Project Material

BFC 10502 – CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIAL
Chapter1: Bitumen and tar
1.1 Introduction
Bitumen and tar are two things that generally used in Civil Engineering
in combination with stone or mineral aggregates. It is commonly used for
road construction. But, they are also being used in building in roofs and
floors and also for corrosion coatings for steel pipes and heavy cables but in
a tiny of quantities.
1.2 Definition
Bitumen is a mixture of organic liquids that are highly viscous, black,
sticky, entirely soluble in carbon disulfide, and composed primarily of highly
condensed polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
And all tar used today comes from coal although it can be
manufactured from wood.
1.3 Characterization
Bitumen characterized by consistency. The penetration, softening point
and viscosity are three properties that commonly used.
Penetration are characterized for road bitumen in this country. A
needle penetrates into a sample of bitumen under gravity at standard
condition of temperature, load and time.
Test: The amount of penetration of the needle is measured in tenths of
a millimeter and this figure is called “penetration” of the bitumen. The
normal test conditions are 25˚C, a load of 100 g and a time of 5 seconds. The
harder the bitumen, the difficult for needle penetrate.
Bitumen do not have any melting point and they will become softer
when being heated. The softening point is the temperature at which the
bitumen attains an arbitrarily defined degree of softness.
Test: Two samples of bitumen are contained in metal rings and small
steel ball is placed on top of each. The samples are immersed in a liquid bath
whose temperature is raised 5˚C per minute. As the bitumen soften, they
flow under the weight of the steel balls and each ultimately touches the
lower the lower bar of a steel frame. The softening point is taken as the
average of the temperatures at which is the samples touches the bar.
Viscosity is the property of a liquid that retard flow. It is measured by
viscometers.
Test: the liquid is brought to the test temperature and the time in
seconds for 50ml to flow through a 10mm diameter orifice is measured. The
viscosity is expressed as seconds at the test temperature.
1.4 Types of bitumen

There are four types of bitumen used in Civil Engineering field. They
are penetration grades, oxidized, cut-back and emulsions.
Penetration, usually used for road and industrial engineering. Their
penetration are at 25˚C and were grading from 15 to 450 penetration.
Basically they are made from distillation.
Oxidized bitumen purposes are for harder but more flexible
bitumen needed like roofing and hydraulic engineering. It can be obtained
by blowing air through it at elevated temperature. Also called blown
bitumen. Can be achieved by penetration n softening point (TRR). Both
penetration and oxidized bitumen have to be heated to produce and get the
sufficiently fluid for application.
Cut-back bitumen is manufactured by adding a volatile diluents
such as kerosene to 100 or 200 penetration bitumen. It will reduce the
viscosity and lower the application temperature. Spray on road or
mixed with aggregates then it will evaporate and reverts to the base
bitumen. It acts as a curing. The process take a quite long time depends on
climate and weather conditions. Characterized by viscosity(STV) at 40˚C
graded at 50 to 200 seconds.
Bitumen emulsion are made from dispersing bitumen in the from of
small drops in water. An emulsifying agent is added to prevent the
drops of bitumen coalescing prematurely. The viscosity is very low and can
be used without being heated first. Characterized by electric charge and the
stability of the emulsion. Two types of bitumen emulsion are produce,
they are anionic or alkaline emulsion that carry negative charge and
cationic or acidic emulsion that carry positive charge. Cationic emulsion are
more common in this country as it were controlled chemically and not by
evaporation of water. So, it obvious it has more advantages for moist climate
country.
Tar
There two different types of tar made in United Kingdom. Type S is for
surface dressing. It has higher volatility so it will harden in short time after
being sprayed on the road. Type C is for coating mineral aggregates. It has
lower volatility so it will not harden until the stone is fully coated.
Tar were basically characterized by their STV viscosity. But, the
range of temperature was needed to cover the viscosity used and there will
has a problem as the test temperature not always quoted. The Equiviscous
Temperature (EVT) was developed for tars in which the EVT is the
temperature at which 50ml of tars flows out of the ST Viscometerin seconds.
PROPERTY BITUMEN TAR

Origin Petroleum Coal
Temperature Lower Higher
Susceptibility
Adhesion to Stone Poorer Better
Weathering Effects :
Hardening-oxidation light Less More
Durability Better Poorer
Skid Resistance of Road Poorer Better
Surface
Resistance to Oil and Fuel Poorer Better
Availability Good Poor
1.5 Comparison of Bitumen and Tar
1.6 Bitumen Mixtures

Nowadays, the bitumen has been modified to get a better application
on engineering field. The new bitumen produce the reduce temperature
susceptibility, increase stability, increase flexibility, lower viscosity at high
temperature and also improved adhesion to aggregates. In general, the
magnitude of the effect produced by an additive increases with the
concentration which, in turn, means higher cost.
1.7 Environmental issue for Bitumen and Tar

Bitumen is not a health hazard, nor does it damage the environment.

Bitumen is not made from coal tar, and while both materials are black, the
similarity ends there. Bitumen is a petroleum product. In the refining of crude
oil by fractional distillation, lighter fractions of the crude are drawn from the
distillation tower at different levels (temperatures) leaving a residue at the
bottom which is a complex mixture of high molecular weight hydrocarbons.
This residue is further distilled at low pressure to produce the bitumen
feedstock. Bitumen is mixed with mineral aggregate to produce asphalt.
Since the high molecular weight hydrocarbons in bitumen are not very
reactive, the mixture is inert and it does not harm the environment.
The tar or pitch used as a road surface in the past is an entirely
different substance made from coal. It is the coal tar products - not materials
obtained from petroleum - that contain polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
known to cause cancer. Thus, bitumen in the environment does not present a
health hazard. To avoid any possible confusion, tar is NOT used in the
production of asphalt.
Chapter2: RUBBER
2.1 Introduction
Natural rubber, also called India rubber or caoutchouc, is
an elastic hydrocarbon polymer that was originally derived from latex, a
milky colloid produced by some plants. The plants would be ‘tapped’, that is
an incision made into the bark of the tree and the latex sap collected and
refined into a usable rubber. The purified form of natural rubber is the
chemical polyisoprene, which can also be produced synthetically. Natural
rubber is used extensively in many applications and products, as is synthetic
rubber.
2.2 Types of rubber

The two types of rubber in common use today are natural and synthetic.
Natural rubber comes from the rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis). When a tree
matures at the age of six or seven years, the latex is collected from a
diagonal incision in the tree trunk. The tapping process does not affect the
health of the tree and the tree wound later heals itself. Synthetic rubber is
made by man from petrochemical feedstocks. Crude oil is the principal raw
material.
Varieties
The commercial source of natural rubber latex is the para rubber tree(Hevea
brasiliensis), a member of the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae. This is largely
because it responds to wounding by producing more latex, also this means
that the tree is able to photosynthesise more.
Other plants containing latex include gutta-percha (Palaquium gutta).

Panama rubber tree (Castilla elastica), spurges (Euphorbia spp.), lettuce,
common dandelion (Taraxacum officinale), Russian dandelion (Taraxacum
kok-saghyz), Scorzonera(tau-saghyz), and guayule (Parthenium argentatum).
Although these have not been major sources of rubber, Germany attempted
to use some of these during World War II when it was cut off from rubber
supplies. These attempts were later supplanted by the development
of synthetic rubbers. To distinguish the tree-obtained version of natural
rubber from the synthetic version, the term gum rubber is sometimes used.
2.3 Properties
Rubber exhibits unique physical and chemical properties. Rubber's stress-
strain behavior exhibits the Mullins effect, thePayne effect, and is often
modeled as hyperelastic. Rubberstrain crystallizes. Owing to the presence of
adouble bond in each repeat unit, natural rubber is sensitive toozone
cracking.
• Solvents
There are two main solvents for rubber: turpentine and naphtha(petroleum).
The former has been in use since 1764 when François Fresnau made the
discovery. Giovanni Fabronni is credited with the discovery of naphtha as a
rubber solvent in 1779. Because rubber does not dissolve easily, the material
is finely divided by shredding prior to its immersion. An ammonia solution
can be used to prevent the coagulation of raw latex while it is being
transported from its collection site.
• Chemical make up
Latex is a natural polymer of isoprene (most often cis-1,4-polyisoprene) –

with a molecular weight of 100,000 to 1,000,000. Typically, a small
percentage (up to 5% of dry mass) of other materials, such as proteins,fatty
acids, resins and inorganic materials (salts) are found in natural rubber.
Polyisoprene is also created synthetically, producing what is sometimes

