CHAPTER 4: ULTIMATE LIMIT STATES (3) The eff of imperfections shall be taken into account in the following cases (a) Global analysis (b) Analysis of bracing systems (c) Member cesign 4.2.4.2 Method of Application (1) Imperfections shall be allowed for in the analysis by including appropriate additional quantities comprising frame imperfections, member imperfections and imperfections for analysis of bracing systerns. (2) The effects of the frame imperfections given in Section 4.2.4.3 shall be included in the global analysis of the structure. The resulting forces and moments shall be used for member design. (3) The effects of the imperfections given in Section 4,2.4.4 shall be included in bracing systems, The resulting forces shall be used for member design. analysis of 2) in the case of members ynnections and in which (4) The effects of member imperfections (see Section 4.2.4.5) may be neglected when carrying 9 the global analysis of frames, except in sway frames (see Section 4,2. which are subject to axial compression, which have moment-resisting X > 05 af / 5) ca) where Ny is the design value of the compressive force Tis the in-plane non-diniensional slendemness (see Seetion 4.5.4.3) calculated using a buckling length equal to the system length. .3 Frame Imperfections (1) The effects of imperfections shall be allowed for in frame analysis by means of an equivalent geometric imperfection in the form of an initial sway imperfection @ determined fr b= kk by a2 where nj is the number of columns per plane rn, is the number of storys (2) Colurans which carry p vertical load N,, of less than 50% of the mean velue of the vertical load column in the plane-obmsidered, shall not be included inn, 3) Columns which do not extend through all the storys included in n, shall not be included in 7, Those floor levels and roof levels which are not connected f all the columns included in, shall act be included when determining 1, Note: Where more than one combination of x, and 1, satisfies these conditions, any such combination can safely be used. £BCS 3-1995 31ETHIOPIAN BUILDING CODE STANDARD FOR DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES (2 These intial sway imperfections apply in all horizontal directions, but need only be considered in one direction at a time. (©) The possible torsional effects on the structure of antisymmetric sways, on two opposite faces, shall also be considered. (6) If more convenient, the initial sway imperfection ma horizontal forces, see Fig. 4.2. be replaced by a closed system of equivalent (2 In beananc-column building ttames, these equivalent horizontal forces should be applied at each Floor and roof level and should be proportionate to the vertical loads applied to the stricture at thet level, see Fig. 4.3. () The horizontal reactions at each support should be determined using the initial sway imperfection and not te equivalent horizontal forces. In the absence of actual horizontal loads, the net horizontal reaction is zero. 4.2.44 Imperfections for Analysis of Bracing Systems (1) The effects of imperfections shall be allowed for in the analysis of bracing systems which are fequired to provide lateral stability within the length of beams or compression members, by means of an equivalent geometric imperfection of the members to be restrained, inthe form of an inial boc imperfection & = &,L/500 a3 where L is the span of the bracing system k= 0.2 + Wn) buck, < 1.0 n {8 the number of members to be restrain Figure 4.2 Replacement of Initial Sway Imperfections by Equivalent Horizontal Forces @) For convenience, the initial bow imperfections of the members to be restrained by a bracing system, may be replaced by the equivalent stabilizing force shown in Fig. 4.4 32 EBcS3- 1995CHAPTER 4: ULTIMATE LIMIT STATES Figure 4.3 Equivalent Horizontal Forces (3) Where the bracing system is required to stabilize a beam, the force 'V in Fig: 4.4 should be obtained form: N=Mh (4.4) where M_ jis the maximum moment in the beam ‘fis the overall depth of the beam. (4) The equivalent stabilizing force g per unit length shall be calculated as follows: (@) Fora single restrained member: for L 5 4S am (43) for (4.6) (b) For multipte restrained members: for «) a= Xe son > gs wor “* <5 3500 k - Eve. jas 2 4. fr g- EF a so : a> she (4.8) where 8, is the in-plane deflection of