pests
Pima A particular cotton species of American origin, one of two
main types grown in Australia
Pool When cotton is collected together and sold in one big
batch. Growers receive an average price that is usually
higher than if they were to sell the cotton in smaller
bundles
Protein An organic substance living organisms need to survive
Pupae Insects in the cocoon stage of their life cycle
Reservoir A large dam where water is stored
Resistant When a plant or animal is no longer affected by
something

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Rotation Growing different crops on a particular field season by
season. This process keeps the soil healthy
Seed cotton A term used to describe cotton before it has been ginned
(i.e. it contains the seed and lint which is attached to the
seed)
Sliver A loose rope of cotton produced in the first stage of
spinning
Spin Twisting fibres together to make yarn
Squares The flower buds of cotton plants
Stubble The leftover plant parts after picking, which eventually
becomes mulch
Tailwater Water that drains off a field after irrigation or rain
Toxic Something that is poisonous
Transgenic A plant or animal that has been changed genetically
using other genes
Trash Any material such as dirt, seed coat, bark, leaves and
twigs that might become caught up in the cotton
Warp Yarns running the length of a woven fabric form the warp
Weaving Making fabric by sewing yarns under and over other
yarns
Weft Yarns inserted across the width of woven fabric
Yarn A cylindrical thread of twisted fibres. Yarn is woven into
fabric

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2. Growing the Crop
How Cotton Grows
It takes about 4 to 14 days for seedlings to appear after seeds are planted in damp soil.
The cotton seedling grows into a young plant, sending down a long taproot to find water
and nutrients.

The first flower buds (called squares) appear within about 35 days. After a further 25
days, the first creamy-white, hibiscus-like flowers appear. The cotton plant continues to
produce squares and flowers for about half the growing season. The last productive
flower opens about three to four months after planting.

Cotton flowers only open for 24 hours. During this short time the flower must be
fertilised to produce the seed that has the cotton fibre or lint attached. Fertilisation takes
place when pollen from the anther (male part) is transferred to the stigma (female part)
of the flower. Four days after pollination (fertilisation) the flowers change colour from
pink to red, mauve or purple and the petals fall. Seed capsules, called bolls, then begin
to develop.

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Bolls reach full size about 25 days after the petals fall. After a further 35 to 55 days, the
bolls burst open and the actual cotton appears. When most of the bolls are open the
crop is ready to pick. The growing season from emergence to picking is about 180 days.

The cotton plant has a deep taproot, which can go as deep as 1.5m. It is fairly drought-
tolerant but requires a regular and adequate moisture supply to produce profitable
yields.

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Growing Conditions
The climate and/or water availability are the most significant contributing factors to the
distribution and type of cotton grown in Australia and the rest of the world.

Cotton can be grown either as dryland (reliant on rainfall) or as irrigated cotton

(requiring supplemented water supply).

Dryland cotton requires:

. regular and predictable rainfall
. rainfall in summer
. long periods of extreme heat with low humidity

Irrigated cotton requires:

. a reliable water supply available as needed
. irrigation water
. long periods of extreme heat with low humidity

The higher the average temperature and amount of direct sunlight during the growing
season, the faster the crop will grow and develop. The longer and hotter the growing
season, the higher the potential yield.

Irrigated cotton is better suited to low rainfall environments because the farmer has more
control over the level of moisture in the soil. The quality of the cotton is also less likely to
be affected by rainfall when the bolls open.

Dryland cotton is grown profitably in select areas, relying on stored subsoil moisture and
moderate summer rainfall.

Preparing the Land

The first step in growing any crop is to prepare the land. Cotton, particularly irrigated
cotton, requires a great deal of land preparation. It takes time to get the soil and the
general lay of the land ready for cotton growing. Once prepared, however, the field can
be used for a few years before needing to be prepared again. Soil preparation takes
place a few months before the cotton is planted, and in the case of irrigated cotton, this
allows the seed beds to settle.

