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Required Text: Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 5th Ed., B.R. Munson, D.F. Young & T.H.
Okiishi, Wiley Asia Student Edition.
References: 1) Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications, Y.A. Cengel & J.M.
Cimbala, McGraw-Hill.
2) Fluid Mechanics 6th Ed., F.M.White, McGraw-Hill.
3) Multi-Media Fluid Mechanics CD-ROM, Cambridge University Press.
Topics Covered:
Prerequisites:-
This is a Level-II Mechanics of Fluids course demanding the knowledge you acquired in the
first-year fluid and mathematics courses. In particular, the following topics are relevant and
should be reviewed if you have already forgotten the stuffs:-
1) Properties of fluid (density, viscosity);
2) Principles of fluid statics;
3) Fluid dynamics by control volume approach
¾ continuity equation
¾ energy equation (or Bernoulli equation)
¾ momentum equation
¾ head, head loss
4) Differentiation and integration;
5) Vector differential calculus (grad, div, curl, Gauss theorem, etc);
1
Lecture Notes and Worked Examples
(The corresponding section numbers in the textbook or other references are noted wherever
appropriate.)
z x = ( x, y, z ) = ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) = xi ( i = 1, 2,3)
V = (u , v, w) = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) = ui ( i = 1, 2,3)
V
⎛ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎞ ⎛ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎞ ∂
y ∇=⎜ , , ⎟=⎜ , , ⎟= ( i = 1, 2,3)
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3 ⎠ ∂xi
O
e.g.,
x ⎛ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎞ ∂u ∂v ∂w ∂ui
∇ iV = ⎜ , , ⎟i(u , v, w) = + + =
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠ ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂xi
2
In the Eulerian description, one
defines field variables, such as the
pressure field and the velocity field,
at any location and instant in time.
d ( ) ∂( )
= + (V i∇ )( )
dt ∂t
∂( ) ∂( ) ∂( ) ∂( )
= + u +v +w
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
local rate convective rate of change
of change
∂V
e.g., local acceleration =
∂t
∂V ∂V ∂V
convective acceleration = (V i∇ )V = u +v +w
∂x ∂y ∂z
- The local rate of change, also called the unsteady term, vanishes identically for
a steady flow. Therefore a flow is steady if and only if ∂ / ∂t ≡ 0 .
- The quantity (V i∇ ) is a scalar convective operator that determines the time
rate of change of any property (e.g., velocity, density, concentration,
temperature) of a particle by reason of the fact that the particle moves from a
place where the property has one value to another place where it has a
different value.
As illustrated by:-
The various modes of deformation can be expressed in terms of the velocity gradients.
4
Because of the velocity differential δ u over a distance δ x , the element is lengthened
in the x-direction by δ u ⋅ δ t over a small period of time δ t . The corresponding
change in volume is therefore
δ Vx = δ u ⋅ δ t ⋅ δ y ⋅ δ z ,
and the volume strain rate (change in volume per volume per time) is
δ Vx δ u ⋅ δ t ⋅ δ y ⋅ δ z δ u ∂u
= = = as δ x, δ t → 0 .
V ⋅ δ t δ x ⋅ δ y ⋅ δ z ⋅ δ t δ x ∂x
Similarly, for the lengthening of the element in the y- and z-directions
δ Vy ∂v δ Vz ∂w
= , = as δ y, δ z , δ t → 0
V ⋅ δ t ∂y V ⋅ δ t ∂z
The total volume strain rate is hence given by the divergence of the velocity.
δV ∂u ∂v ∂w
= + + as δ x, δ y, δ z , δ t → 0
V ⋅ δ t ∂x ∂y ∂z
• Any shear deformation can be decomposed into rigid body rotation and angular
deformation. Consider a small element undergoing shear deformation
5
Because of the velocity differential δ v over a distance δ x , the face OA rotates
counterclockwise by an angle δα = δ v ⋅ δ t / δ x over a small period of time δ t .
Therefore the angular velocity of OA is
dα ∂v
α= = as δ x, δ t → 0
dt ∂x
Similarly, the face OB rotates clockwise at an angular velocity given by
d β ∂u
β= = as δ y, δ t → 0
dt ∂y
O x
α
The deformation can be decomposed into a rigid body rotation at an angular velocity
1 ⎛ ∂v ∂u ⎞
1
( )
ω = α − β = ⎜ − ⎟ , where counterclockwise rotation is taken to be positive,
2 2 ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠
1
2
(α −β )
O x
1
2
(
α −β )
and an angular deformation, where the corner angle decreases at a rate given by
∂v ∂u
γ = α + β = + , where a positive rate means a decreasing angle,
∂x ∂y
1
2
(α +β )
γ
O x
1
2
(
α +β )
6
• Rate of angular deformation of a 2-D fluid element moving in the x-y plane (angular
deformation is considered to be positive if it is to decrease the original right angle) is
hence defined to be
δα + δβ ∂v ∂u
γ xy = lim = + .
δ t →0 δt ∂x ∂y
For a 3-D element in general, the rate of change of the corner angle that is initially a
right angle between the i-j axes
∂u ∂u
γ ij = i + j ( i ≠ j ) ,
∂x j ∂xi
• Rotation of a fluid element (about an axis which is perpendicular to the plane of the
fluid motion) is the average of the angular velocities of the two mutually
perpendicular sides of the element, where counterclockwise rotation is considered to
be positive:
1 ⎛ ∂v ∂u ⎞
rotation about z -axis: ωz = ⎜ − ⎟
2 ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠
1 ⎛ ∂w ∂v ⎞
rotation about x-axis: ωx = ⎜ − ⎟
2 ⎝ ∂y ∂z ⎠
1 ⎛ ∂u ∂w ⎞
rotation about y -axis: ωy = ⎜ − ⎟
2 ⎝ ∂z ∂x ⎠
Note that for a 2-D flow in the x-y plane, ωx and ω y vanish identically; hence the
rotation vector is always perpendicular to the x-y plane.
1 ⎛ ∂u ∂u ⎞ 1 1
shear rate tensor eij = ⎜ i + j ⎟ = angular deformation rate = γ ij , and
⎜ ⎟
2 ⎝ ∂x j ∂xi ⎠ 2 2
1
rate of rotation ω = vorticity, where
2
7
ζ = 2ω
The direction of a vector cross product is The vorticity vector is equal to twice the
determined by the right-hand rule. angular velocity vector of a rotating fluid
particle.
The difference between a rotational and irrotational flow: fluid elements in a rotational
region of the flow rotate about their own axis, but those in an irrotational region of the
flow do not.
8
C. The Reynolds Transport Theorem (Section 4.4)
Define:
- Material Volume: a volume that contains the same fluid as it moves and deforms
following the motion of the fluid
- Material Surface: enclosing surface of a material volume; by definition no fluid
particles can cross it.
- Control Volume: a volume of fluid in a flow field, usually fixed in space, to be
occupied by different fluid particles at different times.
- Control Surface: imaginary or physical enclosing surface of a control volume.
- Flux: amount of property (e.g., mass, momentum, energy) crossing a unit area of a
surface per unit time.
We state without proof the Reynolds transport theorem, which provides a basis for
developing differential equations for the various conservation laws:
d ∂
dt ∫∫∫MV ∂t ∫∫∫CV ∫∫
ρ bdV = ρ bdV + ρ bV i n d A
CS
rate of change of the local rate of change of the net out-flux of the
property within property within the fixed property across the
the material volume control volume that happens entire control surface
to coincide with the material
volume at that instant
where
ρ = density of fluid
b = an intensive property B of fluid (property per unit mass)
MV = material volume that happens to coincide with CV at time t
9
CV = control volume (fixed in space)
CS = control surface
n = unit outward normal to CS
d d
L.H.S. ∫∫∫ ρ dV = ( mass in MV ) = 0
dt MV dt
(by definition of MV , which always contains the same fluid)
∂
∂t ∫∫∫CV
R.H.S. ρ dV + ∫∫ ρV ind A
CS
∂ρ
= ∫∫∫ dV + ∫∫∫ ∇ i( ρV )dV
CV ∂t CV
Equating L.H.S. and R.H.S., and removing the volume integral since CV is arbitrary, we
get the differential form of Continuity Equation
10
∂ρ
+ ∇ i( ρV ) = 0
∂t
or, using the identity ∇ i( ρV ) = V i∇ρ + ρ∇ iV,
dρ
+ ρ∇ iV = 0
dt
dρ ∂u
or in index form +ρ i =0 ( i, j = 1, 2,3, summation over repeated index )
dt ∂xi
∂u ∂v ∂w
+ + =0
∂x ∂y ∂z
Note that a flow with constant density is always incompressible, but an incompressible
flow does not necessarily have a constant density (e.g., flow in a stratified sea).