referred to as "synthetic natural rubber".
Some natural rubber sources called gutta-percha are composed of trans-1,4-
polyisoprene, a structural isomer which has similar, but not identical,
properties.
Natural rubber is an elastomer and a thermoplastic. However, it should be
noted that once the rubber is vulcanized, it will turn into a thermoset. Most
rubber in everyday use is vulcanized to a point where it shares properties of
both; i.e., if it is heated and cooled, it is degraded but not destroyed.
• Elasticity
In most elastic materials, such as metals used in springs, the elastic behavior
is caused by bond distortions. When force is applied, bond lengths deviate
from the (minimum energy) equilibrium and strain energy is
stored electrostatically. Rubber is often assumed to behave in the same way,
but it turns out this is a poor description. Rubber is a curious material
because, unlike metals, strain energy is stored thermally.
In its relaxed state, rubber consists of long, coiled-up polymer chains that
are interlinked at a few points. Between a pair of links, each monomer can
rotate freely about its neighbour, thus giving each section of chain leeway to
assume a large number of geometries, like a very loose rope attached to a
pair of fixed points. At room temperature, rubber stores enough kinetic
energy so that each section of chain oscillates chaotically, like the above
piece of rope being shaken violently. The entropy model of rubber was
developed in 1934 by Werner Kuhn.
When rubber is stretched, the "loose pieces of rope" are taut and thus no
longer able to oscillate. Their kinetic energy is given off as excess heat.
Therefore, the entropy decreases when going from the relaxed to the
stretched state, and it increases during relaxation. This change in entropy
can also be explained by the fact that a tight section of chain can fold in
fewer ways (W) than a loose section of chain, at a given temperature (nb.
entropy is defined as S=k*ln(W)). Relaxation of a stretched rubber band is
thus driven by an increase in entropy, and the force experienced is not
electrostatic, rather it is a result of the thermal energy of the material being
converted to kinetic energy. Rubber relaxation is endothermic, and for this
reason the force exerted by a stretched piece of rubber increases with
temperature. (Metals, for example, become softer as temperature increases).
The material undergoes adiabatic cooling during contraction. This property of
rubber can easily be verified by holding a stretched rubber band to your lips
and relaxing it. Stretching of a rubber band is in some ways equivalent to
thecompression of an ideal gas, and relaxation is equivalent to its expansion.
Note that a compressed gas also exhibits "elastic" properties, for instance
inside an inflated car tire. The fact that stretching is equivalent to
compression may seem somewhat counterintuitive, but it makes sense if
rubber is viewed as a one-dimensional gas. Stretching reduces the "space"
available to each section of chain.
Vulcanization of rubber creates more disulfide bonds between chains, so it
shortens each free section of chain. The result is that the chains tighten
more quickly for a given length of strain, thereby increasing the elastic force
constant and making rubber harder and less extensible.
When cooled below the glass transition temperature, the quasi-fluid chain
segments "freeze" into fixed geometries and the rubber abruptly loses its
elastic properties, although the process is reversible. This is a property it
shares with most elastomers. At very low temperatures, rubber is rather
brittle; it will break into shards when struck or stretched. This critical
temperature is the reason winter tires use a softer version of rubber than
normal tires. The failing rubber o-ring seals that contributed to the cause of
the Challenger disaster were thought to have cooled below their critical
temperature. The disaster happened on an unusually cold day.
• Cultivation
Rubber latex is extracted from rubber trees. The economic life period of
rubber trees in plantations is around 32 years – up to 7 years of immature
phase and about 25 years of productive phase.
The soil requirement of the plant is generally well-drained weathered soil
consisting of laterite, lateritic types, sedimentary types, nonlateritic red or
alluvial soils.
The climatic conditions for optimum growth of rubber trees consist of (a)
rainfall of around 250 cm evenly distributed without any marked dry season
and with at least 100 rainy days per year (b) temperature range of about
20°C to 34°C with a monthly mean of 25°C to 28°C (c) high atmospheric
humidity of around 80% (d) bright sunshine amounting to about 2000 hours
per year at the rate of 6 hours per day throughout the year and (e) absence
of strong winds.
Many high-yielding clones have been developed for commercial planting.
These clones yield more than 2,000 kilograms of dry rubber per hectare per
year, when grown under ideal conditions.
• Collection
In places like Kerala, where coconuts are in abundance, the half shell of
coconut is used as the collection container for the latex but glazed pottery or
aluminium or plastic cups are more common elsewhere. The cups are
supported by a wire that encircles the tree. This wire incorporates a spring so
it can stretch as the tree grows. The latex is led into the cup by a galvanised
"spout" knocked into the bark. Tapping normally takes place early in the
morning, when the internal pressure of the tree is highest. A good tapper can
tap a tree every 20 seconds on a standard half-spiral system, and a common
daily "task" size is between 450 and 650 trees. Trees are usually tapped
alternate or third daily, although there are many variations in timing, length
and number of cuts. The latex, which contains 25–40% dry rubber, is in the
bark, so the tapper must avoid cutting right through to the wood or the
growing cambial layer will be damaged and the renewing bark will be badly
deformed, making later tapping difficult. It is usual to tap a pannel at least
twice, sometimes three times, during the trees' life. The economic life of the
tree depends on how well the tapping is carried out, as the critical factor is
bark consumption. A standard in Malaysia for alternate daily tapping is 25 cm
(vertical) bark consumption per year. The latex tubes in the bark ascend in a
spiral to the right. For this reason, tapping cuts usually ascend to the left to
cut more tubes.
The trees will drip latex for about four hours, stopping as latex coagulates
naturally on the tapping cut, thus blocking the latex tubes in the bark.
Tappers usually rest and have a meal after finishing their tapping work, then
start collecting the latex at about midday. Some trees will continue to drip
after the collection and this leads to a small amount of cup lump which is
collected at the next tapping. The latex that coagulates on the cut is also
collected as tree lace. Tree lace and cup lump together account for 10–20%
of the dry rubber produced.
The latex will coagulate in cup if kept for long. The latex has to be collected
before coagulation. The collected latex is transferred in to coagulation tanks
for the preparation of dry rubber or transferred into air-tight containers with
sieving for ammoniation. Ammoniation is necessary to preserve the latex in
colloidal state for long.
Latex is generally processed into either latex concentrate for manufacture of
dipped goods or it can be coagulated under controlled, clean conditions
using formic acid. The coagulated latex can then be processed into the
higher grade technically specified block rubbers such as TSR3L or TSRCV or
used to produce Ribbed Smoke Sheet grades.
Naturally coagulated rubber (cup lump) is used in the manufacture of TSR10
and TSR20 grade rubbers. The processing of the rubber for these grades is
basically a size reduction and cleaning process to remove contamination and
prepare the material for the final stage drying. The dried material is then
baled and palletized for shipment.
2.4 Uses of Rubber
The use of rubber is widespread, ranging from household to industrial

products, entering the production stream at the intermediate stage or as
final products. Tires and tubes are the largest consumers of rubber. The
remaining 44% are taken up by the general rubber goods (GRG) sector,
which includes all products except tires and tubes.
2.5 Manufacturing
Other significant uses of rubber are door and window profiles, hoses, belts,
matting, flooring and dampeners (antivibration mounts) for
theautomotive industry in what is known as the "under the bonnet"

products. Gloves (medical, household and industrial) and toy balloonsare
also large consumers of rubber, although the type of rubber used is that of
the concentrated latex. Significant tonnage of rubber is used asadhesives in
many manufacturing industries and products, although the two most
noticeable are the paper and the carpet industries. Rubber is also commonly
used to make rubber bands and pencil erasers. Many aircraft tires and inner
tubes are still made of natural rubber due to the high cost of certification for
aircraft use of synthetic replacements.
• Textile applications
Additionally, rubber produced as a fiber sometimes called elastic, has

significant value for use in the textile industry because of its excellent
elongation and recovery properties. For these purposes, manufactured
rubber fiber is made as either an extruded round fiber or rectangular fibers
that are cut into strips from extruded film. Because of its low dye
acceptance, feel and appearance, the rubber fiber is either covered by yarn
of another fiber or directly woven with other yarns into the fabric. In the early
1900s, for example, rubber yarns were used in foundation garments. While
rubber is still used in textile manufacturing, its low tenacity limits its use in
lightweight garments because latex lacks resistance to oxidizing agents and
is damaged by aging, sunlight, oil, and perspiration. Seeking a way to
address these shortcomings, the textile industry has turned
to Neoprene (polymer form of Chloroprene), a type of synthetic rubber as
well as another more commonly used elastomer fiber, spandex (also known
as elastane), because of their superiority to rubber in both strength and
durability.
• Liquid Rubber
Liquid Rubber is a non-toxic, environmentally friendly anti corrosive

waterproofing product. It is certified for potable water, and virtually
odourless. It is water based asphalt emulsion, blended with elastometric
polymers that are easy to apply, rapid curing and provide excellent adhesion
to a wide range of building materials. Liquid Rubber products have excellent
resistance against UV, ageing and cracking due to thermal cycling and
chemical attacks. It can be applied by spraying, rolling, brushing or
troweling.
Liquid Rubber can be used in conjunction with Supaseal heat reflective and
trafficable topcoats and will provide and wide range of colours and years or
maintenance free performance.
Liquid Rubber Engineered Coatings are innovators in environmentally safe

protective coatings. These protective coating products provide a strong,
flexible, seamless membrane with superior adhesion that protects structures
from the harmful effects of water, chemical and bacterial attack.
Liquid Rubber has grown to be one of Canada’s leading suppliers of industrial

waterproofing products. Liquid Rubber products are manufactured in Canada
and are state of the art with respect to today’s environmental concerns and
work safe practices.
All of Liquid Rubber’s products are water-based emulsions, meaning no

enviroment-damaging VOC’s. The products consist of stable, non-toxic,
odourless, non-flammable during, or following applications.
Fumes associated with hot kettles and propane torches are not involved in
application, hence, Liquid Rubber is extremely user-friendly on site and
during application. It serves as cold, liquid-applied, polymer-enhanced
asphalt that produces a waterproof elastomeric membrane.
Liquid Rubber products are extremely suitable for the highly corrosive
environment and strict water and fire requirements within most mining
facilities. The anti-corrosion, waterproofing, fire and chemical resistant
characteristics make Liquid Rubber products perfect for applications ranging
from metal protection to tank liners to floor coatings.
2.6 Applications of Rubber for Civil Engineering