On an irrigated cotton farm, fields are leveled and graded such that they have a precise
slope or grade. This is done to enable water to flow from the top of the field to the bottom
of the field in a controlled way. If the field isn’t sloped enough or is uneven, then water
can lie around and waterlog the soil or if too steep, the water will run off too quickly and
not water the plants. It is important that the slope enables the water to flow slowly down
the field watering all the plants evenly. A tail drain is constructed at the end of the field to
recycle the excess run-off water.

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Cotton is predominantly grown on cracking self-mulching clay soils found on flood
plains adjacent to rivers. Cracking self-mulching soil is a type of soil that expands and
contracts depending upon the water content of the clay.

Growers test the soil a few months prior to planting to check nutrient levels and how
much fertiliser is required. Nitrogen is the main nutrient needed by cotton plants, and it
can be applied in the form of anhydrous ammonia, a liquid that when directly applied to
the soil, changes back into a gas and clings to soil particles for the plants to use later.
Nitrogen can also be applied in granular form. Nitrogen can be added to the soil three
months before planting. Cotton also needs many other nutrients such as phosphorus,
potassium, sulphur and zinc.

Growing only one crop in a field can lead to a deficiency of nutrients and the build-up of
soil diseases and pests. All growers rotate crops to avoid these problems. For example,
a grower might decide to plant cotton in a field for three years, wheat the next year, and
then a plant legume crop or leave the field crop free (fallow). This process is called
rotation. Irrigated cotton growers usually rotate their cotton crop every three or four
years.

Planting
Cotton seed is planted in the spring as soon as the soil is warm enough to be sure of
satisfactory seed germination and crop establishment. The soil is warm enough when
the temperature reaches 14 degrees Celsius at a depth of 10 cm for at least three days.
In northern NSW, the right soil temperature is usually reached in late September or early
October. In Central Queensland, it is likely to occur up to a month earlier. In practise, the
Australian cotton crop is sown from September to mid November.

On irrigated crops, ‘row crop planters’ plant about 10 -12 seeds per metre, four
centimetres deep, into the soil on top of the rows (mounds).

Irrigation
What is irrigation?
Irrigation means taking water mechanically from one place to another for agriculture.
Irrigation generally occurs in Australia where the rain falls at a different time to when the
crop(s) need it. Water for irrigation comes from rivers or underground basins (huge
underground lakes from which water is pumped via bores).

State Governments stringently control the allocation of and access to water. Irrigation
farmers must buy a licence for a defined volume of water from the State Government.
When there is a limited supply of water, farmers may not be able to take all of the water
stipulated by their licence. Water distribution for domestic use, stock and permanently
planted crops (such as fruit trees) always have priority over cotton farms.

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Cotton growing therefore requires careful water management. Well-designed and well-
built systems combined with careful application ensure that a minimum amount of water
is used, and that there are many safeguards against wastage. Usually the land in an
area that uses irrigation is flat (often on a flood plain) allowing the water to be easily
moved from the natural source to the irrigated area. Cotton growers pump water from:
• rivers that have their flow controlled by large dams
• rivers that are free running
• natural underground reserves

Careful design of irrigation systems (including the slope of field) is important to ensure:
• water travels down a field at just the right speed to water, but not waterlog,
the plants
• that all run-off water is collected and recycled for re-use in the next irrigation
• nutrients or pesticides are not washed into rivers

The Environmental Protection Authorities in each state monitor the water quality of
rivers, streams and lakes to ensure there is no contamination by nutrients and
pesticides. There are large fines for anyone contaminating the waterways.

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Timing of irrigation
To really get the crop growing well from the early stages, there needs to be adequate
moisture in the soil. If there isn’t enough water in the soil from recent rains, growers can
either add a little extra water before cottonseed is planted or they can add the water just
after the seed is planted. This is called ‘watering up’ the crop. This initial irrigation is
usually followed by a further four to five irrigations, at ten day intervals, from mid-
December to late February or early March.