E. Applied Forces
• Body force due to gravity on a small fluid element = ρ gdV
• Surface stress s = τ in , where n is the unit outward normal vector to the surface, and
⎡τ xx τ xy τ xz ⎤
⎢ ⎥
τ = ⎢τ yx τ yy τ yz ⎥ = τ ij ( i, j = 1, 2, 3)
⎢τ zx τ zy τ zz ⎥
⎣ ⎦
11
In the textbook, the normal stress is denoted by σ ii in order to distinguish it from the
shear stress τ ij ( i ≠ j ) .
It can be shown that τ ij is symmetric, ie, τ ij = τ ji . Therefore there are only 6
independent stress components.
d
dt ∫∫∫ ∫∫ sdA ∫∫∫ ρ gdV
ρVdV = +
MV MS MV
The L.H.S. can be converted, using the transport theorem and the continuity equation,
d dV
into ∫∫∫
dt MV
ρVdV = ∫∫∫ ρ
MV
dt
dV .
Plugging these terms back, and removing the volume integral since the volume is
arbitrary, we get the differential form of momentum equation
dV
ρ = ∇ iτ + ρ g
dt
The left hand term is a total derivative, which can be expanded into the Eulerian form:
⎛ ∂V ⎞ ⎛ ∂ui ∂u ⎞ ∂τ
ρ⎜ + V i∇V ⎟ = ∇ iτ + ρ g or ρ⎜ + u j i ⎟ = ij + ρ gi
⎝ ∂t ⎠ ⎜ ∂t ∂x j ⎟⎠ ∂x j
⎝
By now, there are more unknowns than equations. To close the problem, we need to
introduce CONSTITUTIVE (stress vs strain-rate) relations to relate the stress and the
kinematics.
If the fluid is Newtonian, a linear relationship is followed
⎛ ∂ui ∂u j ⎞
τ ij = − pδ ij + μ ⎜ + ⎟
⎜ ∂x ∂xi ⎟⎠
⎝ j
⎧1 for i = j
where δ ij = ⎨ , μ = dynamic viscosity coefficient
⎩0 for i ≠ j
12
⎛ ∂V ⎞
ρ⎜ + V i∇V ⎟ = −∇p + ρ g + μ∇ 2V
⎝ ∂t ⎠
or in index form,
⎛ ∂ui ∂u ⎞ ∂p ∂ 2u
ρ⎜
⎜ ∂t
+uj i ⎟ = − + ρ gi + μ 2i ( i, j = 1, 2,3, summation over repeated index )
⎝ ∂x j ⎟⎠ ∂xi ∂x j
∂ui ∂u 1 ∂p ∂ 2u
or +uj i = − + gi +ν 2i
∂t ∂x j ρ ∂xi ∂x j
(I) (II) (III) (IV) (V)
13
The Equations of Motion for an Incompressible Newtonian Fluid
∂u x ∂u y ∂u z
Continuity: + + =0
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂u x ∂u ∂u ∂u 1 ∂p ⎛ ∂ 2u ∂ 2 u ∂ 2u ⎞
x-component: + ux x + u y x + uz x = − + ν ⎜ 2x + 2x + 2x ⎟ + g x
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ρ ∂x ⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠
∂u y ∂u y ∂u y ∂u y 1 ∂p ⎛ ∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u ⎞
y -component: + ux + uy + uz =− + ν ⎜ 2y + 2y + 2y ⎟⎟ + g y
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ρ ∂y ⎜ ∂x ∂y ∂z
⎝ ⎠
∂u z ∂u z ∂u z ∂u z 1 ∂p ⎛ ∂ 2 u z ∂ 2u z ∂ 2u z ⎞
z -component: + ux + uy + uz =− +ν ⎜ 2 + 2 + 2 ⎟ + g z
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ρ ∂z ⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠
( g x , g y , g z ) are the components of the acceleration due to gravity in the x, y , and z directions.
If, say, x and y are horizontal axes and z is positive upward, then g x = g y = 0, and g z = − g .
Also, the gravity can be combined implicitly with the pressure term by introducing
p* ≡ p − ρ g i x = p − ρ ( g x x + g y y + g z z ) .
1 ∂ ( rur ) 1 ∂uθ ∂u z
Continuity: + + =0
r ∂r r ∂θ ∂z
∂ur ∂u u ∂u u 2 ∂u 1 ∂p
r -component: + ur r + θ r − θ + u z r = −
∂t ∂r r ∂θ r ∂z ρ ∂r
⎡ ∂ ⎛1 ∂ 1 ∂ 2u 2 ∂u ∂ 2u ⎤
+ν ⎢ ⎜ ( rur ) ⎞⎟ + 2 2r − 2 θ + 2r ⎥ + g r
⎣ ∂r ⎝ r ∂r ⎠ r ∂θ r ∂θ ∂z ⎦
∂uθ ∂u u ∂u u u ∂u 1 ∂p
θ -component: + ur θ + θ θ + r θ + u z θ = −
∂t ∂r r ∂θ r ∂z ρ r ∂θ
⎡ ∂ ⎛1 ∂ 1 ∂ 2u 2 ∂u ∂ 2u ⎤
+ν ⎢ ⎜ ( ruθ ) ⎞⎟ + 2 2θ + 2 r + 2θ ⎥ + gθ
⎣ ∂r ⎝ r ∂r ⎠ r ∂θ r ∂θ ∂z ⎦
∂u z ∂u u ∂u ∂u 1 ∂p
z -component: + ur z + θ z + u z z = −
∂t ∂r r ∂θ ∂z ρ ∂z
⎡ 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂u z ⎞ 1 ∂ uz ∂ uz ⎤
2 2
+ν ⎢ ⎜r ⎟+ 2 + 2 ⎥ + gz
⎣ r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ r ∂θ ∂z ⎦
2
14
G. Scaling and Approximation
• Because of the inertia terms (convective acceleration), the Navier-Stokes (NS)
equations are non-linear equations.
• Except for simple flow geometry, analytical solutions do not exist in general.
• Fortunately, for many practical applications, not all terms in the equations are equally
important, and therefore some subdominant terms can be dropped in favor of a first
approximation of the problem. The approximate equations can then be solved
(analytically or numerically) with much greater ease than the full-blown ones.
• It is important to judge, for a particular problem, the relative significance of the
individual terms in the NS equations, which can be reflected from the magnitude of
the corresponding non-dimensional parameters.
Body
Characteristic scales:
Length (L); Time scale of unsteadiness (T); Velocity (U); Pressure (P)
⎛ L ⎞ ∂V * ⎛ P ⎞ ∗ ⎛ gL ⎞ ⎛ ν ⎞ ∗2
⎜ ⎟ + V * i∇ ∗V* = − ⎜ 2 ⎟
∇ p * + ⎜ 2 ⎟ g* + ⎜ ⎟∇ V *
⎝ UT ⎠ ∂t * ⎝ ρU ⎠ ⎝U ⎠ ⎝ UL ⎠
The scales have been chosen to be representative of the variables so that all the
dimensionless terms are order unity. Now, the importance of each term (relative to
the inertia) is carried by its bracketed coefficient.
L temporal acceleration
= Strouhal number (St) =
UT convective accelertion
P pressure force
= Euler number (E) =
ρU 2
inertia
UL inerita
= Reynolds number (Re) =
ν viscous force
2
U inerita
= Froude number (Fr) =
gL gravity force
15
Possible Cases of Simplification:-
Large Re
Re 1 ⇒ negligible viscous effect,
∂V 1
NS reduces to Euler equations + V i∇V = − ∇p + g
∂t ρ
Small St
St 1 ⇒ negligible unsteady effect ⇒ quasi-steady flow,
∴ The local (temporal) acceleration term can be dropped.
Small Re
Re 1 ⇒ negligible inertia effect (good news!)
Viscous force is significant, and is to be balanced by pressure gradient.
For slow and viscous flow and negligible gravity, the flow is
called Creeping Flow
1
0 = − ∇p + ν∇ 2V
ρ
Nonlinear inertia terms are now gone, analytical solutions are possible
if the flow geometry is simple enough.
Spatial Dimension
Also, it is often the case that the flow varies only in one or two spatial dimensions,
and therefore the problem can be reduced to a one- or two-dimensional problem, for
which only one or two velocity components need to be solved. Some common cases
of one-dimensional flow:
• fully developed pipe or channel flow: axial velocity as a function of radial
distance from center of pipe u = u (r ) , or longitudinal velocity as a function of
distance from the bottom of channel u = u ( y ) ;
• axi-symmetrical flow: velocity is symmetrical about an axis (e.g., point
source/sink, vortex).