Liquid Rubber products excel as a waterproofing and corrosion protection
membrane in many civil engineering applications. Bridges, tunnels, and
dams are among the few applications that benefit from the high
performance, flexible waterproof membrane that is easy and safely applied
in projects worldwide.
• Bridge decks
Liquid Rubber B-300™ is an effective 100% seamless and fully adhered

bridge deck waterproofing product which is applied in liquid form and cures
to a tough flexible membrane. Combining adhesion and elasticity, this bridge
deck waterproofing coating resists cracking, peeling and water permeation.
Liquid Rubber B-300™ is asphalt based, and elastomer modified

compound that strongly adheres to asphalt hot-mix. Being spray applied at
ambient temperatures, the cured membrane is seamless and does not
contribute to VOCs, and meets all safety standards.
• Tunnel liners systems
High performance seamless fully bonded waterproofing membrane ideal for

sandwich construction between primary and secondary linings of sprayed
concrete bored tunnels. Liquid Rubber B-300™, a spray applied liner,
waterproofs cut and cover tunnels, buried structures for vehicle, pedestrian
traffic, and mine tunnels. Liquid Rubber B-300™ protects against water
ingress, chlorides and sulphate corrosion.
Liquid Rubber B-300™ is an elastomeric membrane designed for

application in confined spaces, having no odour, or VOCs and curing
rapidly. Liquid Rubber B-300™ can be spray applied between primary and
secondary layers of sprayed or cast concrete in tunnels and forms an
excellent bond to both the substrate and subsequent cementitous materials
applied onto it once cured.
• Tank and earthen containment systems
Liquid Rubber B-300™ and Liquid Rubber SealRoof A-100™ surface

coating and pond liners are elastomeric spray on coatings with excellent
durability, excellent flexibility, abrasion resistance, and high chemical

resistance. Different formulas have been developed to cover a very wide
variety of requirements from surface hardness to elongation. The liners can
be applied over a wide range of plastic and geo textiles creating a fully
adhered and seamless membrane to prevent leaks.
• Canals and containment walls
Lining canals prevent precious water loss, structural deterioration and

ingress of plant life. Earthen structures lined with concrete or shotcrete are
protected with Liquid Rubber B-300™ a tough wear resistant elastomeric
spray applied membrane, with excellent elasticity to bridge minor cracking
which often occurs in concrete structures. Liquid Rubber B-300™ can be
applied as the primary coating over the concrete or shotcrete. It exhibits
excellent adhesion. Liquid Rubber B-300™ can also be applied over
polyethylene or PVC sheeting sealing seams and providing a leak resistant
seamless liner.
On containment walls Liquid Rubber B-300™ protects the concrete surface

from water, waterborne and chemical contaminants. Its low permeability,
excellent adhesion and elasticity make it ideal to prevent water damage and
bridge stress cracks in the concrete.
• Pre-cast pipe and concrete utility vaults
Liquid Rubber B-250™ and HighBuild S-200™ protects concrete

underground pipe and utility vaults from damage caused by water and soil
borne chemicals. Spray applied CreteSafe B-250™ or roller/brush
appliedHighBuild S-200™ form a low permeable, fully adhered membrane
that seals out water for the concrete surface and is tough enough to resist
damage from mechanical backfill and bacterial attack.
2.7 Environmental issue of rubber

Employing rubber from waster tyre as building material is still considered as
'technology infant'. There are still lot of studies should be done to obtain
more information on these particular application. Common construction
material is concrete mixed. Thus, in late 90's until now many researchers are
interested in making a development on rubberized concrete.
Normal concrete mix is conventional and indispensable in most construction
works. The applications are widely accepted although it has limited
properties such as low tensile strength, low energy absorption and ductility
and critically associated with shrinkage and cracking. According to literature
produce by many of active researches, the significant main properties
resulted from the investigation showed the application of waste tyre rubber
might enhance these weak characteristics of concrete.
In recent research, it is proven that by replacing in a certain percentage of
original aggregate in concrete mix with waste tyre rubber commonly reduced
drying shrinkage, brittleness and elastic modulus thus lead to improvement
of durability and serviceability of the mix.
Furthermore, rubber material in concrete lightweight panel is favourable as
sound barrier and function as insulation that tend to assist with static
charged reduction in walls cause by electrical appliances. In addition, it is
suitable to be used as roof due to the lightweight mix and help control noise
plus a good deal cooler. These include shock-absorbing structural elements
in high security structures to resist impact and spalling, in buildings as an
earthquake shock-wave absorber and in railway stations as ballast mats for
high-speed trains. In hydraulic structures the precast rubber concrete is
suitable to resist cavitations and in liquid-retaining structures.
Tyre rubbers are commonly used as a partial aggregate in asphalt. Shredded
tires are non-biodegradable either above or below the water line under
normal conditions. This provides for a stable road base for a longer time
period than some other lightweight fill materials Other than that it also used
as partial replacement for bitumen. In cold climate, tyre chips are being used
to reduce frost penetration beneath roads that can cause frost heave
resulting cracking to pavement and uneven road surface for their resistance
and thaw. Additionally, waste rubbers are used as crack sealant and repair
membranes that utilises the flexibility of rubber to provide improved road
maintenance.
In EXPO 2005 Aichi, Japan an experimental project was reveal to the public
on the effective use of waste tyre as road bed material in a new pavement
called "porous elastic road surface (PERS)". The pavement in which rubber
chips are used instead of crushed stones. The pavement developed distinct
features including drainage, noise reduction, and shock-absorbency and
freeze prevention. The PERS manage to decrease the noise level by 6 - 10 dB
compared with conventional asphalt pavement. The reduction is equivalent
to the decreased of one-fourth and one-tenth of current traffic volume.
Whole and shredded tyres have high hydraulic conductivity that makes them
appropriate for drainage applications or where free-draining is required. In
United States, some of its states allow tire shred to be used in construction of
drain fields for septic system. Other than that, tyre derive product are also
used to construct leachate drainage channels, explosives and explosives
stemming, and service channel to collect organic and oil trapped material.
In the last part of this series, I will touch on the applications of waste tyre in
civil engineering applications as lightweight material, flooring material, fuel,
and coastal applications.
Chapter3: PLASTIC
3.1 HISTORY OF PLASTIC
The first human-made plastic was invented by Alexander Parkes in 1855, he

called this plastic Parkesine (later called celluloid). It was unveiled at the
1862 Great International Exhibition in London. The development of plastics
has come from the use of natural plastic materials (e.g., chewing
gum, shellac) to the use of chemically modified natural materials
(e.g., rubber, nitrocellulose, collagen, galalite) and finally to completely
synthetic molecules (e.g., bakelite, epoxy, polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene).
In 1866, Parkes formed the Parkesine Company to mass produce the
material. The company, however, failed due to poor product quality as Parkes
tried to reduce costs. Parkesine's successors were Xylonite, produced
byDaniel Spill (an associate of Parkes), and Celluloid from John Wesley Hyatt.
Parkesine was made from cellulose treated with nitric acid and a solvent. The
generic name of Parkesine ispyroxylin, or Celluloid. Parkesine is often
synthetic ivory. The Parkesine company ceased trading in 1868. Pictures of
Parkesine are held by the Plastics Historical Society of London. There is a
plaque on the wall of the site of the Parkesine Works.
3.2 THE MEANING OF PLASTIC
A plastic material is any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-

synthetic organic solids used in the manufacture of industrial products.
Plastics are typically polymers of high molecular mass, and may contain
other substances to improve performance and or reduce production costs.
Monomers of plastic are either natural or synthetic organic compounds.
Plastics also known as synthetic polymers which can easily be deformed.
They are formed by the addition or condensation polymerization. Plastics are
not affected by the action of acids or bases. They have great tendency to
deform.
3.3 MANUFACTURING OF PLASTIC
They are various plastic processing method available in industrial process, from the
method of processing plastic we can divided into two big methods they are :
1. Molding Method
this method usually use mold to melt the plastic, deformed with applied pressure and
the product shape will same as the mold shape.
Various molding type method can be divided as
2. Extrusion Molding Method

this process can produce along product with fixed cross-sectional profile such as wire
and cable coating, plastic tube for printer ink, some hollow profile and various solid
profile. the material is pallet or plastic chips that are usually dried in a hopper before
going to the feed screw. to process extrusion method used injection machine, The
plastic heated at barrel to molten state then forced through a plastic mold die that is in
desired shape. look at picture below to learn more about extrusion mold.
3. Injection Mold
Injection molding involves taking plastic in the form of pellets or granules and heating
this material until a melt is obtained. Molten plastic is injected at high pressure into a
mold, which is the inverse of the product's shape then it is allowed to cooling into the
desired shape. The mold is then opened and the part is ejected, at which time the cycle
is repeated. you should learn about various injection molds type at mold construction
post
injection mold method have various kind of techniques like Thermoplastic Foam
Injection Molding, Multi injection mold (sandwich mold, bi injection mold) gas assist
injection molds and other, basic injection machine for injection mold you can see at
picture below
4. Blow Molding Process

A thermoplastic resin is heated to a molten state. It is then extruded through a die head
to form a hollow tube called a prison. The prison is dropped between two mold halves,
which close around it, the concept of blow mold you can see at picture below
we can divided blow mold four types as :

