Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
2007
Gender 2
The contemporary debate on the term “gender justice” has various dimensions.
There have been philosophical discussions on rights and responsibilities, human agency
discussions on the access to justice. Typically, the term is used to denote mechanisms to
promote women’s position in society and their access to social parameters like health,
attitude has been to assume the traditional patriarchal values as normal, more radical
approaches have tried to subvert the norms and challenge political status quo. The term is
increasingly being used in place of gender equality and gender mainstreaming as the
latter terms have more or less failed to communicate (Goetz, 2007, p20). In essence,
gender justice is the ending of inequalities between men and women as well as the
The Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action at the Fourth United Nations
fundamental rights of both men and women in all areas. It was recognized that there is a
status. Gender mainstreaming by which all strategies and policies by member countries
The realization that economic and social rights were in fact linked with political
and civil rights were also translated in the sphere of gender justice. The dichotomies of
rights in the context of women’s rights surfaced aggressively through the demands for
mainstreaming of gender issues, that is the conviction that women’s rights were no
different from human rights in other spheres like health, education, freedom and justice.
Gender 3
It was realized that without the right to legal claims, women could not expect to receive
justice in settlements like land, property or divorce. Without literacy and education,
women did not have the understanding of their rights. And, women had a right to
motherhood as much as the choice for the number of children to bear and the right to a
women’s ‘needs’ and not ‘rights’. There was a deliberate denial of approaching problems
of sexual and reproductive health, or lack of access to safe and clean drinking water,
denial of human rights and distributive justice. Women’s activists, on the other hand,
considered women’s legal rights and the indivisibility of human rights in gender lines as
fundamental to enable women to participate fully in the economic and social framework
(UNRISD, 2000).
Gender is a social construct that defines roles and responsibilities of men and
women, regulating the role of sexuality, choice of occupations by men and women and
the stereotypes. Typically, men hold positions of power even in democracies. Only 14
parliament, as set out in the Beijing Declaration of 1995. Women have less access to and
control of economic powers, rewarded for less remuneration than men for the same work,
treated differently in global trade. Women receive less education than men; have to walk
long distances to collect drinking water, thereby falling vulnerable to violence; sexual
and reproductive health problems result in illness and disability to women; more number
practice safe sex and having access to HIV testing and care services; women become
victims of gender-based violence and cultural taboos. On the whole, the mainstreaming of
gender has generally failed because the approach towards ‘integrating’ women in the
society does not challenge existing power equations. Women have continued to be
offered stereotyped jobs, not receiving equal training and education and insufficient
By the time the issue for gender justice came up for a review in the Special
Session for the Beijing +5 in 2005, the world had greatly changed. Political and economic
changes around the world had shattered the faith in the current state of gender justice
measures implemented in various countries. After the end of the Cold War, women had
attention towards gender justice. In 2004, the United Nations Security Council passed the
violence and rape in conflict areas (MacMohan, 2004). For many, the failure of gender
Through the 1990s, there was hope for increased gender justice, emanating from
considerable improvement, despite the conditions did not challenge the status quo
because of the low base of the 1980s. From a global average of 6 percent women’s
representation in national parliaments in the 1980s, the share grew to 12 percent in the
Gender 5
1990s (UNRISD, 2000). Women have become more active in mainstream politics as well
as in grass root politics. Although women’s issues have become important and women’s
groups have become more vocal, gender issues are becoming even less of concern in
world. In the Islamist world, typically, women’s participation has been all the more
noticeably absent. Although there is the implicit assumption that debates about
democracy are gender-neutral issues, struggles for citizenship rights in countries like Iran
have been “naturally inclusive of women” (UNRISD, 2000). Among political parties, the
African National Congress (ANC) has been one of the most progressive ones with regard
to gender issues. Yet, gender justice that has been achieved in South Africa has been a
In the new millennium, gender justice has remained unfulfilled. The world is
witnessing a different economic power equation than in the previous decade. While
gender mainstreaming has lost its political validity as a means for social transformation,
the economic and political climate has become all the more unfavorable for gender
justice.
relationships, are crumbling down. The classical patriarchy, dependent on the male
property ownership and family headship notion, had given rise to the urban “fordist
gender regime” – male bread earner/ female house maker - in the western world in the
1950s and 1960s, also duplicated in some parts of the developing world. Economic
development and increased competition has meant that the male salary earnings are not
sufficient for the increasing consumption patterns. Brenner (2003) notes that
Gender 6
incorporation of women in the workforce and their increased access to education and
literacy has brought feminism in the forefront of organized politics (cited in Dhawan, p2).