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
(II) SIMPLE (EXACTLY OR NEARLY ONE-DIMENSIONAL)
VISCOUS FLOW (Section 6.9)
Assumptions:
• constant fluid properties (density ρ , viscosity μ )
• Newtonian fluid (linear, isotropic and purely viscous material)
Basic Variables:
Velocity V = (u , v, w) = V ( x, y, z , t ) (3 variables)
Pressure p = p ( x, y, z , t ) (1 variable)
Continuity ∇ iV = 0 (1 equation)
∂V 1
Navier-Stokes + V i∇V = − ∇p + g +ν∇ 2V (3 equations)
∂t ρ
⎛ ∂w ∂v ⎞ ⎛ ∂u ∂w ⎞ ⎛ ∂v ∂u ⎞
Vorticity ζ = ∇ ×V = ⎜ − ⎟i + ⎜ − ⎟ j +⎜ − ⎟k
⎝ ∂y ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂z ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠
Boundary Conditions:
• No-slip boundary condition: the velocity of a fluid in contact with a solid
impermeable wall must equal that of the wall
Vfluid = Vsolid along a fluid-solid interface
If in particular the wall is stationary, the fluid adjacent to the wall must have zero
velocity.
27
The development of velocity profiles due to the no-slip condition as a fluid flows past
a blunt nose and a flat plate.
• Interface boundary condition between two fluids: when fluid A and fluid B meets at
an interface, the velocity and stress must match between the two fluids at the interface
VA = VB , τA = τB along a fluid-fluid interface
If, say, the interface is flat (along x-direction) and the fluids are moving parallel to the
interface, the continuity of stress implies the continuity of pressure and shear stress at
the interface
du du
pA = pB , μA = μB
dy A dy B
28
• Other boundary conditions, such as inlet condition, outlet condition, periodic
condition and symmetry, may also apply to certain types of boundaries, depending on
the problem.
Boundary conditions along a plane of symmetry are defined so as to ensure that the
flow field on one side of the symmetry plane is a mirror image of that on the other
side, as shown above for a horizontal symmetry plane.
Initial Condition If the problem is time dependent (i.e., unsteady), an initial condition also
needs to be specified.
*************************************************************************
Let us consider in the following sections a few applications of the Navier-Stokes equations,
in which the flow configuration is simple enough for analytical solutions (exact or
approximate) to be deduced. The assumptions are that the flow is steady ( ∴ ∂ / ∂t = 0 ),
laminar, and incompressible and the fluid is Newtonian.
y
Upper plate moving at a constant speed U
y=h
u(y)
y=0
x
Lower fixed plate
The flow is driven by three forcings: (1) motion of the upper plate; (2) pressure gradient
in the x-direction, ∂p / ∂x = a constant ; (3) gravity, if x is not in a horizontal direction.
29
∂u ∂u ∂u 1 ∂p ⎛ ∂ 2u ∂ 2u ⎞
x-component: +u +v =− +ν ⎜ 2 + 2 ⎟ + g x
∂t ∂x ∂y ρ ∂x ⎜ ∂x ∂y ⎟⎠
⎝
∂ 2u 1 ∂p
⇒ν 2 = − g x ....................... (1)
∂y ρ ∂x
∂v ∂v ∂v 1 ∂p ⎛ ∂ 2v ∂ 2v ⎞
y -component: +u +v =− ν
+ ⎜ 2 + 2 ⎟⎟ + g y
∂t ∂x ∂y ρ ∂y ⎜ ∂x ∂y
⎝ ⎠
1 ∂p
⇒− + g y = 0 ....................... (2)
ρ ∂y
Note that the inertia terms are identically zero, which is true for all unidirectional flows
irrespective of the Reynolds number.
The R.H.S. of equation (1) is constant, so the equation can be integrated twice with
respect to y, giving
⎛ ∂p ⎞y
2
u( y) = ⎜ − ρ g x ⎟ + C1 y + C2
⎝ ∂x ⎠ 2μ
where C1 and C2 are integration constants that can be determined using the boundary
conditions that
u ( y = 0) = 0 (no slip at the lower plate), and
u ( y = h) = U (speed of the upper plate).
Solving for these constants, we obtain the solution for the velocity profile (see Fig. 6.31
below):
⎛ ∂p ⎞ h ⎡y ⎛ y⎞ ⎤
2 2
y
u( y) = ⎜ − + ρ g x ⎟ ⎢ −⎜ ⎟ ⎥ + U
⎝ ∂x ⎠ 2 μ ⎣⎢ h ⎝ h ⎠ ⎦⎥ h
Couette Flow
Poiseuille Flow
Couette flow is caused by the motion of a boundary wall moving in its own plane, while
Poiseuille flow is caused by axial pressure gradient or gravity in the direction of flow.
30
The shear stress in the flow is
du ( y ) ⎛ ∂p ⎞⎡h ⎤ U
τ xy = μ = ⎜− + ρ gx ⎟ ⎢ − y⎥ + μ
dy ⎝ ∂x ⎠⎣2 ⎦ h
linear stress distribution due to constant stress
Poiseuille flow, due to Couette flow
zero stress at the centerline
⎛ ∂p ⎞ h
3
h hU
Q = ∫ udy = ⎜ − + ρ g x ⎟ +
0
⎝ ∂x ⎠ 12 μ 2
uz (r)
z
31
The continuity equation reduces to
1 ∂ ( rur ) 1 ∂uθ ∂u z
+ + = 0 ⇒ u z must not depend on z , ∴ uz = uz (r )
r ∂r r ∂θ ∂z
For a given length L of the pipe, the pressure drop is Δp = − ( dp / dz ) L and the head loss
due to friction is h f = Δp / ρ g . Hence we may obtain from equation (1) the Darcy-
Weisbach equation
32
L u2
hf = f (D = 2 R = diameter of pipe)
D 2g
64 ρ Du
where the Darcy friction factor f = , and Re = is the Reynolds number.
Re μ
Recall that the Moody diagram (attached below) provides the graphical functional
dependence of the friction factor on the Reynolds number and the relative wall
roughness. The above relation is represented by the straight line near the left end of the
figure, where the flow is laminar, or the Reynolds number Re < 2,000. Note that for
laminar flow, the friction loss is not affected by wall roughness ε .
The pipe flow becomes turbulent when Re > 4,000, for which the friction factor is given by
the empirical Colebrook formula
1 ⎛ε /D 2.51 ⎞
= −2.0 log10 ⎜
⎜
+ ⎟⎟ ,
f ⎝ 3.7 Re f ⎠
which is graphically represented in the Moody diagram above.
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
D. Nearly One-Dimensional Flow by Lubrication Approximation
Lubrication in a Slider Bearing
A slider bearing is designed as a thrust bearing to support very large loads. To carry these
loads, the fluid film between the solid surfaces must develop normal stresses, so we are
interested in predicting the pressure distribution and thus the load-carrying capacity of the
bearing. Typical examples of slider bearings are found in the shafts of screw-propelled
ships and in the high-speed turbines of electricity-generating stations. For example, the
thrust of the ship’s propellers may be transmitted through a series of pads (see the figure
below) to the hull of the ship. Each pad (slider) may be tilted slightly to account for the
relative effects of pressure, speed and viscosity, and thus maintain the fluid film between
the two surfaces (the slider and its guide) which are in relative motion, and thereby reduce
friction.
In most lubrication problems the relevant Reynolds number is so small that viscous terms
in the Navier-Stokes equation dominate completely. The reason is not necessarily that the
coefficient of viscosity is large; it is more due to the fact that the thickness of the film is
extremely small compared to the lateral dimensions of the bearing. The Reynolds number
may be defined as
ρ × slider speed × film thickness
Re = 1
μ
Let us now formulate a model of the slider bearing with a planar face, with the further
assumptions that
1. The lubricant is an incompressible Newtonian viscous fluid with constant viscosity.
2. The bearing has infinite length into the paper, and the bearing guide is flat. The gap
height h(x) between the slider and its guide varies so gently that the flow is nearly
one-dimensional through a section of the bearing.
3. Gravity can be ignored.
4. The flow has settled down and we need consider only the steady problem.
46
The local film thickness is
⎛h −h ⎞
h( x) = h1 + ⎜ 2 1 ⎟ x (1)
⎝ L ⎠
where h1 < h2 L so that the film is extremely thin.