* Extrusion blow molding
* Injection blow molding
* Stretch blow molding
* Reheat and blow molding.
5. Compression Molds
Compression molding is a method of molding in which the plastic, generally preheated,
is first placed in an open, heated mold cavity, they are four step in compression molds
they are loaded charge, charge compressed, cured the charge and ejecting process of
product. the main construction is Punch (cavity side), core molds and ejection system.
6. Reaction Injection Molding (RIM)

the concept of RIM is two reactant liquids are heated and brought together under high
pressure. one example process is polyurethane RIM, At the heart of the polyurethane
RIM process is a chemical reaction between the two liquid components, which are held
in separate, temperature-controlled feed tanks equipped with agitators. From these
tanks, the isocyanate and polyol feed through supply lines to metering units that
precisely meter both components, at high pressure, to a mixhead device .Look at
picture below, those picture shown two chemical reaction process mold isocyanete (blue
tank) and polyol(red Tank).
.
The advantages of RIM are Strong, flexible, lightweight parts which can easily be
painted. Quick cycle times compared to typical vacuum cast materials, the
disadvantage is slow cycle time because must mixed before formed by mold.
7. Transfer Mold
Transfer Mold or Resin Transfer Mold (RTM)- like compression molding, is a process
where the amount of molding material (usually a thermoset plastic) is measured and
inserted before the molding takes place. The molding material is preheated and loaded
into a chamber known as the pot. A plunger is then used to force the material from the
pot through channels known as a sprue and runner system into the mold cavities. The
mold remains closed as the material is inserted and is opened to release the part from
the sprue and runner. The mold walls are heated to a temperature above the melting
point of the mold material; this allows a faster flow of material through the cavities.
8. Thermoforming
Is a manufacturing process for thermoplastic sheet or film by Heating a thermoplastic
sheet and using a vacuum to pull the sheet over perforated mold. the product of this
method is Fast food containers, advertising signs, panels for shower stalls
9. Pultrusion
Pultrusion is a continuous process of manufacturing of composite materials with
constant cross-section whereby reinforcing fibers are pulled through a resin, possibly
followed by a separate preforming system, and into a heated die, where the resin
undergoes polymerization. Many resin types may be used in pultrusion including
polyester, polyurethane, vinylester and epoxy.
10. Casting Mold

Casting is a manufacturing process by which a liquid plastic introduced into a mould,
allowed to solidify within the mould, this characteristic of this molds is filling a molds by
gravity, this kind type of casting molds are :
Liquid resins (epoxy)
Hot melted plastic poured into a casting (nylon)
Slush casting for thin walled products (snow boots, gloves, toys)
Wet spinning -fibers formed by spinning the solution
through multi-hole dies
11. Rotational Mold

Rotational molding or moulding is a versatile process for
creating many kinds of mostly hollow plastic Parts. The
phrase is often shortened to rotomolding or rotomoulding.
molding of large products such as storage tanks and
containers,
cPrnpIex toys, mannequins (display figures), etc., is achieved using rotational
molding. Lately, there are more and more applications for this technology.
3.4 THE PROPERTIES OF PLASTIC
Physical properties: transparency, flexibility, elasticity, permeability, water resistant,

electrical resistance, Specific Gravity, soft when hot.
Chemical properties: solubility, chemical resistance, thermal stability, reactivity with
water, flammability, heat of combustion
3.5 TYPE OF PLASTIC
The main type of plastic:
1)Thermoplastic
Plastics that become soft on heating and melt on heating and can be moulded again
and again are known as thermoplastics. Repetitive heating of thermoplastics does not
cause permanent change in properties or composition. They are addition polymers.
2) Thermosetting plastic
These are the plastics that can be softened on heating but they become permanently
hard on cooling. They can not be remoulded again. They are insoluble in any solvent
whether organic or inorganic. They are condensation polymers.
3.6 RAW MATERIAL OF PLASTIC
The raw materials needed to make most plastics come from petroleum and natural gas
but some another material which is:
Plasticizers : They improve the softening, decrease brittleness and
workability of
plastics. They are organic substances.
Stabilizers : They prevent chemical degradation of plastics. By nature
they are
antioxidants.
Fillers : They increase the tensile strength of plastics. They are
wood flour and glass wool.
Reinforcing agents: They increase its mechanical strength. Example is glass fibre.
Pigments : They are used to impart a particular color to the plastic.
3.7 THE USAGE OF PLASTIC IN CONSTRUCTION
Roofing
• Roofing systems made with spray polyurethane foam (SPF) offer durability,
energy savings and moisture control. This foam can be used to cover an existing
roof, helping to reduce the amount of building materials sent to landfills.
Walls
• In walls, the use of structural insulated panels (SIPs) made with expanded
polystyrene (EPS) can help homeowners save hundreds of dollars annually on
heating and cooling bills. Savings vary by material and products. EPS starts out
as a plastic pellet and ends up as nearly 95 percent air, a very effective insulator.
• Vinyl is increasingly found in durable, easy-to-clean vinyl wall coverings and
requires only half as much energy to manufacture as the same amount of paper
wall coverings.
Windows
• Plastics also rival traditional materials for windows and frames. For example,
polycarbonate—a material also used in eyeglasses—is used in windows. These
lightweight, shatter-resistant plastic products have low thermal conductivity,
which can help to reduce heating and cooling costs.
• Vinyl window frames save the U.S. nearly 2 trillion thermal units of energy per
year, helping reduce the greenhouse gas emissions associated with energy
generation—all the while cutting maintenance time, materials and costs.
Piping
• Polyolefin, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)
pipes and fittings, offer excellent fusion integrity for continuous pipeline systems,
helping to eliminate potential leak points where water could be wasted.
• In residential use, cross-linked polyethylene piping (PEX) is effective in manifold
systems—due to its flexibility, lightness, and ease of installation—allowing
multiple feed lines throughout a house, which allows hot water to arrive more
quickly to a sink or shower. This can significantly save water.
Decks, Fences and Railings
• Lumber made from recycled plastics or plastic-wood composites can outlast
traditional materials, often require less maintenance, and are resistant to peeling,
cracking, splintering or fading.
Plastic House Wrap
• The advent of plastic house wrap technology has reduced the infiltration of
outside air into the average home by 10-50%, helping to drastically reduce
the energy required to heat or cool the home. These plastic films have helped
reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the U.S. by as much as 120 to 600
million tons of CO2 since 1980 (assuming that all homes built since 1980
have some form of plastic barrier).
• For homeowners, this means that the energy saved by the use of house wrap
can surpass the energy used to make the plastic product in less than two
months after installation. The greenhouse gas emissions avoided due to
reduced energy use can surpass the emissions released in the manufacture
of house wrap in three weeks or less.
• For each of the above examples, energy savings can vary. Find out why in the
seller’s fact sheet for these plastic building products, which include house
wraps, foam insulation, sheathing insulation and sealants. Check to see if
your local retailer offers fact sheets on individual building products.
3.8 Application of sustainable materials to overcome

global warming.
The manufacturing of plastics often creates large quantities of chemical pollutants. For
example, the process to heat the material to molten state. This process release the
carbon dioxide to atmosphere and cause the global warming. Plastics also are durable
and degrade very slowly; the molecular bonds that make plastic so durable make it
equally resistant to natural processes of degradation. To save our earth from global
warming we can use:
1) Concept 3R (recycle reuse reduce)

recycling is the process of recovering scrap or waste plastics and
reprocessing the material into useful products, sometimes completely
different in form from their original state
2) Biodegradable (compostable) plastics
that break down with exposure to sunlight (e.g., ultra-violet radiation),

water or dampness, bacteria, enzymes, wind abrasion and some instances
rodent pest or insect attack are also included as forms
of biodegradation or environmental degradation.
3) Oxo-biodegradable
lyolefin plastic to which has been added very small (catalytic) amounts of
metal salts. As long as the plastic has access to oxygen (as in a littered
state), these additives catalyze the natural degradation process to speed
it
up so that the OBD plastic will degrade when subject to environmental
conditions.
Chapter4: POLYMER
4.1 Introduction
A polymer is a large molecule (macromolecule) composed of repeating

structural units. These subunits are typically connected by covalent chemical
bonds. Although the term polymer is sometimes taken to refer to plastics, it
actually encompasses a large class of natural and synthetic materials with a
wide variety of properties.
Because of the extraordinary range of properties of polymeric materials, they
play an essential and ubiquitous role in everyday life. This role ranges from
familiar synthetic plastics and elastomers to natural biopolymers such as
nucleic acids and proteins that are essential for life.
Natural polymeric materials such as shellac, amber, and natural rubber have
been used for centuries. A variety of other natural polymers exist, such as
cellulose, which is the main constituent of wood and paper. The list of
synthetic polymers includes synthetic rubber, Bakelite, neoprene, nylon, PVC,
polystyrene, polyethylene, polypropylene, polyacrylonitrile, PVB, silicone, and
many more.
Most commonly, the continuously linked backbone of a polymer used for the
preparation of plastics consists mainly of carbon atoms. A simple example is
polyethylene, whose repeating unit is based on ethylene monomer. However,
other structures do exist; for example, elements such as silicon form familiar
materials such as silicones, examples being silly putty and waterproof
plumbing sealant. Oxygen is also commonly present in polymer backbones,
such as those of polyethylene glycol, polysaccharides (in glycosidic bonds),
and DNA (in phosphodiester bonds).
Polymers are studied in the fields of polymer chemistry, polymer physics,
and polymer science.
• Etymology
The word polymer is derived from the Greek words πολύ- - poly- meaning
"many"; and μέρος - meros meaning "part". The term was coined in 1833 by
Jöns Jacob Berzelius, although his definition of a polymer was quite different
from the modern definition.
4.2 Historical development

