Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Prenatal Development
• Zygotes are fertilized eggs
• In the first week, the cell divides to produce a zygote of about 100 cells
• After the first week, the cell will differentiate and specialize in structure and
function
• After ten days, the zygote will attach to the mother’s uterine wall
• The placenta and the embryo are then formed
• After nine weeks, the embryo is known as the fetus
• After six months, the organs like the stomach will be able to function and perform
• The fetus starts to respond to noise during the sixth month
• Both genetic and environmental factors can affect the prenatal development
• Fetal Alcohol Syndrome is usually seen with children born with mental as well as
physical deformities. Over 1 in 750 kids are born with this syndrome
• FAS is the leading cause of mental retardation
• Pregnant women who have been stressed during their pregnancy have children
who are less competent in motor skills, emotional as well as learning deficiency.
Increased proclivity of depression
Brain Development
• Over 23 billion neurons were produced in the child by birth
• From age 3-6, the brain’s neural system starts to grow in the frontal lobes,
enabling rational planning
• Maturation sets the basic course of development. It is the genetically designed
biological growth process.
• Maturation is uninfluenced by experiences
• While genetic growth tendencies are inborn
Motor Development
• The order in which physical coordination occurs like crawling before walking is
due to the maturing of the nervous system and has nothing to do with imitation
• Individual differences in timing occur
• Genes play a role in the timing of each coordination. Identical twins would be
able to walk more or less on the same day
• Biological maturation includes the rapid development of the cerebellum at the
back of the brain
• Experiences will not have a major effect on the child’s physical skills until after
age 1
Cognitive Development
• Jean Piaget’s works revolved around the errors give by children by each age.
• Before Piaget, people thought that children “simply knew less, not differently
than adults.”
• Later it was discovered that “children reason in wildly illogical ways about
problems whose solutions are self-evident to adults.”
• A child’s mind also develops through many stages
• Piaget revealed that schemas develop when the brain builds concepts. The
schemas are mental molds into which we pour our experiences.
• There are two ways which we could adjust our schemas. By assimilating as well
as accommodating them.
• When we assimilate new schemas, we interpret them into our current schemas
• When we accommodate our schemas, we adjust our present schemas to fit the
particulars of new experiences. You refine the category.
Social Development
• Stranger Anxiety- fear of strangers, starting at around 8 months. They have
schemas for similar faces.
• The intense mutual infant-parent bond develops by 12 months.
Orgins of Attachments
• Harry Harlow and Margaret Harlow revealed in their monkey studies that
monkeys brought up in isolated cages with cheese clothes, became distressed
when the cheesecloth was taken away from them.
• When they created two mothers , by inserting a wire cylinder with a wooden head
and another cylinder with terry cloth, they found that the monkeys they found that
the monkeys did not prefer the nourishing mother, but instead the comfy mother.
• This revealed that much of the parent-infant attachment comes from touch
• A safe haven as well as a secure base also strengthens attachment
• Critical period is known as an optimal period shortly after birth when certain
events must take place to facilitate proper development.
• Imprinting is the process by which certain animals form attachments during a
critical period very early in life.
• Children do not imprint
• Familiarity is more comfortable to children
Attachment Differences
• Mary Ainsworth studied attachment differences by observing mother infant pairs
at home during their first six months.
• Securely attached children play and explore comfortably when a mother is present
and then becomes distressed when she leaves.
• Insecurely attached children meanwhile explore less in the mother’s presence and
may cling to her, cry loudly when she leaves and remain upset until she returns.
• Sensitive responsive parents tend to have securely attached children
• Genetically influenced temperament may evoke responsive parenting, but parental
sensitivity has been taught and does increase infant attachment security.
• Both father and mother love is a predictor to a child’s well-being.
• Adult relationships tend to reflect the secure or insecure attachment styles of early
childhood.
• Erick Erickson’s idea prompted that basic trust is formed in infancy through our
experiences with responsive caregivers.
Deprivation of Attachment
• Children become withdrawn and frightened when they are deprived of attachment
and may not be able to develop speech properly
• Childhood abuse can lead to physical, psychological as well as social problems, it
may alter the brain’s production of serotonin.
• This effect can be minimal before 16 months of age, by age 2 problems start to
develop if abuse persists.
• Extensive time spent in day care is linked to increased aggression and defiance
Self Concept
• Self concept is the sense of their own identity and personal worth.
• It emerges around 6 months
• At 15-16 months, children start to recognize themselves in the mirror
• When they start school, they can describe many of their own traits
• By age 10, their self conception is rigid and stable
• The children’s views of themselves affect their actions. Children who form a
positive self concept are more confident, independent and optimistic
Adolescence
• Adolescence is the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from
puberty to independence
• G.Stanley Hall described adolescence as the tension between biological maturity
and social dependence
Physical Development
• Puberty paves way to a surge of hormones, creating mood swings.