the bracing system due to g plus any external loads a = 50082 bua > 02 = 2 + Lin) buck, < 1.0 (6) At points where beams oF compression members are Hiced, it shall also be verified that the bracing system is able to resist 2 local force equal to KN/100 applied co it by each beam or Compression member which is spliced at that point, and to transmit this force to the adjacent points at which that beam or compression member is restrained, see Fig. 4.5, (6) When checking for this local force, any external loads acting on the bracing system shall also be included, but the forces arising from the imperfection given in (1) above may be omitted, FRCS 32-1995 33ETHIOPIAN BUILDING CODE STANDARD FOR DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 4.2.4.8 Member Imperfections i (1) Normally the effects of imperfections on member design shall be incorporated by using the appropriate buckling formulae given in this Code. (2) Alternatively, for a compression member, the initial bow imperfection specified in Section 4.5.4.4 may be included in a second-order analysis of the member. (3) Where it is necessary (according to Section 4.2.4.2) to allow for member imperfections in the global analysis, the imperfections specified in Section 4.5.4.4 shall be included and second-order global analysis shall be used. wivolent stabilizing per unit length x] | P<] ese it The foree Js ossumed uniform within the span , pan of or non-uniform force this is. sligh the bracing system. tly conservaiive Figure 4.4 Equivalent Stabilizing Force 34 BCS 3- 1995 eaeCHAPTER 4: ULTIMATE LIMIT STATES aan = 41/100 Figure 4.5 Bracing Forces at Splices in Compression Elements 4.2.8 Sway Stal ty 4.2.5.1 Sway Stiffness (1) All structures shall have sufficient stffiiess to limit lateral sway. This may be supplied by: (a) The sway stiffness of bracing systems, which may be: (i) Triangulated frames (ii) Rigid-jointed frames (iii) Shear walls, cores and the like (b) the sway stiffness of the frames, which may be supplied by one or more of the following: (i) Triangulation (ii) The stiffness of the connections (iii) Cantilever columns (2) Semi-rigid connections may be used. provided that they can be demonstrated to provide sufficient reliable rotational stiffness (see Section 6.7.2) to satisfy the requirements for sway-mode stability (see Section 4.2.6) 4.2.5.2 Classification as Sway or Non-Sway (1) A frame may be classified as non-sway if its response to in-plane horizontal forces is sufficiently stiff for itto be acceptably accurate to neglect any additional internal forces or moments arising from horizontal displacements of its nodes. (2) Any other frame shall be classified as a sway frame and the effects of the horizontal displacements Of its nodes taken into account in-its-designsee Section 4.2.1.2. fecs3-1995 35ETHIOPIAN BUILDING CODE STANDARD FOR DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES () A frame may be classified as non-sway for a given lozd case if the elastic critical load ratio V/V, for that load case satisfies the criterion: VugMViy 0.1 (49) where Vy is the design value of the total vertical load ¥,, is its elastic critical value for failure in a sway mode. (4) Beam-and-column type plane frames in building structures with beams connecting each columa at each story level may be classified as non-sway for a given load case if the following criterion is satisfied, When first-order theory is used, the horizontal displacements in each story due to the design loads (both horizontal and vertical), plus the initial sway imperfection (see Section 4.2.4.3) applied in the form of equivalent horizontal forces, should satisfy the criterion: 6 v te i] [3] s01 (4.10) where 4 is the horizontal displacement at the top of the story, relative to the bottom of the story Ais the story height His the total horizontal reaction at the bottom of the story Vis the total vertical reaction at the bottom of the story (5) For sway frames, the requirements for frame stabi satisfied. given in Section 4.2.6 should also be 4.2.5.3 Classification as Braced or Unbraced (1) A frame may be classified as braced if its sway resistance is supplied by a bracing system with a response to in-plane horizontal loads which is sufficiently stiff for it to be acceptably accurate to assume that all horizontal loads are resisted by the bracing