The time the crop really needs water the most is during January and February. This is
when the temperatures are highest and the fruit on the plants is starting to mature and
fill. The bolls are the ‘fruit’ of the cotton plant and look, initially, a little bit like an
unripened passionfruit. The timing of this irrigation is crucial to achieve high yields
(quantity) and high quality cotton fibres.

Furrow irrigation

Drip irrigation
Drip irrigation is another form of irrigation, and is an option for use particularly in sandy
soils (where water disappears quickly) and extremely hot regions (where evaporation
occurs quickly).

Drip infrastructure (pipes and dripper mechanisms) is laid beneath the surface, deep
enough to not be disturbed by cultivation machinery, but at a level enabling the delivery
of water directly to the plant roots. Drip irrigation ensures maximum efficiency of water
allocation, although the cost is much greater.

Crop water requirements

Average Irrigation Requirement
(megalitres per hectare)
Rice 12.3
Lucerne for hay 10
Corn 8
Asparagus 8
Watermelon 8
Tomatoes 8
Maize 7.15
Cotton 6.3
Soybeans 6
Sugar cane 5
Pasture for grazing 4
Source: ABS Water Use on Australian Farms 2005-06 and NSW Agriculture Farm Budgets 2006

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Managing the Crop
Weeds
Weeds reduce the productivity of the cotton plants by competing for food (nutrients),
water and sometimes light. If the weeds put too much pressure on the cotton plants, the
quality and yield of the cotton is reduced.

Weeds may also provide a haven for pests and diseases, attracting them to the crop.
During harvesting, weeds can choke up the machinery and contaminate the crop, and a
contaminated crop means extra time spent in cleaning and processing and additional
ginning costs to the growers.

It is not surprising, therefore, that growers have to spend a lot of time and effort
controlling weeds. They use several different methods to do this including:
• Cultivation, by digging up of weeds between the rows of cotton by a machine
called a cultivator
• Chipping, through weeding by hand, which is time consuming and labour
intensive
• Herbicides sprayed to kill weeds before planting and during cotton plant growth.

Examples of weeds are noogoora burr, nutgrass, anoda weed, sesbania and cowvine.

Diseases
Diseases affect the quality of the lint as well as the productivity of the cotton plant.
Different diseases attack different parts of the cotton plant — the leaves, stem, bolls and
roots. Disease may even cause the plant to lose its flower buds and bolls, resulting in no
yield.

Three common diseases affecting cotton are:

• Fusarium wilt, a common fungus that infects plants via the root system. It
blocks the plant’s ability to take up water
• Black root rot, a fungus that affects seedlings, causing stunting and slow
growth
• Bacterial blight, a bacterial disease that causes dark green angular spots on the
underside of the leaf. It may also affect young developing bolls.

Combating Diseases
There are three main ways to combat disease:

1. Rotation and fallow

Since diseases can build up in the soil when the same crop is grown year after year,
crop rotation is a common method of prevention. Rotating or changing the crops in a
field every few years means diseases don’t get a chance to settle in, breaking their
cycle.

Sometimes growers might let a field lay ‘fallow’. A fallow field is a field that is being
rested, usually with no crops in it at all.

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2. Plant breeding
Scientists have also developed resistant or tolerant cotton varieties that are able to fend
off certain diseases. By introducing these new stronger varieties growers can get rid
of diseases without having to use other methods that might be more harmful to the
environment.

3. Fungicides
A fungicide is a chemical that kills fungi. Most planting seed sold in Australia has been
coated with a fungicide to protect it during its early days in the soil.

Insects
Watered and fertilised cotton crops are very attractive to insects throughout their whole
growing period. As cotton is a lush green and bushy plant, many insects love it. 30
different species of insects attack cotton, four are of major importance, requiring control
measures in most regions in most seasons:

. Heliothis (Helicoverpa punctigera or Helicoverpa armigera) caterpillar

. green mirid (Creontiades dilutes)
. two spotted mite (Tetranychus urticae)
. cotton aphid (Aphis gossypii).

The worst of these is Heliothis. Heliothis caterpillars can attack the plant at any stage
throughout the season. They feed on the tender growing points and can cause squares
(flower buds) and young bolls to drop off the plant. They can also bore into large bolls
and allow diseases to enter.