The flow is quasi-one-dimensional, and we may recall the equation for discharge for
combined Poiseuille-Couette flow (on page 31):
dp h3 hU
Q=− −
dx 12 μ 2
where the gravity has been ignored and U is now in the negative direction. By
conservation of mass, Q must be a constant. If there were Couette flow alone, the
discharge would decrease down the slider as the gap height decreases from h2 to h1 .
Therefore in order to balance the flow, the pressure gradient must not be zero.
Rearranging the terms the above equation gives
dp 12 μ ⎛ hU ⎞
=− 3 ⎜ +Q⎟ (2)
dx h ⎝ 2 ⎠
We further suppose that both ends of the bearing are exposed to surrounding lubricant,
or to the atmosphere. Then we have
p ( L) = p(0) = p0
as the boundary condition for the pressure. It follows that integrating (2) from 0 to L is
equal to zero
L dp
∫0 dx dx = p( L) − p(0) = 0
L⎛ U Q⎞
⇒ − ∫ ⎜ 2 + 3 ⎟dx = 0
0
⎝ 2h h ⎠
47
Now, on substituting (1) for h(x), the above integral can be carried out to give
−h1h2
Q= U
( h1 + h2 )
We may put Q back into (2), which is integrated again, but the upper limit is now a
general position “x”
x dp x⎛ U Q⎞
∫0 dx dx = p ( x ) − p0 = −12 μ ∫0 ⎜⎝ 2h2 + h3 ⎟⎠dx
After some algebra, we get
6μUL
p( x) = p0 − ( h − h1 )( h − h2 )
h (h22 − h12 )
2
3μUL ( h2 − h1 ) h1 L
pmax − p0 = at x =
2h1h2 ( h1 + h2 ) ( h1 + h2 )
It may be shown that in the left-hand section of the bearing, the pressure gradient is
positive so that it drives fluid in the flow direction, and in the right-hand section the
pressure gradient is negative so that it drives fluid against the flow direction. In this way,
the Poiseuille flow will balance the Couette flow to result in a constant discharge
throughout the pad.
L
Drag
∼
∫0
τ dx
∼
shear stress
∼
μU / h
∼
h
1
L
μUL / h
∫
2
Bearing load pdx pressure L
0
By virtue of the small film thickness, the bearing can support a large load with only
small frictional resistance.
48
(III) INVISCID AND POTENTIAL FLOWS (Sections 6.4-6.6)
Analysis can be considerably simplified if the flow under consideration can be regarded as
INVISCID and IRROTATIONAL.
49
• The constant in the Bernoulli equation becomes universal (i.e., not specific to a
streamline) when the flow is irrotational (Section 6.4.4). Therefore, for
incompressible irrotational flow, the Bernoulli equation can be applied between any
two points in the flow field:
p1 V12 p V2
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z2
ρ g 2g ρ g 2g
• The procedures of finding a solution for an irrotational flow field are typically:
o Firstly, solve for the kinematics (velocity components) from an equation
derived from the condition of zero vorticity, which is the subject matter of the
following sections;
o Secondly, find the pressure from the Bernoulli equation.
You should appreciate that solving irrotational flow equations is usually much simpler
than solving the full Navier-Stokes equations.
• You are cautioned that irrotationality fails to apply to a boundary layer, which is a
thin layer that develops next to a solid wall owing to no-slip of the flow at the wall.
No matter how small its viscosity is, a real fluid cannot “slide” past a solid boundary.
The flow in a boundary layer is always viscous and highly rotational (a rapid change
in velocity from zero at wall to the free stream value over a short distance); real fluid
behavior must be accounted for in a boundary layer (Chapter 9).
50
C. The Velocity Potential (Section 6.4.5)
• For any scalar field φ , curl(grad φ ) = 0 is an identity. See a proof below.
V ≡ ∇φ
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
Cartesian coordinates: u= , v= , w=
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂φ 1 ∂φ ∂φ
Cylindrical coordinates: ur = , uθ = , uz =
∂r r ∂θ ∂z
• The velocity potential satisfies Laplace’s equation on substituting the above relation
into the continuity equation:
∇ iV = 0 ⇒ ∇ i∇φ = 0, or ∇ 2φ = 0
∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ
Cartesian coordinates: + + =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
1 ∂ ⎛ ∂φ ⎞ 1 ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ
Cylindrical coordinates: ⎜r ⎟+ + =0
r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ r 2 ∂θ 2 ∂z 2
• The immediate upshot is: for irrotational flow, one only needs to solve for a scalar
function (instead of a vector with 2 or 3 components) from one single equation in
order to determine the kinematics (good news!). However, the differential equation
for the scalar function is one order higher than that for the vector function (no free
51
lunch!). Once the potential is found, its spatial gradients will give the velocity
components.
It follows that:
∇φ ≡ V ⊥ equipotential lines
⇒ streamlines ⊥ equipotential lines
52
Figure 6.15 shows a flow net for a 90o bend. A
flow net is useful in the visualization of a flow
pattern. To further understand what information a
flow net can provide, we need to know
something about stream function.
Stream Function
• For 2-D incompressible flow, another scalar function, viz stream function can be
introduced to identically satisfy the continuity equation.
∂ψ ∂ψ
u= , v=− for 2-D flow in Cartesian coordinates,
∂y ∂x
∂u ∂v
which satisfies + = 0 identically.
∂x ∂y
1 ∂ψ ∂ψ
ur = , uθ = − for 2-D flow in Polar coordinates,
r ∂θ ∂r
∂ ∂u
which satisfies ( rur ) + θ = 0 identically.
∂r ∂θ
Note that the stream function is introduced based on kinematics consideration only. It
is definable for any two-dimensional incompressible flow fields, irrespective of the
flow being inviscid or not.
53
• Given any two points in space whose stream function values are known, then the
volume flow rate across any line joining these two points is equal to the difference in
values of their stream functions.
• If the 2-D flow is irrotational, the stream function also satisfies Laplace’s equation,
since
∂v ∂u
∇ ×V = 0 ⇒ − =0
∂x ∂y
∂ ⎛ ∂ψ ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂ψ ⎞
⇒ ⎜− ⎟− ⎜ ⎟=0
∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂y ⎝ ∂y ⎠
∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ
⇒ + =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2
Therefore, for two-dimensional irrotational flow, both the velocity potential φ and the
stream function ψ satisfy Laplace’s equation. They are called harmonic functions,
and they are harmonic conjugates of each other. These functions are related, but
their origins are different:
– The stream function is defined by continuity; the Laplace equation for ψ results
from irrotationality.
By now, referring back to Figure 6.15, you should understand that in a flow net the
velocity is roughly given by
Δφ Δψ
V≈ ≈
Δn Δs
where Δn is the spacing between two adjacent equipotential lines, and Δs is the
spacing between two adjacent streamlines. Therefore, the velocity is higher in a
region where the mesh is finer, and lower where the mesh is coarser.
54
E. Some Simple Plane Potential Flows (Sections 6.5.1-6.5.4)
1) Uniform Flow with constant velocity U
m =V / L
55
By conservation of mass, m = 2π rur for any radial distance r from the source located at the
∂φ 1 ∂ψ m 1 ∂φ ∂ψ
origin. Hence, ur = = = , uθ = =− = 0 . On integrating,
∂r r ∂θ 2π r r ∂θ ∂r
m
Velocity potential φ= ln r
2π
(∴ equipotential lines are concentric circles centered on the origin )
m
Stream function ψ= θ
2π
(∴ streamlines are radial lines )
The radial and tangential velocities are:
m
ur = uθ = 0
2π r
o when m > 0 , the flow is radially outward, the origin is a SOURCE
o when m < 0 , the flow is radially inward, the origin is a SINK
o the origin is a singularity where ur → ∞
o conservation of mass is satisfied everywhere except the origin
3) Vortex
In contrast to a source, a vortex has the pathlines
being circles centered on the origin, and fluid
particles move along these circles. The vortex can
be used to model the flow round the plughole in a
bathtub. An irrotational vortex is called a free
vortex. The strength of a vortex is measured by the
circulation Γ = ∫ V ids around a closed curve C
C
Γ
Stream function ψ =− ln r
2π
(∴ streamlines are concentric circles centered on the origin )
The radial and tangential velocities for a free vortex are
Γ
ur = 0 uθ =
2π r
56
o the flow is not defined at the origin
o the vorticity curl V = 0, except at r = 0, where V is not defined
o free vortex (a) is irrotational flow, tangential velocity decreases radially uθ ∝ r −1
o forced vortex (b) is rotational flow, tangential velocity increases radially uθ ∝ r
4) Doublet
Consider a combination of a source and a sink of equal strength m and separated at a
distance 2a (left figure):
If the source and sink are moved indefinitely closer together ( a → 0 ) in such a way
that the product 2am (distance apart × strength) is kept finite and constant, then we
obtain a doublet. The streamline pattern for a doublet is shown in the right figure
above. The line joining the source to the sink is called the axis of the doublet, and is
taken to be positive in the direction from sink to source. The strength of the doublet
is K = ma / π .