system, Q) A steel frame may be classified as braced if the bracing system reduces its horizontal displacements by at least 80%, (3) A braced frame may be treated as fully supported laterally. (4) The effects of the initial sway imperfections (see Section 4.2.4.3) in the braced frame shall be taken inio account in the design of the bracing system, (3) The initial sway imperfections (or the equivalent horizontal forces, see Section 4.2.4.3) plus any horizontal loads applied to a braced frame, may be treated as affecting only the bracing system. (6) The bracing system should be designed to resist: (a) any horizontal loads applied to the frames which it braces, (b) horizontal or vertical loads applied directly to the bracing system, () the effects of the initial sway imperfections (or the equivalent horizontal forces) from the bracing system itself and from all the frames which it braces, (7D) Where the bracing system is a frame or sub-frame, it may itself be either sway or nom-sway, see Section 4.2.5.2. 36 sacs 3- 1995CHAPTER 4: ULTIMATE LIMIT STATES (8) When applying the criterion given in Section 4.2.5.2(3) to a frame or sub-fame acting as a bracing system, the total vertical load ecting on all the frames which it braces should also be included. (9) When applying the criterion given in Section 4.2.5.2(4) to a frame or sub-frame acting as a bracing system, the total horizontal and vertical load acting on all the frames which it braces should also be included, plus the initial sway imperfection applied in the form of the equivalent horizontal forces from the bracing system itself and from all the frames which it braces, 4.2.6 Frame Stability 4.2.6.1 General (2) All frames shall have adequate resistance to failure in a sway mode. However, where the frame is shown to be 2 non-sway frame, see Section 4.2.5.2, no further sway mode verification is requized. (2) All frames, including sway ftames, shall also be checked for adequate resistance to failure in non say modes, (3) A check should be included for the possibility of local story-height failure modes, (4) Frames with non-iriangulated pitched ro. ‘, shall also be checked for snap-through buckling (S) The use of rigid-plastic analysis with plastic hinge locations in the columns shell be limited to cases where it can be demonstrated that the columns are able.to form hinges with sufficient rotation capacity, see Section 4.2.7. 4.2.6.2 Elastic Analysis of Sway Frames (1) When elastic global analysis is used, the second-order effects in the sway mode shall be included, either directly by using second-order elastic analysis, or indirecily by using one of the following alternati (a) First-order elastic analysis, with amplified sway moments (b) Firscorder elastic analysis, with sway-mode buckling lengths (2) When second-order elasi mode may be used for mem global analysis is used, in-plane buckling lengths for the non-sway ber design (3) In the amplified sway moments method, the sway moments found by a first-order elastic analysis should be increased by multiplying them by the ratio: pe eee 4.11 T= VV, el where Vy is the design value of the total vertical load V., is its elastic critical value for failure in a sway mode. (4) The amplified sway moments method should ot be used when the elastic critical load ratio ValV,, is more than 0.25, £BCS 3-1995 37ETHIOPIAN BUILDING CODE STANDARD FOR DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES (5) As an alternative to determining V.,/V., direct, the following approximation may be used in bean- and-column type frames as described in Section 4.2.5.2(4); El Ee a where 4, f, Hand ¥ are as defined in Section 4.2.5.2(4). (6) When the amplified sway moments method is used, mode may be used for member design. -plane buckling lengths for the nonsway (7) When first-order elastic analysis, with sway-mode in-plane buckling lengths, is used for column design, the sway moments in the beams and the beam-to-column connections should be amplified by at least 1.2 unless a smaller value is shown to be adequate by analysis. 