Combating insects
There are many methods used to control insects to ensure high yields and good quality
cotton is produced. The use of all these methods is known as Integrated Pest
Management (IPM). Some of the methods used to control insect pests include:

• Management of crops to promote early maturity

• Encouraging beneficial insects into the crop, such as ladybirds, spiders, wasps
and ants, to eat the pests
• Regular monitoring of insect populations and crop damage
• Alternating pesticides to reduce the chance of pesticide resistance
• Crop rotation to kill the Heliothis pupae living in the soil
• Ploughing the field after harvesting to destroy the Heliothis pupae
• Biological sprays containing viruses or the naturally occurring soil bacterium
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) that produces proteins toxic to heliothis
• Use of transgenic cotton such as Bt cotton (Bollgard II)

Transgenic Cotton
An alternative to spraying is to introduce an in-built defence into the plant itself.
Scientists have isolated a protein that occurs normally in soil borne bacteria called
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) that attacks only the heliothis insects. Research trials have
shown that there are no side effects for any other plants or animals from having the
gene in the cotton.

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The first new strain of cotton was developed and trialed over many years before its
limited release in 1996, and is generically referred to as Bt cotton. In 1996-97, Ingard,
the first ‘brand’ of this cotton, was grown and constituted 10% of the national crop.
Pesticide applications on the Ingard crop were reduced by over 50%. Further research
led to a variety of cotton with two genes that will produce two different proteins in the
leaves that will be toxic to Heliothis called Bollgard II.
Some heliothis are, however, naturally resistant to Bt and this poses a problem. If these
insects survive, they could quickly breed with other resistant insects, creating a
population of Bt resistant heliothis.
To combat the problem, growers planted conventional cotton alongside Bt cotton, so that
large numbers of insects will survive and will swamp the resistant insects during
breeding to dilute the resistant population.
Crops that attract the natural predators of heliothis are also planted in strips close to Bt
cotton. These predators are then encouraged onto the cotton by a food spray, and in
turn destroy the heliothis when they arrive.
There has been some misguided concern that transgenic cotton could fertilise wild
cotton plants creating hybrids. However, researchers have measured pollen movement
from transgenic crops and found that there is no possibility of this occurring, nor the
widespread movement of pollen to other cotton.

Defoliation and Picking

Once the cotton crop has matured and ripened, it is sprayed with a defoliant and picked
(or harvested). Cotton picking usually occurs in February to March in Queensland and
late March to April in NSW.

Growers usually wait until most of the bolls have opened up and fully matured
before they start defoliation and picking. The cotton is tested to see if it is ready to be
defoliated and picked by cutting open the bolls and looking to see if the seeds inside are
fully formed.

Defoliation
To help the bolls open fully and to remove the leaves (trash) from the cotton
plant, a conditioner and/or defoliant is applied. The conditioner or ‘boll opening
treatment’ prematurely induces Autumn which speeds up boll opening and causes the
green leaves to fall off the plant. Only the open bolls are left remaining on the plant. The
plant itself is not killed and the cotton can be picked cleanly without the leaves staining
the lint.

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Cotton plant ready for picking

Picking
Cotton picking was once done by hand (and still is in some developing countries) and
was therefore a very labour intensive task. Today, it is carried out by large harvesting
machines. Pickers can harvest 2, 4 or 6 rows at a time and cost approximately
A$500,000 to buy new.

Cotton picker

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From ‘Boll Buggy’ to ‘Module Builder’
Once the cotton is picked it is emptied into a tractor-drawn bin called a ‘boll buggy’.
When the boll buggy bin is full it is emptied into a ‘module builder’. The module builder
distributes and compresses the cotton to build a large freestanding stack or ‘module’
that contains about 13 tonnes of seed cotton. A module is 11-12m long, 2.5m wide and
2.5m high.