Starting in 1811, Henri Braconnot did pioneering work in derivative cellulose
compounds, perhaps the earliest important work in polymer science. The
development of vulcanization later in the nineteenth century improved the
durability of the natural polymer rubber, signifying the first popularized semi-
synthetic polymer. In 1907, Leo Baekeland created the first completely
synthetic polymer, Bakelite, by reacting phenol and formaldehyde at
precisely controlled temperature and pressure. Bakelite was then publicly
introduced in 1909.
Despite significant advances in synthesis and characterization of polymers, a
correct understanding of polymer molecular structure did not emerge until
the 1920s. Before then, scientists believed that polymers were clusters of
small molecules (called colloids), without definite molecular weights, held
together by an unknown force, a concept known as association theory. In
1922, Hermann Staudinger proposed that polymers consisted of long chains
of atoms held together by covalent bonds, an idea which did not gain wide
acceptance for over a decade and for which Staudinger was ultimately
awarded the Nobel Prize. Work by Wallace Carothers in the 1920s also
demonstrated that polymers could be synthesized rationally from their
constituent monomers. An important contribution to synthetic polymer
science was made by the Italian chemist Giulio Natta and the German
chemist Karl Ziegler, who won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1963 for the
development of the Ziegler-Natta catalyst. Further recognition of the
importance of polymers came with the award of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry
in 1974 to Paul Flory,[4] whose extensive work on polymers included the
kinetics of step-growth polymerization and of addition polymerization, chain
transfer, excluded volume, the Flory-Huggins solution theory, and the Flory
convention.
Synthetic polymer materials such as nylon, polyethylene, Teflon, and silicone
have formed the basis for a burgeoning polymer industry. These years have
also shown significant developments in rational polymer synthesis. Most
commercially important polymers today are entirely synthetic and produced
in high volume on appropriately scaled organic synthetic techniques.

Synthetic polymers today find application in nearly every industry and area
of life. Polymers are widely used as adhesives and lubricants, as well as
structural components for products ranging from children's toys to aircraft.
They have been employed in a variety of biomedical applications ranging
from implantable devices to controlled drug delivery. Polymers such as
poly(methyl methacrylate) find application as photoresist materials used in
semiconductor manufacturing and low-k dielectrics for use in high-
performance microprocessors. Recently, polymers have also been employed
as flexible substrates in the development of organic light-emitting diodes for
electronic display.
4.3 Polymer synthesis

Polymerization is the process of combining many small molecules known as
monomers into a covalently bonded chain. During the polymerization
process, some chemical groups may be lost from each monomer. This is the
case, for example, in the polymerization of PET polyester.
The monomers are terephthalic acid (HOOC-C6H4-COOH) and ethylene glycol
(HO-CH2-CH2-OH) but the repeating unit is -OC-C6H4-COO-CH2-CH2-O-, which
corresponds to the combination of the two monomers with the loss of two
water molecules. The distinct piece of each monomer that is incorporated
into the polymer is known as a repeat unit or monomer residue.
a.Laboratory synthesis
Laboratory synthetic methods are generally divided into two categories,
step-growth polymerization and chain-growth polymerization. The essential
difference between the two is that in chain growth polymerization,
monomers are added to the chain one at a time only, whereas in step-growth
polymerization chains of monomers may combine with one another directly.
However, some newer methods such as plasma polymerization do not fit
neatly into either category. Synthetic polymerization reactions may be
carried out with or without a catalyst. Laboratory synthesis of biopolymers,
especially of proteins, is an area of intensive research.
b.Biological synthesis
There are three main classes of biopolymers: polysaccharides, polypeptides,
and polynucleotides. In living cells, they may be synthesized by enzyme-
mediated processes, such as the formation of DNA catalyzed by DNA
polymerase.
The synthesis of proteins involves multiple enzyme-mediated processes to

transcribe genetic information from the DNA to RNA and subsequently
translate that information to synthesize the specified protein from amino
acids. The protein may be modified further following translation in order to
provide appropriate structure and functioning.
4.4 Polymer properties

Polymer properties are broadly divided into several classes based on the
scale at which the property is defined as well as upon its physical basis.The
most basic property of a polymer is the identity of its constituent monomers.
A second set of properties, known as microstructure, essentially describe the
arrangement of these monomers within the polymer at the scale of a single
chain. These basic structural properties play a major role in determining bulk
physical properties of the polymer, which describe how the polymer behaves
as a continuous macroscopic material. Chemical properties, at the nano-
scale, describe how the chains interact through various physical forces. At
the macro-scale, they describe how the bulk polymer interacts with other
chemicals and solvents.
1. Monomers and repeat units
The identity of the monomer residues (repeat units) comprising a polymer is
its first and most important attribute. Polymer nomenclature is generally
based upon the type of monomer residues comprising the polymer. Polymers
that contain only a single type of repeat unit are known as homopolymers,
while polymers containing a mixture of repeat units are known as
copolymers. Poly(styrene), for example, is composed only of styrene
monomer residues, and is therefore classified as a homopolymer. Ethylene-
vinyl acetate, on the other hand, contains more than one variety of repeat
unit and is thus a copolymer. Some biological polymers are composed of a
variety of different but structurally related monomer residues; for example,
polynucleotides such as DNA are composed of a variety of nucleotide
subunits.
A polymer molecule containing ionizable subunits is known as a
polyelectrolyte or ionomer.
2. Microstructure
The microstructure of a polymer (sometimes called configuration) relates to

the physical arrangement of monomer residues along the backbone of the
chain. These are the elements of polymer structure that require the breaking
of a covalent bond in order to change. Structure has a strong influence on
the other properties of a polymer. For example, two samples of natural
rubber may exhibit different durability, even though their molecules
comprise the same monomers.
Primary structure
• The sequence of repeat units within a polymer is called its
primary structure.
Secondary structure
• This refers to the localized shape of the polymer, which is often
the consequence of hydrogen bonding.
Tertiary structure
• This refers to the overall shape of a polymer.
Quaternary structure
• This refers to the arrangement in space of two or more polymer
subunits, often a grouping of tertiary structures.
a.Polymer architecture
An important microstructural feature determining polymer properties is the
polymer architecture. The simplest polymer architecture is a linear chain: a
single backbone with no branches. A related unbranching architecture is a
ring polymer. A branched polymer molecule is composed of a main chain
with one or more substituent side chains or branches. Special types of
branched polymers include star polymers, comb polymers, brush polymers,
dendronized polymers, ladders, and dendrimers.
Branch point in a polymer.

Branching of polymer chains affects the ability of chains to slide past one
another by altering intermolecular forces, in turn affecting bulk physical
polymer properties. Long chain branches may increase polymer strength,
toughness, and the glass transition temperature (Tg) due to an increase in
the number of entanglements per chain. The effect of such long-chain
branches on the size of the polymer in solution is characterized by the
branching index. Random length and atactic short chains, on the other hand,
may reduce polymer strength due to disruption of organization and may

likewise reduce the crystallinity of the polymer.
A good example of this effect is related to the range of physical attributes of
polyethylene. High-density polyethylene (HDPE) has a very low degree of
branching, is quite stiff, and is used in applications such as milk jugs. Low-
density polyethylene (LDPE), on the other hand, has significant numbers of
both long and short branches, is quite flexible, and is used in applications
such as plastic films.
Dendrimers are a special case of polymer where every monomer unit is

branched. This tends to reduce intermolecular chain entanglement and
crystallization. Alternatively, dendritic polymers are not perfectly branched
but share similar properties to dendrimers due to their high degree of
branching.
The architecture of the polymer is often physically determined by the
functionality of the monomers from which it is formed. This property of a
monomer is defined as the number of reaction sites at which may form
chemical covalent bonds. The basic functionality required for forming even a
linear chain is two bonding sites. Higher functionality yields branched or
even crosslinked or networked polymer chains.
An effect related to branching is chemical crosslinking - the formation of
covalent bonds between chains. Crosslinking tends to increase Tg and
increase strength and toughness. Among other applications, this process is
used to strengthen rubbers in a process known as vulcanization, which is
based on crosslinking by sulfur. Car tires, for example, are highly crosslinked
in order to reduce the leaking of air out of the tire and to toughen their
durability. Eraser rubber, on the other hand, is not crosslinked to allow flaking
of the rubber and prevent damage to the paper. Polymerization of pure sulfur
at higher temperatures also explains why sulfur becomes more viscous with
elevated temperatures in its molten state.
A cross-link suggests a branch point from which four or more distinct chains
emanate. A polymer molecule with a high degree of crosslinking is referred
to as a polymer network. Sufficiently high crosslink concentrations may lead

to the formation of an infinite network, also known as a gel, in which
networks of chains are of unlimited extent—essentially all chains have linked
into one molecule.
b.Chain length
The physical properties of a polymer are strongly dependent on the size or
length of the polymer chain. For example, as chain length is increased,
melting and boiling temperatures increase quickly. Impact resistance also
tends to increase with chain length, as does the viscosity, or resistance to
flow, of the polymer in its melt state. Chain length is related to melt viscosity
roughly as 1:103.2, so that a tenfold increase in polymer chain length results
in a viscosity increase of over 1000 times[citation needed]. Increasing chain length
furthermore tends to decrease chain mobility, increase strength and
toughness, and increase the glass transition temperature (Tg)[citation needed]. This
is a result of the increase in chain interactions such as Van der Waals
attractions and entanglements that come with increased chain length[citation
needed]
. These interactions tend to fix the individual chains more strongly in
position and resist deformations and matrix breakup, both at higher stresses
and higher temperatures[citation needed].
A common means of expressing the length of a chain is the degree of
polymerization, which quantifies the number of monomers incorporated into
the chain. As with other molecules, a polymer's size may also be expressed
in terms of molecular weight. Since synthetic polymerization techniques
typically yield a polymer product including a range of molecular weights, the
weight is often expressed statistically to describe the distribution of chain
lengths present in the same. Common examples are the number average
molecular weight and weight average molecular weight. The ratio of these
two values is the polydispersity index, commonly used to express the "width"
of the molecular weight distribution. A final measurement is contour length,
which can be understood as the length of the chain backbone in its fully
extended state.
The flexibility of an unbranched chain polymer is characterized by its
persistence length.
c.Monomer arrangement in copolymers