4.2.6.3 Plastic Analysis of Sway Frames (1) When plastic global analysis is used, allowance shall be made for the secend-order effects in the sway mode. (2) This should generally be done by using second-order elastic-plastic analysis, see Section 4.2.1.4 (3) However, as an alternative, rigid-plastic analysis with indirect allowance for second-c-der effects, 435 given in (4) below, may be adapted in the following cases: (@) Frames one or two storys high in which either: (® No plastic hinge locations occur in the columns, or . (i) che columns satisfy the requirements of Section 4.2.7 (©) Frames with fixed bases, in which the sway failure mode involves plastic hinge locations in the columas at the fixed bases only, see Fig. 4.6, and the design is based on an incomplete mechanism in which the columns arc designed to remain elastic at the calculated plastic hinge moment, (4) In the cases given in (3) above, V.,/¥,, should not exceed 0.20 and all the internal forces and ‘moments should be amplified by the ratio given in Section 4.2.6.2(3). (5) In-plane buckling length for the non-sway mode may be used for member design. ‘These should be determined with due allowance for the effects of plastic hinges. 42.7 Column Requirements for Plastie Analysis (1) In frames it is necessary to ensure that where plastic hinges are required to form in members which are also under compression, adequate rotation capacity is available. (2) This criterion may be assumed to be satisfied when elastic-plastic global analysis is used, provided that the cross-sections satisfy the requirements given in Section 4.3, (@) When plastic hinge locations occur in the columns of frames designed using first-order rigid- plastic analysis, the columns should satisfy the following 38 EB¢s 3- 1995CHAPTER 4: ULTIMATE LIMIT STATES (a) In braced frames: 5 0.40 (Af IN)? (4.13) (B) In unbraced frames X < 0.32 4p Ny 14) where J is the in-plane non-dimensional slenderness (see Section 4.3) calculated using a buckling length equal to the system length. (4) In frames designed using first-order rigid-plastic global analysis, columns containing plastic hinge locations should also be checked for resistance to in-plane buckling, using buckling length equal to their system lengths (5) Except for the method outlined in Section 4.2.6.3(3)(b). first-order rigid-plastic global analysis should not be used for unbraced frames with more than two storys. Figure 4.6 Sway Mechanism Involving Plastic Hinges in Columns at Bases only 43 CROSS-SECTION PROPERTIES 43.1 Basis (1) When plastic global analysis is used, the members shall be capable of forming plastic hinges with sufficient rotation capacity 10 enable the required redistribution of bending moments to develop: (2) When elastic global analysis is used, any class of cross-section may be used for the members, provided that the design of the members takes into account the possible limits on the resistance of cross-sections due to local buckling. 4.3.2 Classification 4.3.2.1 Cross-sections (1) Four classes of cross-sections are defined, as follows: cscs 3-1995 39natant Tee ETHIOPIAN BUILDING CODE STANDARD FOR DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES (@) Class 1 or Plastic cross-sections are those in wiich all elements subject to compression comply with the values given in Table 4.1 for plastic elements. A plastic hinge can be developed with sufficient rotation capacity to allow redistribution of moments within the structure. Only Class 1 sections may be used for plastic design, (b) Class 2 or Compact cross-sections are those in which all elements subject to compression ‘comply with the values given in Table 4.1 for compact elements. ‘The full plastic moment capacity can be developed but local buckling may prevent development of a plastic hinge with + Sufficient rotation capacity to permit plastic design. Class 2 sections can be used without restriction except for plastic design. (©) Class 3 or Semi-compact sections are those in which all elements subject to compression comply with the values given in Table 4.1 for semi-compact elements. The siress at the extreme fibbers can reach the design strength but local buckling may prevent the development Of the full plastic moment, Class 3 sections are subject to limitations on their capacity which are given in the sub-sections that follow. (© Class 4 or Thin-walled sections are those which contain thin-walled elements subject to compression due to moment or axial force, Local buckling may prevent the stress in a thin- Walled section irom reaching the design strength. Design of Class 4 section: in Section 4.3.3. 