Module builder

A series of modules

The seed cotton in the module consists of lint (fibre) and seed. Modules are covered with
tarpaulins to prevent rain damage. They are transported to the gin on either specially
designed trucks called chain beds or on normal flat bed trucks where they are stored
until they can be ginned (or processed).

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3. After the Farm
Ginning
Cotton gins are factories that complete the first stage of processing cotton - separating
the lint from the seed.
Before the gin was invented, the lint and seed had to be separated by hand. It took one
person a whole day to separate only half a kilo of the lint from the cottonseed. Modern
gins can separate and bale about 230,000 kilograms of cotton in one day.

A modern gin

The Ginning Process

The cotton arrives at the gin in modules where the first step is to remove any green
bolls, rocks and sticks. Cotton must be ginned with a moisture level of 5%. The cotton is
dried out if it is too wet or water is added if it is too dry to ensure the correct moisture
level.

There are several different stages that then remove the “trash”, ie. the sticks, twigs, dirt,
stalks and leaves.
After cleaning, the cotton is then ready for separation in the gin stand. The gin stand
removes the seed from the lint.

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Any remaining trash in the lint is then removed and the clean lint is pressed into bales,
which weigh 227kg each. Samples are taken from each bale for classing and the bales
are wrapped in hessian to protect the lint.

Dryer Inclined Cleaner

The cotton is dried to a Separates leaves, stalks and
moisture level of 5% dirt from cotton

Impact Cleaner Stick Machine

Removes more of the trash Separates sticks and twigs
from the cotton

Extractor Feeder Gin Stand

Takes out even more of the Removes the seed from the
trash and feeds the cotton into cotton
the gin stand

Baling Machine Lint Cleaner

Presses and bales the cotton Removes the last of the trash

Cotton bales ready for shipment

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Products from Ginning
When the seed cotton is processed in the gin, three products result — cottonseed, lint
and waste.
• Seed. The seeds make up about 55% of the seed cotton weight that comes from
the farms. They are very valuable and are used for a variety of products such as
oil, plastics, stock feed, cosmetics and margarine. They might also be used as
seeds for the next cotton crop
• Lint. Lint makes up 35% of the seed cotton weight. Once the lint has been
separated it is compacted into bales for easy transporting. The cotton bales are
then mostly transported directly to Australian ports for export to other countries to
further process (spin) the cotton.

• Waste product. The remaining 10% of the seed cotton is classed as waste
product or trash. Cotton fibre waste can be used in ethanol manufacturing or in
products that clean up oil spills.

Classing
Cotton Classing
In general terms cotton classing is the way in which cotton fibre is sorted into different
quality-based grades (or classes). The higher the class, the better the quality of the
cotton fibre, and hence the higher the price that will be paid.
The more traditional method of testing the cotton quality involves using only specially
trained ‘classers’ who manually examine the cotton fibres. This testing involves the
classer taking a sample from each bale of cotton and assessing it by colour (bright or
dull, white or grey), trash content (the amount of stalk, leaf or dirt), and character
(whether the sample has a smooth or lumpy appearance), staple (length of fibre) and the
strength of the fibres.
The grading categories are revised and updated, usually on an annual basis. Below are
some examples of the terms used.

White Grades Spotted Grades Tinged Grades

best Good Middling — —
Strict Middling Strict Middling —
Middling Middling Middling
Strict Low Middling Strict Low Middling Strict Low Middling
Low Middling Low Middling Low Middling
Strict Good Ordinary Strict Good Ordinary Strict Good Ordinary
Good Ordinary Good Ordinary —

increasing quality

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In the white grades, the ‘Good Middling’ represents the highest grade, i.e. bright colour,
virtually free from trash and smooth. Australia generally produces cotton at the top end
of the middling group. Pima (Gossypium Barbadense) is above the middling group. It is a
premium, fine, long stapled variety. Pima has longer, stronger fibres than the Upland
variety, and grows in the warm dry climate of Menindee Lakes and Bourke, NSW. It
receives a higher price than the Upland variety but is more susceptible to water damage.