Monomers within a copolymer may be organized along the backbone in a

variety of ways.
• Alternating copolymers possess regularly alternating monomer
residues: [AB...]n (2).
• Periodic copolymers have monomer residue types arranged in a
repeating sequence: [AnBm...] m being different from n .
• Statistical copolymers have monomer residues arranged according to a
known statistical rule. A statistical copolymer in which the probability
of finding a particular type of monomer residue at an particular point in
the chain is independent of the types of surrounding monomer residue
may be referred to as a truly random copolymer (3).
• Block copolymers have two or more homopolymer subunits linked by
covalent bonds (4). Polymers with two or three blocks of two distinct
chemical species (e.g., A and B) are called diblock copolymers and
triblock copolymers, respectively. Polymers with three blocks, each of a
different chemical species (e.g., A, B, and C) are termed triblock
terpolymers.
• Graft or grafted copolymers contain side chains that have a different
composition or configuration than the main chain.(5)
d.Tacticity
Tacticity describes the relative stereochemistry of chiral centers in
neighboring structural units within a macromolecule. There are three types:
isotactic (all substituents on the same side), atactic (random placement of
substituents), and syndiotactic (alternating placement of substituents).
4.5 Polymer morphology

Polymer morphology generally describes the arrangement and microscale
ordering of polymer chains in space.
a.Crystallinity
When applied to polymers, the term crystalline has a somewhat ambiguous
usage. In some cases, the term crystalline finds identical usage to that used
in conventional crystallography. For example, the structure of a crystalline
protein or polynucleotide, such as a sample prepared for x-ray
crystallography, may be defined in terms of a conventional unit cell
composed of one or more polymer molecules with cell dimensions of
hundreds of angstroms or more.A synthetic polymer may be lightly described
as crystalline if it contains regions of three-dimensional ordering on atomic
(rather than macromolecular) length scales, usually arising from
intramolecular folding and/or stacking of adjacent chains. Synthetic polymers
may consist of both crystalline and amorphous regions; the degree of
crystallinity may be expressed in terms of a weight fraction or volume
fraction of crystalline material. Few synthetic polymers are entirely
crystalline.
The crystallinity of polymers is characterized by their degree of crystallinity,
ranging from zero for a completely non-crystalline polymer to one for a
theoretical completely crystalline polymer. Polymers with microcrystalline
regions are generally tougher (can be bent more without breaking) and more
impact-resistant than totally amorphous polymers. Polymers with a degree of
crystallinity approaching zero or one will tend to be transparent, while
polymers with intermediate degrees of crystallinity will tend to be opaque
due to light scattering by crystalline or glassy regions. Thus for many
polymers, reduced crystallinity may also be associated with increased
transparency.
b.Chain conformation
The space occupied by a polymer molecule is generally expressed in terms of

radius of gyration, which is an average distance from the centre of mass of
the chain to the chain itself. Alternatively, it may be expressed in terms of
pervaded volume, which is the volume of solution spanned by the polymer
chain and scales with the cube of the radius of gyration.
4.6 Mechanical properties
The bulk properties of a polymer are those most often of end-use interest.
These are the properties that dictate how the polymer actually behaves on a
macroscopic scale.
a.Tensile strength
The tensile strength of a material quantifies how much stress the material
will endure before suffering permanent deformation. This is very important in
applications that rely upon a polymer's physical strength or durability. For
example, a rubber band with a higher tensile strength will hold a greater
weight before snapping. In general, tensile strength increases with polymer
chain length and crosslinking of polymer chains.
b.Young's modulus of elasticity
Young's Modulus quantifies the elasticity of the polymer. It is defined, for
small strains, as the ratio of rate of change of stress to strain. Like tensile
strength, this is highly relevant in polymer applications involving the physical
properties of polymers, such as rubber bands. The modulus is strongly
dependent on temperature.
4.7 Transport properties
Transport properties such as diffusivity relate to how rapidly molecules move
through the polymer matrix. These are very important in many applications
of polymers for films and membranes.
4.8 Phase behavior
a.Melting point
The term melting point, when applied to polymers, suggests not a solid-liquid
phase transition but a transition from a crystalline or semi-crystalline phase
to a solid amorphous phase. Though abbreviated as simply Tm, the property
in question is more properly called the crystalline melting temperature.
Among synthetic polymers, crystalline melting is only discussed with regards
to thermoplastics, as thermosetting polymers will decompose at high
temperatures rather than melt.
b. Glass transition temperature
A parameter of particular interest in synthetic polymer manufacturing is the

glass transition temperature (Tg), which describes the temperature at which
amorphous polymers undergo a transition from a rubbery, viscous
amorphous solid, to a brittle, glassy amorphous solid. The glass transition
temperature may be engineered by altering the degree of branching or
crosslinking in the polymer or by the addition of plasticizer.
c. Mixing behavior
Phase diagram of the typical mixing behavior of weakly interacting polymer

solutions.
In general, polymeric mixtures are far less miscible than mixtures of small
molecule materials. This effect results from the fact that the driving force for
mixing is usually entropy, not interaction energy. In other words, miscible
materials usually form a solution not because their interaction with each
other is more favorable than their self-interaction, but because of an increase
in entropy and hence free energy associated with increasing the amount of
volume available to each component. This increase in entropy scales with
the number of particles (or moles) being mixed. Since polymeric molecules
are much larger and hence generally have much higher specific volumes
than small molecules, the number of molecules involved in a polymeric
mixture is far smaller than the number in a small molecule mixture of equal
volume. The energetics of mixing, on the other hand, is comparable on a per
volume basis for polymeric and small molecule mixtures. This tends to
increase the free energy of mixing for polymer solutions and thus make
solvation less favorable. Thus, concentrated solutions of polymers are far
rarer than those of small molecules.
Furthermore, the phase behavior of polymer solutions and mixtures is more
complex than that of small molecule mixtures. Whereas most small molecule
solutions exhibit only an upper critical solution temperature phase transition,
at which phase separation occurs with cooling, polymer mixtures commonly
exhibit a lower critical solution temperature phase transition, at which phase
separation occurs with heating.
In dilute solution, the properties of the polymer are characterized by the

interaction between the solvent and the polymer. In a good solvent, the
polymer appears swollen and occupies a large volume. In this scenario,
intermolecular forces between the solvent and monomer subunits dominate
over intramolecular interactions. In a bad solvent or poor solvent,
intramolecular forces dominate and the chain contracts. In the theta solvent,
or the state of the polymer solution where the value of the second virial
coefficient becomes 0, the intermolecular polymer-solvent repulsion balances
exactly the intramolecular monomer-monomer attraction. Under the theta
condition (also called the Flory condition), the polymer behaves like an ideal
random coil. The transition between the states is known as a coil-globule
transition.
d.Inclusion of plasticizers
Inclusion of plasticizers tends to lower Tg and increase polymer flexibility.
Plasticizers are generally small molecules that are chemically similar to the
polymer and create gaps between polymer chains for greater mobility and
reduced interchain interactions. A good example of the action of plasticizers
is related to polyvinylchlorides or PVCs. A uPVC, or unplasticized
polyvinylchloride, is used for things such as pipes. A pipe has no plasticizers
in it, because it needs to remain strong and heat-resistant. Plasticized PVC is
used for clothing for a flexible quality. Plasticizers are also put in some types
of cling film to make the polymer more flexible.
4.9 Chemical properties
The attractive forces between polymer chains play a large part in
determining a polymer's properties. Because polymer chains are so long,
these interchain forces are amplified far beyond the attractions between
conventional molecules. Different side groups on the polymer can lend the
polymer to ionic bonding or hydrogen bonding between its own chains. These
stronger forces typically result in higher tensile strength and higher
crystalline melting points.
The intermolecular forces in polymers can be affected by dipoles in the
monomer units. Polymers containing amide or carbonyl groups can form
hydrogen bonds between adjacent chains; the partially positively charged
hydrogen atoms in N-H groups of one chain are strongly attracted to the
partially negatively charged oxygen atoms in C=O groups on another. These
strong hydrogen bonds, for example, result in the high tensile strength and
melting point of polymers containing urethane or urea linkages. Polyesters
have dipole-dipole bonding between the oxygen atoms in C=O groups and
the hydrogen atoms in H-C groups. Dipole bonding is not as strong as

hydrogen bonding, so a polyester's melting point and strength are lower than
Kevlar's (Twaron), but polyesters have greater flexibility.
Ethene, however, has no permanent dipole. The attractive forces between
polyethylene chains arise from weak van der Waals forces. Molecules can be
thought of as being surrounded by a cloud of negative electrons. As two
polymer chains approach, their electron clouds repel one another. This has
the effect of lowering the electron density on one side of a polymer chain,
creating a slight positive dipole on this side. This charge is enough to attract
the second polymer chain. Van der Waals forces are quite weak, however, so
polyethylene can have a lower melting temperature compared to other
polymers.
Standardized polymer nomenclature
There are multiple conventions for naming polymer substances. Many
commonly used polymers, such as those found in consumer products, are
referred to by a common or trivial name. The trivial name is assigned based
on historical precedent or popular usage rather than a standardized naming
convention. Both the American Chemical Society (ACS) and IUPAC have
proposed standardized naming conventions; the ACS and IUPAC conventions
are similar but not identical. Examples of the differences between the
various naming conventions are given in the table below:
Common name ACS name IUPAC name
Poly(ethylene Poly(oxyethylene) Poly(oxyethene)