57
K cos θ
Velocity potential φ=
r
(∴ equipotential lines are circles through the origin tangent to the y -axis )
K sin θ
Stream function ψ =−
r
(∴ streamlines are circles through the origin tangent to the x-axis )
The basic potential flows that have been discussed so far are more mathematical
constructions than physically realistic entities (although a source/sink may represent
the flow field of an injection/withdrawing well, and so on). However a combination of
these basic potential flows may provide a representation of some flow fields of
practical interest. This is the subject matter for the next section.
Since the governing equation (Laplace’s equation) for potential flow is linear,
superposition of solutions gives the solution to the combined effect. In the following
58
examples, you will see how ideal flows can be described by a combination of basic
solutions. The key thing is to locate the dividing streamline. The general procedures are
as follows. (1) Sketch some streamlines for the combined flow. (2) Find the location of a
stagnation point where the velocity vanishes (you may expect that when flow past a body,
there is a point somewhere on the body surface where the flow velocity is zero). (3)
Evaluate the stream function at the stagnation point ψ stagnation . (4) The dividing streamline,
which passes through the stagnation point, can be determined by letting the stream
function be equal to the stagnation stream function ψ ( r ,θ ) = ψ stagnation .
ψ ( r ,θ ) = ψ stagnation
m m
or Ur sin θ + θ=
2π 2
b (π − θ )
or r=
sin θ
or y = b (π − θ )
59
This streamline, which has the shape shown above, can be considered as a solid
boundary of a half-body that extends from x = −b to x → +∞ . The flow exterior to
this streamline represents the flow past a half-body, whose thickness at large x can be
estimated to be 2π b , since
⎧ πb ⎧0
y→⎨ as θ → ⎨
⎩−π b ⎩2π
Note that the every fluid particle emanated from the source is completely enclosed
within the dividing streamline. The flow pattern around the half-body is described by
streamlines ψ > ψ stagnation . The velocity components and the pressure can then be
determined as described in earlier sections.
The source and the sink are of the same strength: any mass of fluid injected by the
source is eventually drawn into the sink. The dividing streamline is now a closed
curve. This finite body, called Rankine Oval, has two stagnation points, one at the
front end and the other at the rear end of its boundary.
60
The combined stream function is
K sin θ
ψ = Ur sin θ −
r
(K = strength of doublet)
1 ∂ψ ⎛ K⎞
The radial velocity is ur = = ⎜ U − 2 ⎟ cos θ
r ∂θ ⎝ r ⎠
Obviously, the radial velocity vanishes at a circular surface with the radius
r = a = ( K /U )
1/ 2
This defines the dividing streamline, which represents the surface of a circular
cylinder of radius a. Substituting a for K, the stream function can be written as
⎛ a2 ⎞
ψ = Ur ⎜ 1 − 2 ⎟ sin θ
⎝ r ⎠
from which we obtain the velocity components
1 ∂ψ ⎛ a2 ⎞
ur = = U ⎜1 − 2 ⎟ cos θ
r ∂θ ⎝ r ⎠
∂ψ ⎛ a2 ⎞
uθ = − = −U ⎜1 + 2 ⎟ sin θ
∂r ⎝ r ⎠
On the cylinder surface r = a, the tangential velocity is uθ s = −2U sin θ . As expected,
there are 2 stagnation points, at θ = 0, π .
The pressure distribution on the cylinder surface can be found from the Bernoulli
equation
1 1
p0 + ρU 2 = ps + ρ uθ2s
2 2
ps − p0 = ρU 2 (1 − 4sin 2 θ )
1
⇒
2
This zero drag prediction is contrary to what has been observed in reality. There is
always a significant drag developed on a cylinder when it is placed in a stream of
moving fluid. This discrepancy is called d’Alembert’s Paradox, which was not
explained until the concepts of boundary layer and flow separation were developed.
A comparison between the inviscid and the real pressure distributions is shown above.
61
4) Free Vortex + Doublet + Uniform Flow = Flow Past a Rotating Circular Cylinder
6) Two separated sources of equal strength = source flow with a neighboring wall
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
(IV) FLOW PAST A BODY AND BOUNDARY LAYER THEORY
(Chapter 9)
75
Flow past a circular cylinder; the boundary layer separates from the surface of the body in
the wake for large Reynolds number.
nominal limit
of boundary
layer
u = 0.99 U
y
76
U
77
(2) Thicknesses of the Boundary Layer
i) Boundary Layer Thickness δ
The velocity within the boundary layer increases to the velocity of the main stream
asymptotically. It is conventional to define the boundary layer thickness δ as the distance
from the boundary at which the velocity is 99% of the main stream velocity.
There are other ‘thicknesses’, precisely defined by mathematical expressions, which are
measures of the effect of the boundary layer on the flow.
δ∗ is the distance by which the boundary surface would have to be shifted outward if the
fluid were frictionless and carried at the same mass flowrate as the actual viscous flow. It
also represents the outward displacement of the streamlines caused by the viscous effects
on the plate. Conceptually one may ‘add’ this displacement thickness to the actual wall
and treat the flow over the ‘thickened’ body as an inviscid flow.
θ is the thickness of a layer of the main stream whose flux of momentum equals the
deficiency in the boundary layer, equivalent to the loss of momentum flux per unit width
divided by ρU 2 due to the presence of the growing boundary layer. The momentum
thickness is often used when determining the drag on an object.
Note that when evaluating the above integrals for δ * and θ, the upper integration limit
can practically be replaced by δ.
78
C. Laminar Boundary Layer Over a Flat Plate
• Heuristic Analysis
δ(x)
x
U
leading edge
of plate
Consider steady flow past a flat plate at zero incidence. The effect of viscosity is to
diffuse momentum normal to the plate. Consider a fluid element that is close enough
to the wall to be influenced by viscosity. In travelling a distance x, it has been
influenced by viscosity for a time t ∼ x / U . The influence of viscosity will have
spread laterally to a distance
1/ 2
ν x
δ ∼ (ν t ) ∼
1/ 2
U
1/ 2
δ
ν
∼ ≡ ( Re x )
−1/ 2
or
x Ux
The above analysis is rather crude, and does not yield a full equation for the growth of
the boundary layer thickness. It however correctly describes one important
relationship for the laminar boundary layer: δ / x ∝ ( Re x )
−1/ 2
where Re x ≡ Ux / ν is
the local Reynolds number in terms of the distance from the leading edge x. This
relationship is found to be valid at a distance far behind the leading edge: δ / x 1.
The heuristic analysis can be further carried on to find relations for the wall stress:
1/ 2
∂u τw U νU 3
τ w = ρν or ∼ν ∼
∂y y =0
ρ δ x
The wall shear stress τ w decreases with increase of x until the boundary layer turns
turbulent. The local friction coefficient, which is defined as follows, is given by
τw
∼ 2 ( Re x )
−1/ 2
Cf ≡ 1
2
ρU 2
While the numerical factor of 2 is far from the true value, the functional dependence
of Cf on Rex is correctly predicted.
79
• Exact Solution by Blasius (Section 9.2.2)
A more rigorous analysis, using the technique of similarity solution, was developed
by Blasius for the laminar boundary layer over a flat plate. While the details of the
analysis are beyond the scope of this course, it is important to note the following
results derived from Blasius’ solution.
δ ( x) 5
boundary layer thickness =
( Re x )
1/ 2
x
τw 0.664
friction coefficient Cf ≡ =
ρU ( Re x )
1 2 1/ 2
2
D 1.328
drag coefficient CD ≡ =
1
2
ρU L ( Re L )1/ 2
2
where D is the skin friction drag force on unit width of a plate of length L:
L
D = ∫ τ w dx .
0
∂u ∂v
continuity + =0
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u 1 ∂p ∂ 2u
x -momentum u + v = − + ν
∂x ∂y ρ ∂x ∂y 2
1 ∂p
y -momentum 0 = −
ρ ∂y
From the y-momentum equation, it is clear that the pressure in the boundary layer is
constant laterally across the layer and equal to the near-wall pressure of the inviscid flow
outside the boundary layer.
80
d dU
τw = ρ
dx
(U 2θ ) + ρU δ *
dx
δ u
δ * = displacement thickness = ∫ 1 − dy
0
U
δ = boundary layer thickness
This momentum integral equation is applicable to laminar, transitional or turbulent boundary layer.