Women activists are not increasingly becoming more vocal in national politics but also
on global issues. At the same time, marginalized women are becoming even more
vulnerable to global capital reorganization. Worldwide, women are facing the brunt of
longer working hours, impoverishment, economic insecurity and forced migration and
urbanization. Working class women find themselves in the crossroad of development and
reactionary policy and continue to remain, if not become increasingly so, victims of
1999, cited in Dhawan, p3). Pressures of structural adjustments imposed on many Third
World countries have given rise to fundamentalism, which stem from the traditional
patriarchal powers and victimize women even more. The emerging capitalist structures of
many of these societies have eroded the protection of the traditional patriarchy that
women used to have earlier. Women in the Third World are at the crosshead of two
powerful forces: one, the nationalist agenda that is inherently masculine in which women
are expected to follow traditional roles while the men are free to participate in the
political arena, and two, global capital, which forces women to participate in the
economic field, overpowering the nationalist agenda. While in the west, women of color
feel that the feminist agenda is essentially white-oriented, in the Third World, the
political interests of working class women are marginalized. Over and above this, women
from the South are dominated over by the women of North (Mohanty, 1999, cited in
“What is clear is that from the very founding of women, gender and development
the “women’s point of view” was not singular but heterogeneous and multiple.
Varela, p2).
George Bush’s claim that the US War on Afghanistan was aimed to free the women from
oppression. The demand for such freedom was generated essentially by feminist
organizations in the west since 1997 to deny investments to the Taliban. Such claims,
however, ignored that the Taliban initially drew its powers from the West itself, which
The system of micro-credit financing in the Third World has been another form of
denying gender justice. There has been a proliferation of such institutions in the Third
World and the most successful ones have been the ones that provide small loans to
women. These NGOs typically receive their funds from the World Bank and USAID
independence, what they essentially achieve is to integrate women with the informal
economy all the more, by exploiting their children, particularly daughters, to get the work
done. Besides, the micro-credit institutions reinforce the traditional values of morality
and maternal virtues in order to bypass the role of government and regulated
development. “Credit-baiting” has been a means to turn gender justice on its head and
make it an instrument for exploitation and imperialism (Spivak, 1999, cited in Dhawan).
Gender 8
Most feminists find the voice of woman in Western culture is generally associated
with the voice of the “Other”, that of the inconsequential or the child. This is a voice, he
stresses, that the dominant mores of western societies time and again disregarded or took
no notice of. Even today, despite its nearly two hundred years of history, women’s
literature, enriched and endowed with many attributes and critical insights, is still
branded as the voice of the man-hating feminists. Theorists like Helene Cixous and Julien
Kristeva attempt to answer the questions that many women writers may have themselves
tried to find. Why have women's voices been missing in a plentiful practice of language
that crosses over two thousand years? Is it just because women are not allowed in the
realm of education that would have enabled them into the speech-society? Or, is there in
fact a separate way of communication in the woman's world, in a unique language, which
has made it hard for women to connect with the world-at-large (Jasken)? “Every woman
has known the torture of beginning to speak aloud”, laments Cixous and says, “heart
beating as if to break, occasionally falling into loss of language, ground and language
slipping out from under her, because for woman speaking – even just opening her mouth
Thus, the concept of gender justice is complex and eternal. While the political
aspects of women’s exploitation and the effects of globalization are understandable, the
attitude towards women has remained patriarchal. Even though women’s voices have
been raised louder in the present days, they are still a marginalized lot at home, in
Works Cited
Brenner, Johannna (2003). Transnational Feminism and the Struggle for Global Justice,
New Politics, 9(2)
Cixous, Helene, Sorties, in The Newly Born Woman (1975, English translation, 1984).
Retrieved from http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~pamhard/338Cixous.htm
Dhawan, Nikita, “Transnational Feminist Alliances and Gender Justice”, Second Critical
Studies Conference, “Sphere of Justice”: Feminist Perspectives on Justice,
http://www.mcrg.ac.in/Spheres/Nikita.pdf
Goetz, A-M. (2007). “Gender Justice, Citizenship and Entitlements - Core Concepts,
Central Debates and New Directions for Research”, in Gender Justice, Citizenship and
Development, eds. M. Mukhopadhyay and N. Singh, International Development Research
Centre, Ottawa, pp. 15-57
Kaplan, Caren, et al, ed. (1999). Between Women and Nation: Nationalism,
Transnational Feminism, and the State, Durham, NC, Duke University Press
United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD) (2000). Gender
Justice, Development and Rights: Substantiating Rights in a Disabling Environment, 3
June. Retrieved from http://www.pogar.org/publications/other/unrisd/gender.pdf
Gender 10
Varela, Maria do Mar Castro. “Envisioning Gender Justice”. Second Critical Studies
Conference, “Sphere of Justice”: Feminist Perspectives on Justice. Retrieved from
http://www.mcrg.ac.in/Spheres/Maria.pdf