oxide) or PEO
Poly(ethylene Poly(oxy-1,2- Poly(oxyetheneoxyterepht

terephthalate) or ethanediyloxycarbonyl-1,4- haloyl)
PET phenylenecarbonyl)
Nylon 6 Poly[amino(1-oxo-1,6- Poly[amino(1-oxohexan-

hexanediyl)] 1,6-diyl)]
In both standardized conventions, the polymers' names are intended to

reflect the monomer(s) from which they are synthesized rather than the
precise nature of the repeating subunit. For example, the polymer
synthesized from the simple alkene ethene is called polyethylene, retaining
the -ene suffix even though the double bond is removed during the
polymerization process:
Polymer characterization
The characterization of a polymer requires several parameters which need to
be specified. This is because a polymer actually consists of a statistical
distribution of chains of varying lengths, and each chain consists of monomer
residues which affect its properties.
A variety of lab techniques are used to determine the properties of polymers.
Techniques such as wide angle X-ray scattering, small angle X-ray scattering,
and small angle neutron scattering are used to determine the crystalline
structure of polymers. Gel permeation chromatography is used to determine
the number average molecular weight, weight average molecular weight,
and polydispersity. FTIR, Raman and NMR can be used to determine
composition. Thermal properties such as the glass transition temperature
and melting point can be determined by differential scanning calorimetry
and dynamic mechanical analysis. Pyrolysis followed by analysis of the
fragments is one more technique for determining the possible structure of
the polymer. Thermogravimetry is a useful technique to evaluate the thermal
stability of the polymer. Detailed analyses of TG curves also allow us to know
a bit of the phase segregation in polymers. Rheological properties are also
commonly used to help determine molecular architecture (molecular weight,
molecular weight distribution and branching)as well as to understand how
the polymer will process, through measurements of the polymer in the melt
phase. Another polymer characterization technique is Automatic Continuous
Online Monitoring of Polymerization Reactions (ACOMP) which provides real-
time characterization of polymerization reactions. It can be used as an
analytical method in R&D, as a tool for reaction optimization at the bench
and pilot plant level and, eventually, for feedback control of full-scale
reactors. ACOMP measures in a model-independent fashion the evolution of
average molar mass and intrinsic viscosity, monomer conversion kinetics
and, in the case of copolymers, also the average composition drift and
distribution. It is applicable in the areas of free radical and controlled radical
homo- and copolymerization, polyelectrolyte synthesis, heterogeneous phase
reactions, including emulsion polymerization, adaptation to batch and
continuous reactors, and modifications of polymers.
Chapter5: GYMPSUM BOARD

5.1 DEFINITION OF GYMPSUM BOARD
• Gympsum board, also known as drywall or wallboard
• Wallboard with a gypsum plaster core bonded to layers of paper
or fiberboard
• is a type of sheathing (sarung) used for interior walls and ceilings
• Since the mid-1940s, it has been the primary wall construction in
most houses
• Vertical wooden pieces frame a room providing support for the
sheets of wallboard
• These sheets are connected to the framing by either screws or
nails
• It seamed together using a special drywall compound, which
leaves an even (sama rata) and flat surface
• The result is a wall that is smooth and easy to finish
• In addition to being easy to install, gypsum board provides a
measure of fire protection to buildings
• Two types of paper are used in the production of most drywall,
and both types are made from recycled newspaper
• The gray back paper can be laminated with aluminum foil to
produce a special type of drywall that resists the flow of water
vapor in environments like bathrooms
• Specialized varieties of gypsum board might be made with
different types of paper; for instance, some papers are made to
be moisture resistant to various degrees, while another type of

highly absorbent paper is designed to accept a thin coat of
plaster veneer after installation
• Today gypsum board panels are widely utilized in modern
construction around the world
GYPSUM.
• Gypsum, called gypsos by the ancient Greeks, is one of the most
useful minerals known to man
• In its pure form it is white, but impurities often give it colors like
gray, brown, pink, or black
• Gypsum contains large amounts of water bound in crystalline form;
10 square feet (1.0 sq m) of gypsum board contains over 2 quarts (2
1) of water
• When exposed to fire, the water in the gypsum board vaporizes; the
temperature of the panel remains at 212°F (100°C) until all of the
water is released, protecting the underlying wood framework
• Even after all of the water evaporates, the gypsum itself will not
burn and continues to provide substantial fire protection
• Ancient Assyrians called it alabaster and made sculptures from it.
Today, pulverized gypsum is used for a wide variety of applications
• It is an ingredient in some brands of toothpaste and is used as a
filler in products such as paint, cosmetics, and drugs
• Automotive window glass is secured in a bed of gypsum while it is
being polished
• Gypsum is applied to farmland as a fertilizer and soil conditioner
• An excellent source of calcium, it is used to fortify foods such as
breads
• Gypsum that has been crushed and heated to remove 75% of its
water content is known as plaster of Paris
• When water is added to this fine white powder, the resulting
material is easily molded into any desired shape
• Upon drying, the reconstituted gypsum regains its rock-like qualities
while retaining the desired shape
• Besides its use in making gypsum board, this material is used to
make sculptures, pottery, dishes, bathroom fixtures, and casts for
broken bones
• Besides the newly mined material, up to 20% of the gypsum used to
manufacture drywall can be recycled from waste generated at the
manufacturing plant or at construction sites. Gypsum produced as a
byproduct of the flue-gas desulfurization process at electric power
plants provides an economical, environmentally sound raw material

for making high-quality gypsum board
• Although ice, another form of crystalline water, becomes a liquid at
room temperature, the water bound in the gypsum molecules
remains solid unless it is heated to 212°F (100°C), at which point it
changes to a gaseous state and evaporates.
5.2 RAW MATERIAL OF GYPSUM BOARD

• The primary component of drywall is the mineral gypsum
• Each molecule of gypsum (or dihydrous calcium sulfate) is
composed of two molecules of water (H 2 0) and one of calcium
sulfate (CaSO 4 )
• By weight the compound is 21% water, but by volume it is nearly
50% water.
• Because the water present in gypsum is in crystalline form, the
material is dry.
5.3 TYPE OF GYPSUM BOARD

1. GYPSUM WALL BOARD
 Finer gypsum plasters can also be used to make decorative
molding
 This product can be treated to resist moisture, mold, and
fungi, and is available in a range of sizes and thicknesses
for different applications
 A form of drywall, the green board cuts easily by scoring it
with a utility knife and then snapping it along the scored
line. Cement backing board is suitable for walls and
flooring applications. Green board is limited for use
on wall applications only
1. GYPSUM CEILING BOARD

 Generally, gypsum ceiling panels are smaller than plaster
panels. Thus, this type of material is often applied to
suspended ceilings
 It is now limited to areas outside of the tub, such as
bathroom walls, backsplashes and porch ceilings

line.
1. GYPSUM PLASTER BOARD

 Other gypsum products used in construction include joint
compounds and plasters used as backings during the
installation of products such as tile
 Gypsum panels are a construction material, consisting of
large, flat sheets of gypsum plaster sandwiched between two
layers of paper
1. GYPSUM WALL BOARD

 Finer gypsum plasters can also be used to make decorative
molding
 This product can be treated to resist moisture, mold, and
fungi, and is available in a range of sizes and thicknesses
for different applications
line. Cement backing board is suitable for walls and
flooring applications. Green board is limited for use
on wall applications only
1. GYPSUM CEILING BOARD

 Generally, gypsum ceiling panels are smaller than plaster
panels. Thus, this type of material is often applied to
suspended ceilings
 It is now limited to areas outside of the tub, such as
bathroom walls, backsplashes and porch ceilings
line.
1. GYPSUM PLASTER BOARD

 Other gypsum products used in construction include joint
compounds and plasters used as backings during the
installation of products such as tile
 Gypsum panels are a construction material, consisting of

large, flat sheets of gypsum plaster sandwiched between two
layers of paper
5.4 PROCESSES TO MAKE GYPSUMS BOARD
1) Blending of additives
• Depending on the variety of wallboard being produced, certain
additives are blended with the plaster of Paris that will form the
core of the drywall.
• Each additional ingredient amounts to less than one half of one
percent of the amount of gypsum powder.
• Starch is added to help the paper facings adhere to the core, and
paper pulp is added to increase the core's tensile strength
(resistance to lengthwise pressure).
• Unexpanded vermiculite is added when producing fire-resistant
grades of gypsum board; in some cases clay is also added.
• Water is added to the plaster of Paris mixture to form a slurry of
the proper consistency. An asphalt emulsion and/or a wax
emulsion is added to achieve the desired level of moisture
resistance in the final product.
• A foaming agent such as a detergent is included, and during the
mixing process air is entrained into the material. The finished
gypsum panel will be over 50% air; this minimizes the board's
weight and makes it easier to cut, fit, and nail or screw to the
framing.
• Glass fibers are added to the wet core material when making
firerated gypsum board.
2) Making the sandwich
 The gypsum slurry is poured onto a layer of paper that is
unrolling onto a long board machine.
 Another layer of paper unrolls on top of the slurry.
 The sandwich then passes through a system of rollers that
compact the gypsum core to the proper thickness.
 The most common thicknesses are 0.37 inch (9.5 mm), 0.5 inch
(12.7 mm), and 0.62 inch (15.7 mm).
3) Finishing the edges
 Automated assembly lines in gypsum board plants range from
300-800 feet (93-247 m) long. As the drywall continues along the
conveyor belt, the edges are formed.
 Various shapes of edges are possible, depending on the final use
of the panel. Options include the traditional square edge, a
tongue and groove type, tapered and/or bevelled edges, and

even rounded edges.
 The face paper is wrapped snugly around each edge and sealed
to the back paper.
4) Cutting the panels
 By the time the edges have been shaped, the plaster core has
set sufficiently for a knife to slice the continuous strip into
standard panel sizes. The board, generally 48 inches (1219 mm)
or 54 inches (1572 mm) wide, is usually cut into panels that are
8 feet (2400 mm) or 12 feet (3600 mm) long.
5) The drying process