In particular, in the absence of pressure gradient (e.g., flow over a flat plate), the free stream velocity
U = constant and dU / dx = 0 , and therefore the momentum integral equation reduces to
dθ
τ w = ρU 2
dx
by which the skin friction drag and drag coefficient are simply given by
L L dθ D ρU 2θ L θ
D = ∫ τ w dx = ρU 2 ∫ dx = ρU 2θ L , CD = = =2 L
0 0 dx 1
2
ρU 2 L 1
2
ρU L
2
L
(1) Laminar Boundary Layer Over a Flat Plate Revisited – approximate solution by
momentum integral equation
It is remarkable that approximate solutions, which are reasonably close to the exact
ones, can be obtained for the boundary layer thickness and drag coefficients from the
momentum integral equation on adopting an assumed velocity profile
u
= f (η )
U
y
where η = is the y -coordinate normalized with respect to the local boundary
δ ( x)
layer thickness.
81
b) Find the wall shear stress from Newton’s law of viscosity
du U ∂u / U
τ w = ρν = ρν
dy y =0 δ ∂y / δ y =0
U df ρν U
= ρν = b ( b is another numerical constant )
δ dη η =0 δ
b
D 2 2ab
drag coefficient CD ≡ =
1
2
ρU L ( Re L )1/ 2
2
It turns out that the values of a and b are rather insensitive to the choice of the
approximate velocity profile u / U = f (η ) as long as it is a reasonable one
satisfying the boundary conditions.
f ( 0 ) = 0, (no-slip at y = 0)
f (1) = 1, (u = U at y = δ ) .
f ' (1) = 0 (no stress at y = δ )
82
(2) Turbulent Boundary Layer Over a Flat Plate (Section 9.2.5)
The one-seven-power law, suggested by Prandtl, is used for the velocity profile in the
turbulent boundary layer with zero pressure gradient:
1/ 7
u y
= or f (η ) = η1/ 7
U δ
by which the momentum thickness is
7
θ = δ ∫ f (1 − f ) dη = δ ∫ η1/ 7 (1 − η1/ 7 ) dη =
1 1
δ
0 0 72
The one-seven-power law fails to describe the velocity profile at y = 0 , where
∂u / ∂y → ∞ . The following empirical formula obtained for pipe flow can be adopted
here:
1/ 4
ν
τ w = 0.0225 ρU
2
Uδ
Substituting θ and τ w into the momentum integral equation, and integrating with
respect to x:
1/ 4
4 5 / 4 72 × 0.0225 ν
δ = x + constant
5 7 U
It is assumed that the turbulent boundary layer starts from x = 0. (This is a
contradiction to the fact that the boundary layer starts out as a laminar one, but this
assumption has given good results.) Therefore, the constant = 0. Further simplification
yields
δ 0.370 τw 0.0288 0.072
= , = , CD = .
( Re x ) ρU ( Re x ) ( Re L )
1/ 5 2 1/ 5 1/ 5
x
These results are valid for smooth flat plates with 5 × 105 < Re L < 107 .
Note that for the turbulent boundary layer flow the boundary layer thickness increases
with x as δ ∼ x 4 / 5 and the shear stress decreases as τ w ∼ x −1/ 5 . For laminar flow these
dependencies are x1/ 2 and x −1/ 2 , respectively.
83
E. Effect of Pressure Gradient (Section 9.2.6)
The pressure in the streamwise direction (i.e., along the body surface) will not be constant
if the body is not a flat plate. Consequently, the free stream velocity at the edge of the
boundary layer U is also not a constant but a function of x. Whether the free-stream flow
is accelerating or decelerating along the body surface will have dramatically different
effects on the development of the boundary layer.
Let us re-examine flow past a circular cylinder, and find out what causes d’Alembert’s
paradox.
You may recall that inviscid flow past a circular cylinder has a symmetrical pressure
distribution around the surface of the cylinder about the vertical axis. This results in a
zero pressure drag, which is however not true in reality for any fluid with a finite
viscosity. Such discrepancy is now referred to as d’Alembert’s paradox.
Despite the discrepancy, the potential theory helps to reveal that the pressure and hence
the free-stream velocity Ufs on the cylinder’s surface are not constant. From A to C, the
pressure gradient is negative and the flow is accelerating, and from C to F, the opposite is
true.
84
The real fluid flow past a circular cylinder is like this:
85
Flow Past D-E-F
• flow close to the cylinder surface starts to reverse at D (separate point), i.e., fluid no
longer to follow the contour of the surface. The phenomenon is termed separation.
• large irregular eddies formed in the reverse flow (the wake), in which much energy is
lost to heat.
• the pressure in the wake remains approximately the same as at the separation point D,
and is therefore lower than that predicted by the inviscid theory (see figure c). This
lowering of pressure behind the cylinder resulting from flow separation leads to a net
pressure drag on the cylinder. This explain d’Alembert’s paradox. Note that the wider
the wake, the larger the pressure drag, and vice versa.
86
(a)
(b)
87
F. Drag (Section 9.3)
Any object moving through a fluid (or a stationary object immersed in a viscous flow)
will experience a drag, D – a net force in the direction of flow due to the pressure and
shear forces on the surface of the object.
where
Pressure Drag = resultant force arising from the non-uniform and asymmetrical pressure
distribution around the surface the body. It is also called form drag as it
depends on the form or the shape of the body.
Skin Friction Drag = resultant force due to fluid shear stress on the surface of the object.
D = ∫ p cos θ dA + ∫ τ w sin θ dA
The drag coefficient CD is given by the ratio of the total drag force to the dynamic force
D
CD = 1
2
ρU 2 A
where U = relative velocity of fluid far upstream of the object,
A = frontal area – the projected area of the object when viewed from a direction
parallel to the oncoming flow if it is a blunt (or bluff) object (e.g., a cylinder);
or the planform area – the projected area of the object when viewed from
above it if it is a streamlined object (e.g., a flat plate).
drag
88
Typically the drag coefficient depends on
(i) the shape of the object,
(ii) orientation of the object with the flow (e.g., a flat plate normal to flow has a
different CD than a flat plate parallel to flow),
(iii) the Reynolds number Re = UD / ν where D is a characteristic dimension of the
object,
(iv) surface roughness if the drag is dominated by skin friction and the boundary
layer is turbulent.
89
• Re ≤ 1
– creeping flow
– no flow separation
– CD decreases with increasing Re ( CD = 64 / Re for a sphere)
(Note that a decrease in the drag coefficient with Re does not necessarily imply a
corresponding decrease in drag. The drag force is proportional to the square of the
velocity, and the increase in velocity at higher Re will usually more than offset the
decrease in the drag coefficient.)
• Re = 10
– separation starts occurring on the rear of the body forming a pair of vortex bubbles
there
– vortex shedding begins at Re ≅ 90, leading to an oscillating Karman vortex street
wake (see next page)
– region of separation increases with increasing Re
– CD continues to decrease with increasing Re until Re = 103, at which pressure
drag dominates
• 10 < Re < 105
3
90
Laminar boundary layer separation with
a turbulent wake for flow past a circular
cylinder at Re = 2000.
(a) (b)
Flow over (a) a smooth sphere at Re = 15,000, and (b) a sphere at Re = 30,000 with a trip
wire; the delay of boundary layer separation is clearly seen by comparing these two
photographs. The delay of separation in turbulent flow is caused by the rapid fluctuations
of the fluid in the transverse direction, which enables the turbulent boundary layer to
travel farther along the surface before separation occurs, resulting in a narrower wake and
a smaller pressure drag. Recall also that turbulent flow has a fuller velocity profile as
compared to the laminar case, and thus it requires a stronger adverse pressure gradient to
overcome the additional momentum close to the wall.
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
(V) OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW (Chapter 10)
A. Introduction
• Studies of open channel flow are important for design and planning of river control,
inland navigation, surface drainage, irrigation, water supply and urban sanitation.
• An open channel is a conduit in which the liquid flows with a free surface subjected to
atmospheric pressure. It includes river channels (natural water courses), constructed
channels (e.g., canals, flumes) and enclosed conduits (e.g., sewers, culverts) operating
partially full.
• Open channels normally have a very small slope S < 0.01 , and the pressure variation
with depth is nearly hydrostatic. The hydraulic grade lines for all the streamtubes are
the same and coincide with the free surface of the flow. Open channel flow is
essentially caused by slope of the channel and self-weight of the liquid.
B. Types of Flow
1. Uniform and Non-Uniform Flow
Uniform flow – mean velocity does not change (in both magnitude and direction) from
one section to another along the channel. With a free surface this implies
a constant cross section and flow depth, which is called the normal
depth. Hence the liquid surface is parallel to the base of the channel.