4.3.2.2 Elements (1) Flat elements in a cross-section are either: (@) Internal elements attached on both longitudinal edges to other elements or to longitudinal stiffeners which are connected at suitable intervals to transverse stiffeners, or (®) outstand elements attached on only one horizontal edge to adjacent element, the other edge being free. (2) Flat elements are generally of constant thickness. Tapered elements may be treated as flat elements having the average thickness. @) Elements may be classified as plastic, compact or semi-compact if they mect the limits given in Table 4.1. Those which do not meet the limits for semi-compact elements are classified as thin- walled. (4) For webs of semi-compact sections, the limiting width to thickness ratio, d/t, is given by the following: (@) when ¥ is positive (for sections built-up welding 4g Ie | TLS (4.15) 40 «cecs3- 1995ee ee 6 ee ge CHAPTER 4: ULTIMATE LIMIT STATES Table 4.1 Limiting Width to Thickness Ratios (Elements which Exceed these Limits are Taken as Class 4, Thin-walled Cross-Sections) Cass of Seeton Type of element | Type of seedon 0) Pasi @ Compa | _G) Semicampact é Ouistnd eles of | Bul-up by fers 5 85 fete compression flange | welding ue (10) % Rolled seeton Sean 295. fais : 4 4% Invert element of | Buil-up by fem compression faage | welding i Rolled Secon fs i a We, wih eucal 4 fam axis at mid-depih All sections z* 198 te a, ‘Web, general seston, dee 22 Steton 432.20) begeneraly | Al eee on 43.220) web, wnere whole | Buitsp by osm ism section is subject 10 | welding | a fy ha e Rolled section £3 S30 Legs of single angle bees Fant 2 a 150 7 and double angle - Bs ee memers with com- | Roled ange 4m - ni SEs 26 ovens separated Sb Aso 7 7 Oustind legs of Fi i if doable angle wen- | Role Angle 2 sts. bs ose bce bets with angles in | sections ' fi * contact backtobick Stem of Tacaions | Teton Peas he ose Feise Cicer tbe sub fawmane'or | cuSorbaiiy | 4s a0 dese 4s 508 [Laxatcomoresson | by welding f FE { X Note 1: Dimensions cb dh ty, Fate a defined ia Fi. 4.1 bere a, i he ditance from te plastic metal acs w top Aber Note . (yin 003) BCS 3-1995 41eeeeeeEEeEee—eEeEeEeEeEeEe—— ETHIOPIAN BUILDING CODE STANDARD FOR DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES i) for rolled sections . \ Ze IM au ttl ame hy, T+L Sb v (4.16) (b) when y is negative : 4g 120 ngs 2506 4.17) (ee? ‘ in which, « v ss G18) and f, is the mean longitudinal stress in the web, compression being taken as positive and tension negative, and f, is the yield strength of the section. (8) For longitudinally stiffened flanges, the unsupported width b ofa flange or part of a flange, which is effectively supported along both edges either by a web or 2 longitudinal stiffener, should be taken as the width between the adjacent lines of welds or fasteners connecting it to the supporting elements. In rolled sections & shall be measured as shown in Fig. 4.7 (6) Where the free edge of the flange is supported by a longitudinal stiffener, the flange thickness shall not be less than (b/20) unless the edge stiffener is itself supported at suitable intervals, (7) Where the flange is stiffened by transverse as well as longitudinal stiffeners or a web, the thickness ¢-shall not be less than (1/100) of the smaller panel dimension, a or b, where a is a spacing ss of transverse stiffeners on the flange. 43,3 Thin-Walled Cross Sections \ (1) Local buckling may become the design criterion when the proportions of elements in a cross- | section exceed those given for semi-compact elements in Table 4.1. Such cross-sections are defined as thin-walled and their capacity is limited. (2) Where thin webs of sections which have a d/t, ratio > 63¢ are required to carry shear, the capacity of the cross-section should be calculated from a more rigorous method of analysis. ‘ (3) For webs subject to moments and axial loads end circular hollow sections, in the absence of a J more rigorous method of analysis, a value of the yield strength f, shall be assumed such that the limiting proportions for semi-compact sections are met (see Table 4.1). The same reduced value of ' Ff, shall be used for that element throughout the design of the section whenever it is in compression, ‘except that such reduction need nat be made in the design of connections to that element. \ (4) For other