HVI Testing
High Volume Instrument (HVI) testing is a technically based method used by both
marketers and buyers to accurately check the quality and exact value of cotton fibres.
The technique originated in the USA and is being constantly improved and expanded.
Australian companies have also contributed to the world’s knowledge about HVI testing.
An HVI test print-out includes information relating to the following areas:

Grade Relating to any visible impurities and the degree of

whiteness.
Length The price of cotton is roughly proportional to staple length.
Australian crops typically produce 28mm (1.15 inch) staple if
irrigated, but shorter from a dryland crop.
Micronaire The fineness of the cotton that affects how quickly it can be
spun.
Trash and The number of trash and dust particles that are in the cotton.
dust
Tenacity and Strength and stretching. If the cotton is stronger it can be
elongation used in smaller quantities.

At the end of the classing process each 227kg bale of cotton carries the classer’s
description. This grade will decide whether the cotton is sold for a higher or lower price,
known as premium or discount.

HVI Testing

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Processing Cottonseed
Cottonseed is separated from the lint during the ginning process. Before the seed can be
crushed for oil extraction or used for planting future crops, it must be delinted. This
means removing any excess lint still attached to the seed. These final short fibres
(linters) are used to make many industrial and domestic products.

Cottonseed before delinting

After the linters are removed, the hull (the hard shell covering the seed) is removed.
Inside the hull is the kernel – the really valuable part of the seed. To produce oil, the
kernels are flattened using rollers and then cooked at very high temperatures.
The kernels are squeezed and crushed and the oil flows out. This oil is then processed
and refined further, turning it into a light yellow, tasteless, odourless oil. Cottonseed oil is
used in the manufacture of products such as vegetable oil, margarine, soap and
cosmetics.
The excess hulls and leftover kernels can be used to feed animals such as pigs, cattle
and poultry.

Pricing and Marketing

Profitability
For the cotton farm to be profitable the grower needs to maintain high yields and
minimise costs. That means farming carefully by constantly monitoring water needs and
use, pest numbers and such things as soil quality. It also means developing and
implementing good marketing strategies. For irrigated cotton the availability and cost of
water is one of the key factors influencing profitability.

World Prices
World prices for cotton fluctuate according to world demand and supply and, in recent
years, have been reasonably low due to world production increasing.
All cotton growers closely monitor world prices. Indeed, price remains a major
determinant of how much cotton is planted each year.

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Marketing
Australian raw cotton is marketed under a competitive market system with several major
international and local cotton merchants operating in the Australian market. Cotton
growers have a range of options for the delivery, processing and sale of seed cotton.
Sale Options
Cotton growers can choose to sell their cotton from the following options:
1. Sell directly to a merchant or ginner (also known as a processor). The grower sells
the cotton before it has been processed. The merchant or ginner then sells the seed
and lint separately.
2. Deliver to a ginner who retains the cottonseed, with the grower receiving the lint to
be sold separately via international markets.
3. Grower retains ownership of both cottonseed and lint and, after paying a processing
fee, sells both cottonseed and lint independently.
In Australia there are a large number of providers (about 900 growers) who supply a
small number of marketers (about 13).
Price Options
A number of factors can influence the price of cotton. These include the amount of
cotton available for purchase (i.e. how much cotton growers supply to the market) and
the quantity of cotton that processors need or wish to purchase (i.e. the amount they
demand). The price is also dependant on the futures price on the New York Stock
Exchange and the exchange rate of the US dollar.
Farmers can choose to sell their cotton lint in a number of ways.
a) Cash market — The price of cotton on world markets fluctuates daily. When growers
have cotton ready for sale, they can sell it at the daily or ‘spot’ price.
b) Forward contract — Using the cash market involves a certain amount of price risk,
i.e. that the spot price will fall when the grower is ready to sell. To help insure against
this risk, the grower can negotiate a forward contract with a buyer. This agreement
sets out the price, quantity and quality of cotton the grower has to deliver on a
specified future date. Therefore, the grower can know how much the crop can be
sold for even before it has been planted.
c) Seasonal pool — Growers commit a certain proportion of their cotton production to a
pool of cotton. An agent is responsible for selling the cotton in the pool on behalf of
all the growers. The price received by the growers for their cotton is the average of
all sales made from that pool in that season.
d) Minimum price pool — ensures that the farmer gets at least the seasonal pool price.
If the prices go higher growers receive higher fees.
e) Call pool — farmers must promise an amount of cotton for the pool but this cotton
can be traded using ‘futures’ and ‘options’ methods of sale, where amounts traded
are simply written down as potential sale orders on paper.
f) Balance of crop – bales not sold using any of the above methods are sold at an
agreed price.