Uniform flow results from an exact balance between the gravity and
frictional effects. (NB: uniform channel flow however does not require
uniformity of velocity across any one section of the flow.)
Non-uniform (varied) flow – the mean velocity V and the fluid depth y change with
distance x along the channel. Non-uniform channel flow can be classified
into gradually, or rapidly varying flow when the flow depth changes
slowly ( dy / dx 1) , or rapidly ( dy / dx ∼ 1) with distance along the channel.
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equal to the ratio of the cross section area to the wetted perimeter. Open-channel flows in
rivers, culverts, surface drainage, etc typically involve water as the fluid (with fairly small
viscosity) and have relatively large dimensions so that the flows are invariably turbulent.
For turbulent channel flow, the velocity profile is rather uniform (except close to the
bottom and lateral boundaries) across a section of the flow, and therefore it is a common
practice to use the section-averaged velocity V = V(x) as the primary variable in open
channel flow.
Briefly speaking, a sub-critical flow is so low in speed (thereby called tranquil) that a
disturbance to the flow may send waves both upstream and downstream of the channel. In
sharp contrast, a super-critical flow is a high speed flow (thereby called rapid) and a wave
cannot be transmitted upstream.
C. Energy Considerations
hL
Energy line
V 2 / 2g
Streamline
z
Channel bed
Datum
For channels under consideration, the bottom slope is very small ( ∼ 0.001). Streamlines are
therefore virtually straight and parallel, and pressure variation is hydrostatic. This implies
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that a point with pressure p is at a depth p / ρ g below the free surface, so the sum of the
pressure and elevation heads ( p / ρ g + z ) represents the height of the free surface above the
datum level, or the hydraulic grade line coincides with the free surface.
Referring to the above figure, the energy equation may be applied to the two points (1) and (2)
on the channel bed, giving
p1 V12 p V2
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z2 + hL
ρ g 2g ρ g 2g
where hL is the head loss due to frictional effects between the two sections. Clearly,
p1 / ρ g = y1 , p2 / ρ g = y2 , z1 − z2 = So l , and hL = S f l , where S0 and S f are respectively the
slopes of the channel bed and the energy line. S f is also called the energy gradient, as it is
the rate at which energy head is lost to friction. On substituting, the energy equation becomes
y1 − y2 =
(V2
2
− V12 )
+ ( S f − S0 ) l
2g
or
E1 = E2 + ( S f − S0 ) l
For uniform flow, the flow is invariant with distance along the channel, so y1 = y2 and
V1 = V2 , and the energy equation gives
That is, the energy gradient is exactly equal to the geometrical gradient of the channel when
the flow is uniform.
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D. Uniform Flow: Chezy-Manning Equation
Define:
Normal depth yn = depth of uniform flow
flow sectional area A
Hydraulic radius Rh = =
wetted perimeter P
There is no change in momentum along the channel when the flow is uniform, and therefore
the net force acting on a control volume, as shown above, must be zero. By uniformity, the
two end forces are equal F1 = F2 . Consequently, the downward gravity force is exactly
balanced by the bottom friction:
τ w Pl = W sin θ = ( ρ gAl ) S0
⇒ τ w = ρ gRh S0
By analogy with pipe flow, the wall stress τ w can be expressed as
f
τ w = ρV 2
8
where f is the friction factor, which for complete turbulent flow depends only on the
roughness of channel. Combining these equations, we get the so-called Chezy equation for
uniform flow
V = C Rh S0
106
where C = 8 g / f is the Chezy coefficient. This coefficient is found to be not a constant,
but depends on the size and shape of the channel section, and on the roughness of the
boundaries.
The simplest and most widely used relation for C is the Manning formula:
Rh1/ 6
C=
n
where n is the Manning roughness coefficient. On substituting Manning formula into the
Chezy equation, we get the so-called Chezy-Manning equation:
2 / 3 1/ 2
Rh2 / 3 S01/ 2 Rh S f
V= =
n n
for the velocity of a uniform channel flow. It follows that the flow rate is given by
ARh2 / 3 S01/ 2 A5/ 3 S01/ 2
Q = VA = = 2/3 .
n P n
Note that the Manning roughness coefficient is NOT dimensionless. When SI units are used,
it has the following values for different types of channels.
For a channel of rectangular cross section with a width b, the hydraulic radius
yb y
Rh = =
2 y + b 2 y / b +1
In the limiting case of a very wide rectangular channel such that b y , then Rh ≈ y , or
the hydraulic radius is approximately equal to the flow depth. In a very wide channel, the
uniform flow velocity and the discharge per unit width of channel are therefore
2 / 3 1/ 2 5 / 3 1/ 2
yn2 / 3 S01/ 2 yn S f Q yn5/ 3 S01/ 2 yn S f
V= = , q = = Vyn = =
n n b n n
107
E. Specific Energy: Alternative Depth of Flow
Let us recall the specific energy that has been introduced in Section C. The specific energy,
E, is the sum of the pressure and velocity heads
V2
E = y+ .
2g
Specific energy is also the energy head referred to the base of the channel. It is a very
important concept in open-channel flow. While the specific energy is constant along the
channel when the flow is uniform, it may increase or decrease down the channel when the
flow is non-uniform.
For the convenience of discussion, let us consider only rectangular cross section from here
onward. The results can be extended to an arbitrary cross section, but will not be considered
here.
This is known as the specific energy diagram, in which the following points are notable.
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q
• For y → 0, V = → ∞, ∴ E → ∞ (asymptotic to the E axis) .
y
q
• For y → ∞, V = → 0, ∴ E → h (asymptotic to the line y = E ) .
y
• Between these two extremes, E declines to a minimum Emin at the critical point:
o depth and velocity at this point are called the critical depth yc and critical
velocity Vc ;
o critical depth represents the least possible specific energy with which the fixed
discharge q is able to flow in the channel of given slope.
• For each other value of E greater than the minimum, there are two possible values of y,
one greater and one less than yc . The two corresponding depths for a given value
E > Emin are known as the alternative depths.
• Flow can be classified into
y > yc , V < Vc flow is tranquil or sub-critical
y = yc , V = Vc flow is critical
y < yc , V > Vc flow is rapid or super-critical
Being consistent with our earlier discussion in Section B.4, the flow is critical, sub-critical or
super-critical depending on the value of the Froude number. Combining all of the above,
It is remarkable that, for a given discharge, the critical flow occurs when the specific energy
is the lowest possible value Emin .
109
3. Criterion for Maximum Discharge
The equation for the specific energy may be rearranged into
q = 2g y ( E − y )
1/ 2
sub-critical flow
yc critical flow
super-critical flow
q
0
qmax
The discharge per unit width, q, reaches a maximum value qmax at a particular depth. For
each other value of q < qmax , there are two possible values of flow depth y. Again, the
criterion for this maximum q is given by dq / dy = 0 , which after some algebra leads to
2
qmax
= 1,
gy 3
which is identical to the critical flow condition. The corresponding flow depth is therefore
the critical depth yc . Hence, we may make another remark that for a given specific energy E,
the critical flow occurs when the discharge is the largest possible value qmax .
110
F. Gradually Varied Flow
1. Introduction
• Uniform flow, in which a uniform flow depth is maintained, requires constancy of all
channel characteristics (i.e., cross-sectional shape, bed slope, roughness) throughout the
flow. In natural streams, this condition is hardly attained and flow is invariably non-
uniform in nature. Even for artificial channels with uniform cross section, etc., uniform
flow is only a condition to be approached asymptotically. The surface of a varied (i.e.,
non-uniform) flow is not parallel to the bed and takes the form of a curve.
• Steady varied flow is broadly divided into two kinds:-
o Gradually varied flow, in which changes of depth and velocity take place over a
long distance and degree of non-uniformity is very slight. Boundary friction is
significant and is to be accounted for.
o Rapidly varied flow, in which the sectional area of flow changes abruptly within a
short distance. Turbulent eddying loss is more important than boundary friction in
this case. Hydraulic jump, which is a typical example of rapidly varied flow, will
be examined in the next section.
• Gradually varied flow may result from
o a change in cross-sectional shape, bed slope, boundary roughness of the channel.
o the installation of control structures (e.g., sluice gate, weirs, etc.).
where S0 and S f are respectively the slopes of the channel bed and the energy grade line.