elements, where a thin-walled elemert is in compression the yield strength f, shall be reduced by the factor given in Table 4.2. The same reduced value of f, should by used for that element throughout the design of the section whenever it is in compression except that such reduction need not be made in the design of connections to that element, ‘ 42 FBcs3- 1995CHAPTER 4: ULTIMATE LIMIT STATES . Table 4.2 Strength Reduction Factors for Thin-Walled Sections Stress ‘Type of element Type of Section | Reduction factor 7 10 Built-up by welding z Outstand element of compression flange Rolled sections Builé up by welding Internal element of he compression flange Rolled sections Legs of single angle and double angle mem- Rolled angle bers with components aan separated 7 Outstand legs of double angle members with Holled angle angles in contact back- to-back Stems of T-seetions Note 1: Dimensions c,h,b,f,¢ ate as defined in Fig. 4.1 25 ft Note 2: es (fin MPa) Note 3: The strength of slender cross-sections may be obtained from Section 4.3.3. Alternatively; an acceptable more rigorous approact may be applied g9cs3-1995 = 43 | caecum ionicETHIOPIAN BUILDING CODE STANDARD FOR DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES Rolled beams ord cslumas Rolla chennale oes mn = ZN i 5 wt | wa 8d Towr Built-up. sections Figure 4.7 Dimensions of Sections 44 cscs 3-1995 re rere erie TI LL ICHAPTER 4: ULTIMATE LIMIT STATES 4.3.4 Effective Cross-Section Properties of Class 4 Cross-Sections (1) The effective cross-section properties of Class 4 cross-sections shall be based on th widths of the compression elements (See (2) below) fective (2) Effective widths may be used in Class 4 cross-sections to make the necessary allowances for reductions in resistance due to the effects of local buckling (as an alternative to the provision of Section 4.3.3(4)) @) The effective widths of flat compression elements should be obtained using Table 4.3 for internal elements and Table 4.4 for ourstand elements. (4) As an approximation, the reduction factor p may be cbiained as follows: @ pal __ it %, s 0.673: (b) p= %,-0.22/K2 if X, > 0.673: where loP* = Biyiee.d eK) in which + is the relevant thickness a is the critical plate-buckling stress & is the buckling factor corresponding to the stress ratio y from Table 4.3 or Table 4.4 as appropriate and D is the appropriate width (see Fig 4.7) as follows: B= d for webs b for internal flange elements (except Rectangular Hollow Section (RHS)) = 6-31 for flanges of RHS for outstand flanges (& + h)/2 for equal-leg angles hot (© + f/2 for unequel-leg angles so] eisiotsic (5) To determine the effective widths of flange elements, the stress ratio used in Table 4.3 or Table 4.4 may be based on the properties of the gross cross-section (6) To determine the effective width of a web, the stress ratio y used in Table 4.3 may be obtained using the effective area of the compression flange but the gross area of the web. (7) Generally the centroidal axis of the effective cross-section will shift by a dimension ¢ compared to the centroidal axis of the gross cross-section, see Fig. 4.8 and 4.9. ‘This should be take account when calculating the properties of the effective cross-section into (8) When the cross-section is subject to an axial force, the method given in Section 4.6.2.3 should be used to take account of the additional moment AM given by: AM = Ney (4.19) where ey is the shift of the centroidal axis when the effactive cro: uniform compression, see Fig. 4.8 is positive for compression. -section is subject to = FRCS 3-1995 45ETHIOPIAN BUILDING CODE STANDARD FOR DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES ‘Table 4,3 Internal Compression Elements Stress distribution (compression positive) fective width by ye w= oo, L>¥>0 21> y>2 Buckling factor k, 82 TO +e 7.81 - 6.29) +9.78y? 5.98(1-py Altematively for 1 2 y > -1: 16 46 cacs3- 1995CHAPTER 4: ULTIMATE LIMIT STATES (9) Except as given in (10) below, for greater economy the be determined using the maximum calculated compressive st yield sttength 4 » provided that cue is determined using the etfective widths by of all the Gompression elements. |This procedure genecally requires an iterative calculation in’ which ¥ is determined again at each step from the siresses calculated on the effective cross-section defined at the