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Cottonseed Marketing
Cottonseed is marketed differently to the fibre. Growers have two options when selling
their seed. Firstly, they may sell it to a company that has a ‘seed pool’ (a stockpile of
seed purchased from a number of different growers). This type of company either sells
the seed as stock feed, or crushes it to make oil. The second option is for growers to sell
their seed to small private traders who on-sell the seed here in Australia or overseas.
Some growers grow a portion of their crop purely for planting seed — the seed used to
plant future crops. Planting seed is specially grown under contract to seed companies.
The emphasis is on producing healthy, high quality seed rather than lint. Growers must
ensure that there is no contamination (crossbreeding) by weeds or other varieties of
cotton. These crops are picked and ginned separately to maintain purity in the different
varieties.

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Processing the Cotton
The process of turning cotton lint into fabric involves several distinct manufacturing
operations and numerous complex machines.

Opening and Cleaning Blending

All remaining trash is removed Fibres from different bales are
from the cotton lint mixed to ensure uniformity of the
product

Drawing Carding
The cotton fibres are drawn out to Opens the cotton up to individual
produce a sliver fibres to allow remaining dust and
impurities to be removed

Ring Spinning Knitting

The fibre is twisted into thinner 2 Sets of yarn are crossed under
roving before being spun and over each other to lock them
tightly together

Rotor Spinning Weaving

The yarn is spun directly from the Done by looping yarns together in
sliver a regular pattern

Finishing
The fabric is treated to improve
the way it looks, feels and wears

Spinning
The following stages are involved in spinning:
• The cotton bales are opened and any sand, grit or unwanted matter is removed
• Fibres from different bales are blended to ensure a uniform product
• The cotton fibres are combed to make them run parallel, then drawn out to
produce a loose rope called sliver
• The ropes of sliver are further thinned out by either ring spinning or rotor spinning
to produce yarn.

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Manufacturing
After the cotton lint has been spun into yarn it is then woven or knitted into fabric.

Knitting
Knitting fabric from cotton yarn is a simpler process than weaving. Knitting involves
forming loops with one or more single continuous yarns and joining each loop to its
neighbours to form a fabric.

Weaving
Weaving is done on a machine called a loom. Before the weaving can start, the loom
needs to be set up with warp yarn. Warp yarn runs up and down the loom. Weft yarn is
then woven (or sewn) over and under the warps from side to side. A torpedo-like
implement at very high speeds does the weaving. Many hundreds of metres of yarn are
used per minute during weaving. The resulting fabric is particularly strong.

Fabric Finishing
Fabric finishing makes the fibre look and feel better. It is the final step in the
manufacturing process. Some fabric, such as bagging, is ready for use straight from the
loom. There are many ways to finish off the fabric including:
• Scouring, this process removes microdust
• Bleaching, this produces an off-white colour
• Gassing, this produces a smooth finish to the fabric
• Stentering, this prevents the shrinkage and wrinkling of knitted or woven fabrics
• Sanforising, this prevents the shrinkage of woven fabrics
• Calendering, the fabric is given a final press to produce different effects
• Dyeing, colour can be added to the yarn or the fabric. Fabric can also be printed
to apply colours and patterns
• Permanent press, this finish prevents the need for frequent ironing
• Water repellency, this finish ensures water is repelled not absorbed
• Fire retardant, finishes such as cotton proban can resist fire

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