This relation implies that the specific energy gradient is equal to the difference between these
two slopes.
dE
= S0 − S f
dx
On the other hand, by the definition of the specific energy,
dE d ⎛ V2 ⎞ d ⎛ q2 ⎞ ⎛ q 2 ⎞ dy
= (1 − Fr 2 )
dy
= ⎜y+ ⎟ = ⎜ y + 2 ⎟
= ⎜ 1 − 3 ⎟
dx dx ⎝ 2 g ⎠ dx ⎝ 2 gy ⎠ ⎝ gy ⎠ dx dx
Combining the two equations above, one may get the general equation governing the free
surface gradient in a gradually varied flow:
.
dy S0 − S f
=
dx 1 − Fr 2
Note that S f and Fr are functions of x, and the geometrical bed slope S0 may or may not
change with x depending on construction. The equation above may be integrated numerically
to yield the surface profile for any type of gradually varied flow. This kind of profile
evaluation is normally carried out by a commercial package nowadays and will not be
discussed here.
111
3. Profile Classification
The general surface profile equation can be utilized in establishing the various forms of
varied flow profile. The equation may be rearranged into
dy ⎛ 1 − S f / S0 ⎞
= S0 ⎜ ⎟.
⎝ 1 − Fr ⎠
2
dx
Let us consider a very wide rectangular channel. As noted earlier in Section D, when the flow
is uniform,
2
⎛ qn ⎞
S0 = S f = ⎜ 5/ 3 ⎟
⎝ yn ⎠
where yn is the normal depth.
An assumption is made here that for gradually varied flow the energy gradient S f can be
related to the local flow depth y in the same manner as in the above formula for uniform
flow. Therefore, when the flow is gradually varied
2 2
⎛ qn ⎞ ⎛ qn ⎞
S0 = ⎜ 5 / 3 ⎟ , S f = ⎜ 5/3 ⎟ ⇒ S f / S 0 = ( yn / y )
10 / 3
.
⎝ yn ⎠ ⎝y ⎠
On the other hand, the Froude number can be written as
q2 yc3 ⎛ q2 ⎞
Fr 2 = = ⎜∵ = 1⎟ .
gy 3 y 3 ⎝ gyc
3
⎠
Putting these relations back into the surface profile equation
1 − ( yn / y )
10 / 3
dy
= S0 .
1 − ( yc / y )
3
dx
With the equation above, we may outline the various forms of varied flow profiles, with a
classification based on the following features.
dy
Type 1: y > yn , and y > yc > 0 ⇒ Backwater curve
dx
dy
Type 2: y is between yn and yc < 0 ⇒ Dropdown curve
dx
dy
Type 3: y < yn , and y < yc > 0 ⇒ Backwater curve
dx
112
Hence, a flow occurring on a mild slope has an M1 curve when its depth is greater than the
normal depth, and has an M3 curve when its depth is less than the critical depth, and so on.
Further notes:-
The critical and normal depth lines (CDL, NDL) and the channel bed form the boundaries of
3 zones. The curves of gradually varied flow surface profile approach each of these zone
boundaries in a specific manner:
a) Upper limits of depth – the curves tend to become asymptotic to a horizontal water line.
b) Normal depth line – approached asymptotically (except for C curves).
c) Critical depth line – intersected at right angles (except for C curves).
d) Bed – intersected at right angles.
There are altogether 12 possible profiles of gradually varied flow, as depicted below.
y > yn > yc M1
Sub-
+ Backwater
critical
yn > yc > y M3
Super-
+ Backwater
critical
y > yc = yn C1
Sub-
+ Backwater
critical
yc = y = yn
Parallel to Uniform,
Critical C2
bed Critical
yc = yn > y C3
Super-
+ Backwater
critical
y > yc > yn S1
Sub-
+ Backwater
critical
yc > y > yn S2
Super-
Steep - Dropdown
critical
yc > yn > y S3
Super-
+ Backwater
critical
y > yc H2
Sub-
- Dropdown
critical
Horizontal
yc > y H3
Super-
+ Backwater
critical
y > yc A2
Sub-
- Dropdown
critical
Adverse
yc > y A3
Super-
+ Backwater
critical
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G. Hydraulic Jump
1. Introduction
When a change from rapid (super-critical) to tranquil (sub-critical) flow occurs in open
channel, a hydraulic jump appears, through which the depth increases abruptly in the
direction of flow.
In engineering practice, the hydraulic jump frequently appears downstream from overflow
structures (spillways) or underflow structures (sluice gated) where velocities are high. It may
be used as an effective dissipation of kinetic energy (and thus prevent scour) of channel
bottom) or as a mixing device in water or sewage treatment designs where chemicals are
added to the flow.
114
1 1
F1 = ρ gy12 , F2 = ρ gy22 (∵ hydrostatic pressure variation with depth ) ,
2 2
q q
V1 = , V2 = ( by continuity ) ,
y1 y2
⎝ y1 ⎠ ⎝ y1 ⎠ ⎝ gy ⎠
2
⎛y ⎞ ⎛y ⎞
or ⎜ 1 ⎟ + ⎜ 1 ⎟ − 2Fr2 2 = 0
⎝ y 2 ⎠ ⎝ y2 ⎠
which can be solved for y2 / y1 and y1 / y2 respectively
y2 1
(
= −1 + 1 + 8Fr12
y1 2
)
and
y1 1
(
= −1 + 1 + 8Fr22
y2 2
)
These are the general equations for a hydraulic jump.
Notes:-
• The depths y1 and y2 on either side of a jump are called conjugate depths for the
jump.
• It can be shown by noting the Froude numbers that the upstream and downstream
flow of a jump is always rapid (super-critical) and tranquil (sub-critical) respectively.
From the equations above
1/ 2
⎡ ( y2 / y1 ) + ( y2 / y1 )2 ⎤
Fr1 = ⎢ ⎥ >1 (∵ y2 > y1 )
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
1/ 2
⎡ ( y1 / y2 ) + ( y1 / y2 )2 ⎤
Fr2 = ⎢ ⎥ <1 (∵ y1 < y2 )
⎣⎢ 2 ⎦⎥
• A super-critical flow may turn into sub-critical only through an abrupt change in the
form of a hydraulic jump. Conversely, a sub-critical flow may turn into super-critical
through a gradual and smooth transition.
115
If the head loss is hL , the balance of energy heads before and after the jump gives
V12 V2
y1 + = y2 + 2 + hL
2g 2g
⇒ hL = y1 − y2 +
1
2g
(V12 − V22 )
q2 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
= y1 − y2 + ⎜ 2− 2⎟
2 g ⎝ y1 y2 ⎠
⎛ y y 2 + y12 y2 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 2q 2 ⎞
= y1 − y2 + ⎜ 1 2 ⎟⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟ ⎜∵ y y
1 2
2
+ y 2
1 2y − = 0⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠⎝ y1 y2 ⎠ ⎝ g ⎠
(y − y )
3
= 2 1
4 y1 y2
which also equals the difference in specific energy across the jump.
To ensure a positive magnitude, y2 > y1 and not vice versa.
Therefore, a hydraulic jump is irreversible.
116
H. Some Examples of Composite-Flow Profiles
• Downstream of a sluice gate
• A change of bed slope from steep to mild: the hydraulic jump may be formed either
on the steep slope or on the mild slope depending on whether the downstream
conjugate depth y2 is smaller or greater than the normal depth on the mild slope.
117
• Free fall at the end of a channel
• Flow over a bump (bottom friction is ignored): the free surface over the bump is
depressed or elevated when the flow is sub-critical or super-critical, respectively.
118
When the flow before the bump is sub-critical (state 1a), the flow depth y2 decreases
(state 2a). Since the decrease in flow depth is always greater than the bump height
(why?), the free surface will be suppressed. But if the flow before the bump is super-
critical (state 1b), the flow depth rises over the bump (state 2b), creating a bigger
bump over the free surface. The situation is reversed if the channel has a depression
in its bed: the flow depth increases if the approach flow is sub-critical and decreases if
it is super-critical.
As the bump height Δzb is increased, point 2 continues shifting to the left on the
specific energy diagram (while point 1 remains unaffected), until finally reaching the
critical point at which the specific energy is the minimum, and the flow over the bump
is critical. This critical height of a bump is given by the difference between the
original and the minimum specific energy levels Δzbc = E1 − Emin . Since the specific
energy has already reached the minimum level at this state, the flow over the bump
will only remain critical even when the bump height is further increased. To
overcome a bump of height greater than Δzbc , the approach flow must adapt itself
(say, either to increase the upstream energy level E1 or to reduce the flow rate so that
Emin is decreased) so that the bump height = E1 − Emin is always satisfied. When this
happens, the flow is said to be choked.
The fact that flow over a sufficiently high obstruction in an open channel is always
critical is the working principle of weirs (broad-crested or sharp-crested), which are
used to measure the volume flow rate in open channels.
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120
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124
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