end of the previous step, including the stresses from the additional moment AM. plate slendemess X, of an element may E95 Gem y in that element in place of the (10) However, when verifying the design buckling resistance of a member using Section 4,5 and 4.6, the plate slendemess 2, of an element should always be based on its yield stcength f, when calculating the valucs of Agy ey and Wy 4.4 TENSION MEMBERS 4.4.1 Axially Loaded Tension Members (1) For members in axial tension, the desi; ign value of the axial tension force JV, at each cross-section, shall satisty Ne S Mine 4.22 where Nig is the design tension resistance capacity of the cross-section, taken as the smaller of: (a) the design plastic resistance of the gross section Af Me = 5 (4.23) {b) the design ultimate resistance of the net section at the bolt hole 09 dof, ha Nae = (4.24) 4.4.2 Effective Arcas of Simple Tension Members () For simple tension members th he effective arca dy shall be determined according to Section 6.2.3 and 6.5.10. 4.4.3 Tension Members with Moments 44.3.1 Cross-Sectional Resistance (1) ‘The cross-sectional resistance due to the combined effect of bending and tension force shall be determined in accordance with the provision given in Section 4.6.2. 4.4.3.2 Member Resistance (2) Tension members with moments shall be checked for resistance to lateral-orsional buckling in accordance with Section 4.6.3 uncer moment alone, They should also be checked for capacity under combined effects of axial load and moment at the points of greatest bending moments and axial loads, «BCS 3-1995 47ETHIOPIAN BUILDING CODE STANDARD FOR DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES Where My is the applied axial load in member; Ag is the effective area (see Section 4.4.2); ar is the yield strength; M,s¢ is the applied moment about the major axis at critical region; Maas is the moment capacity about the major axis in the absence of axial load: Ms —_is the applied moment about the minor axis at critical region; ‘Mag is the moment capacity about the minor axis in the absence of axial load 4.4.4 Laced or Battened Tension Members (1) Any lacing or battening systems should be designed to resist the greater of the following. (@) Forces and/or moments induced by eccentric loads, applied moments or transverse forces, including self weignt and wind resistance (b) Forces and/or moments induced by a transverse shear on the complete member at any point in its length equal to [% of the factored axial load in the member. These forces may be taken as shared equally between all transverse lacing or battening systems in parallel planes. 4. MEMBERS ‘OMPRESSION 4.5.1 Length and Restraints (1) The system length L of a compression member in any plane shall be taken as the distance between the points at which it has effective positional or directional restraint against buckling in that plane. (2) A restraint shall have sufficient strength and stifiness to inhibit movement of the restrained point in position or direction as appropriate (3) Positional restraints shall be connected to an appropriate shear diaphragm or system of triangulated bracing. (4) All other positional restraints to compression members shall be capable of resisting a force of not less than 1% of the axial force in the restrained member and transferring it to the adjacent points of positional restraint 4.8.2 Buckling Lengths 4.8.2.1 Basis (1) The buckting length / of a compression member is the length of an otherwise similar member with "pinned ends" (ends restrained against laicral movement but free to rotate in the plane of buckling) which has the same buckling resistance. 48 «cs 3- 1995CHAPTER 4: ULTIMATE LIMIT STATES t Contreidal ax’s o' : grass cross-section atecldat adie et sffective cross-section Gross cross-section Effective cross-section Figure 4.8 Class 4 Cross-Sections-Axial Force £8CS 3-1995 49ETHIOPIAN BUILDING CODE STANDARD FOR DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES Table 4.4 Outstand Compression Elements Stress distribution (compression positive) Effective width by eat 1>Pe0: | eee ¥<0: fl bay = pb, = pci(l - ¥) = alo, 1 0 “ Buckling factor k, 0.83 os7T | 0.85 | 0.57-0.21y+0.0742 1 t ‘ yso: ' | bag = pte = pc - ¥) ‘ ye, v=o | 1 |i>y>o] o O>¥>-1 ‘l i Buckling 0.578 factor &, |) 043) gSpaq | 70] 17-sp+i7aw | 238 50 secs 3- 1995