• The primary sex characteristics (reproductive organs) develop dramatically
• Menarche- first menstrual period
• Spermarche-first ejaculation
• Early developing boys become stronger and more athletic, as well as more
popular and have a higher self esteem.
• Hereditary and environmental interaction plays a major role of how both boys and
girls feel about puberty
• During puberty, unused neural connections are weakened
• Myelin also grows in the frontal lobe during puberty
• The frontal lobe maturation slows down the emotional limbic system. This
explains why teenagers can be impulsive
• Younger teens are more likely to smoke or do drugs since they are unable to plan
ahead.
Cognitive Development
• Adolescents are more likely to worry about what others think about themselves.
Since this is when they start to think about how others perceive them
• During the early teenage years, reasoning is often self-focused. They feel that
their private experiences are unique. They think that others can not understand
their unique experiences
• Formal operations is the shift from preadolescents thinking concretely to
adolescents becoming more capable of abstract logic. This is Piaget’s theory
• The teenager’s ability to reason hypothetically and deduce consequences allows
them to detect inconsistencies in other’s reasoning and to spot hypocrisy
Developing Morality
• Kohlberg did studies in which he recorded the morality thoughts of people of
different ages. He found that there were 3 different stages
o Preconventional Morality- When children before 9 years old, have a
preconventional morality of self interest. These children obey either to
avoid punishment or to gain concrete awards
o Conventional Morality – When young teenagers, use morality which
includes caring for others as well as upholding laws and social rules just
because they are rules and laws.
o Post conventional morality- When someone develops personally perceived
ethical principles, they confirm people’s agreed upon rights
• Kohlberg constructed the moral ladder, which included the three stages
• Once our thinking matures, our behavior becomes less selfish and more caring
• Elevation- tingly, warm, glowing feeling in the chest, usually felt when
witnessing someone doing charity
• Jonathan Haidt exclaimed in his book social intuitionist, that moral feelings
overpower moral reasoning. He revealed that moral reasoning aims to convince
others of what we feel
• Joshua Greene found that when a person is faced with dilemmas, their neural
responses varied, based on how much their emotion areas lit up
• Despite the identical logic, the personal dilemma allowed emotions that altered
mood judgment.
• Morality is influenced by social influences, and is doing the right thing.
• Children are taught to be empathetic to others.
• Those who rely on delay gratification (restraining one’s impulse and waiting for a
greater award) became more socially responsible as well as academically
successfully. Students are engaged in responsible action through service learning.
Social Development
• Erik Erikson exclaimed that individuals go through eight stages in life, each with
a psychosocial task.
• Till age 1, the issue was that of trust and mistrust
• Till age 2, it becomes autonomy vs. shame and doubt
• Till age 5, the issue is initiative and guilt
• Till puberty, the child is given the issues of inferiority and competence
• From adolescence till becoming a young adult, it becomes about finding one’s
identity
• For young adults, the issue is between intimacy and isolation
• From 50-60 years old, it becomes generativity vs. stagnation.
• From 60s up, the issue becomes integrity vs. despair.
Forming an identity
• Erikson revealed that some teenagers take their parents values and expectations
and use it as their identity.
• Other teenagers tend to gain a negative identity by rejecting traditional values ant
conforming to a particular group
• William Damon revealed that a main idea of teenagers is to try to make a
difference in the world
• Daniel Hart discovered that younger teenagers were more likely to reflect the
values of a certain group while older teenagers were more likely to reflect their
own personal values.
• Older teenagers were also more likely to have intimacy, the ability to form
emotionally close relationships. This is after these individuals get a better sense of
who they are
Emerging Adulthood
• Emerging adulthood are people who are no longer teenagers but are not ready to
take on adulthood responsibilities.
• Due to this emerging adulthood, marriage has been delayed by several years.
Adulthood’s Commitments
• Erik Erikson pinned two aspects of our live. Intimacy and Generativity.
• Generativity is being productive and supporting future generations.
• Love and work are two major themes of adulthood
• The social expectation of families staying together, is explained by evolutionary
psychologists in having a better chance of passing down one’s genes.
• Due to the increased expectations of both women and men and women’s increased
independence, divorce rates have doubled in the past 40 years
• Those who tested out their marriage before getting married had a higher rate of
divorce and marital dysfunction.
• The risk of poor martial outcomes appears greatest for those who cohabit prior to
engagement. Cohabiters tend to be less committed to the ideal of enduring marriage.
• John Gottman discovered that stable marriages provide five times more instances of
smiling, touching, complimenting, laughing than of sarcasm, criticism and insults.
• Work satisfaction reveals the roles of the woman, such as a paid worker or a wife did
not matter, but the quality of her experiences in these roles meant a lot.
• Satisfying work correlates with life satisfaction