 The panels are transferred to a conveyor line that feeds them
through a long, drying oven. At one plant, for example, the gas-
fired oven is 470 feet (143 m) long. Panels enter the oven at
500°F (260°C) and are exposed to gradually decreasing levels of
heat during the 35-40 minutes they travel through the system.
Humidity and temperature are carefully controlled in the dryer.
6) The finished product

 After emerging from the drying oven, the dry wall panels are
visually inspected before being bundled into "lifts" of 30 or 40
boards and transferred to the warehouse to await shipment. Each
board is labeled with a UPC bar code that is used for warehouse
inventory, billing, and price scanning at the retail level.
5.5 USES OF GYMPSUM BOARD
1) Supporting surface for interior walls

2) Primary wall construction in most houses
3) Gypsum board makes for a much more efficient method of
construction
4) Provide sound insulation and help limit the spread of fire :
 Sound insulation is the process of soundproofing an enclosed
space, such as a room. This type of insulating activity is usually
employed when there is a need to keep sound from filtering into
or out of the space.
 One example of how sound insulation is used is found in a
recording studio. In order to prevent background noise from
interfering with the recording process, singers and musicians
create their vocal and instrumental tracks in a soundproof

recording booth
Chapter 6: Glass
1
6.1 Introduction
1 Materials in Construction- G.D Taylor

Materials of Construction 4th edition- SMITH ANDRES
Mitchell’s Materials 5th edition- Alan Everett, received by C M H Barritt
The Art of glassmaking was very old, and today mostly industry uses
basically the same type of material as did with the ancient glass maker.
However, the method of manufacture had changed and improved, resulting
in higher production rates, superior glass, and sheet sizes far greater than
anything possible under older methods. Term glass is usually defined in a
much wider sense The terms “glass” refer to an material which is largely
amorphous (non-crystalline) in its solid state and that exhibits a glass
transition when heated towards the liquid state.. Effectively, glasses
resemble liquids in that they have no ordered molecular structure. Particular
properties play significant role on the product. High strengths are at least
theoretically obtainable because absence weakness associated with the
grain (crystal) boundaries found in compound which crystallize.
Perhaps glass is more important still for the most widespread use of glasses
building/glazing, it tend to transparent again because there are mo crystal
boundaries to intercept or reflect light. Each sheet of glass could be regarded
as a single very large molecule.
Glass, as a substance, plays an essential role in science and industry. Their
chemical, physical, and in particular optical properties make them suitable
for applications such as flat glass, container glass, optics and optoelectronics
material, laboratory equipment, thermal insulator (glass wool), reinforcement
materials (glass-reinforced plastic, glass fiber reinforced concrete), and glass
art (art glass, studio glass).
Therefore Glass is one of the mass-produced materials use nowadays,
probably none has a more exciting background or adds more to move
forward modern living than glass. There is hardly a moment in our daily lives
that glasses in some form is not performing a service for us.
Glass in its uses in modern building is dealt with in:
• BS 6262 CP for glazing of building is concerned with general glazing.
• Bs5516 Code of Practice for Patent Glazing, Publications of Pilkington
Glass Ltd, St Helen’s, Lancashire, and glass merchants
6.2 Raw Materials

Glass can be described as soda-lime silicate, hence it is made from silica

(sand), soda, and lime. Sand and soda melted together, on cooling, a hard,
transparent, glassy substance known as sodium silicate (water glass) which
is soluble in water. Lime added to mixture, the solubility of sodium silicate is
reduced, and when enough lime is added, a durable glass is obtained which
will stand up to the weather and all strong acids except hydrofluoric.
Glass has two peculiar properties which influence the manufacturing process.
I. First, glass does not have a definite melting point. Hence heating glass,
it first softens so that it can be bent. Further heating bring it to the
point when it become thick, syrupy liquid, a state in which it can be
worked. Finally, still at high temperature, it becomes a think, watery
liquid.
II. Second, above a certain temperature, known as devitrification
temperature, it can kept in liquid state without any change occurring.
But if it kept below that temperature for any length of time,
crystallization, or devitrification occurs.
Therefore it’s necessary, in any manufacturing process, to complete the
operation before Devitrification occurs.
The history of creating glass can be traced back to 3500 BCE in
Mesopotamia. The term glass developed in the late Roman Empire. It was in
the Roman glassmaking center at Trier, now in modern Germany, that the
late-Latin term Glesum originated, probably from a Germanic word for a
transparent, lustrous substance.
Sand Soda Lime Glass

Roman Cage
Cup from 4th
century
6.3 THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS

Glass is made from its raw materials in a carefully controlled two-step

process, and is then molded to form either sheet glass or bottles.
• Step 1 - Batch mixing
Glass is made of different ingredients in differing proportions depending on

the desired end product, but most glass (except for some specialist glass)
consists of all the "majors" mixed with small quantities of some of the
minors. Thus the minors are weighed first in a special weighing hopper, and
added to the majors with a little water. Water is necessary as in a very dry
mix the fines can blow off the batch as it enters the furnace and clog up the
furnace flues. The two tonne batch is then mixed for between two and three
minutes in a rotary mixer, before being transported to a batch hopper, from
which it is slowly fed into a furnace. The mix of raw materials is dependent
on the type of glass desired. Window glass is made from 72% SiO2, 13%
Na2CO3 and 12% CaCO3, while bottle glass has more SiO2 and less CaCO3.
Crystal is made from 45% SiO2 and 44% PbO with 9% K2CO3, and pyrex
(used for laboratory equipment and oven wear because of its heat
resistance) from 80% SiO2 and 12% B2O3. The remainder in each of these
mixtures is made up of the various minors.
• Glass colour
The choice of minors at this point determines the colour of the final product.
Colour results from two factors: the oxidation state of the glass, and the
specific colourant additives used. Glass oxidation is promoted by the addition
of carbon, and the degree of oxidation is measured on an arbitrary scale
known as the carbon number. Clear glass has a carbon number of zero, dark
green glass is -28 and amber is -52. Other variations of colour are achieved
through the action of coloured materials that act as dyes. For example, the
iron (II) ions naturally present in sand results in the green tinge seen in clear
glass, and this can be masked by the addition of selenium. Moreover, the
amber and green colours of glass bottles are caused not only by the degree
of oxidation, but also by the addition of iron chromite and an ironsand /
saltcake mix respectively. As glass is fed continuously into the furnaces,
each furnace has to be dedicated to producing glass of a particular recipe,
and it takes 12-48 hours and a number of steps to alter the mix to change to
producing a different type of glass of an acceptable standard.
• Step 2 - Batch melting

The ingredients mixture is fed continuously into a furnace fired by natural

gas, boosted by electricity when necessary. The glass is initially heated to
1400 C, then raised to 1540 C, at which temperature the mixture melts. The
glass is then held above 1400C while it is refined and CO2 and SO3 are
evolved. When no more gases are evolved the liquid is ready to be formed
into the desired endproduct. The furnaces are kept at these precise
temperatures by a cross-fired system which reduces heat loss and promotes
a more even heat distribution in the molten glass. It functions as follows
1. Preheated air (which had been heated by passing up the

regenerator packing and so cooling the packing) is blown into
furnace by large fans.
2. The air mixes with natural gas and combusts.
3. The flos of air pushes the flue gasses across the furnace, over
the glass and the glass down the opposite regenerator, heating
up its packing.
4. After half an hour, the opposite regenerator is used and the cycle
reverses
• Shaping plate glass
The cooled, molten glass from the furnace flowed into an extension of the
tank known as the drawing canal, where it cooled to 1000 C before being
drawn up into a tower, the drawing tower, by dipping an iron grille into the
glass, onto which the glass stuck. The 2.5 metre wide sheet of glass was
drawn up into the tower by asbestos rollers, cooling as it rose. Plate glass
can be made as thin as 2mm, with this thickness determined by the speed of
its progress up the drawing tower - 2mm thick glass moves up at
approximately 170 metres an hour, while the average is about 40 metres per
hour.
By the time the glass reaches the top of the tower it is ten metres above the
molten glass, and only 280 C. On the top floor of the factory the glass is
monitored to ensure its constant thickness, and then scored and snapped off
by the break-off machine. The individual sheets weigh 22kg, and are lifted
by rubber suction pads and placed on a conveyor belt where they are cooled
and have their rough edges snapped off, before being transported to the
warehouse for storage.
• Molding glass containers
Molten glass is removed from the furnace through forehearths (heated

channels) where the glass is cooled to between 1100 and 1150 C, the exact
temperature varying depending on the product to be formed. It is then fed
into a forming machine where shears cut off weighed "gobs" of red-hot glass,
one two or three at a time as required. These are molded in "sections" within
the machine, held in the air for a short time to cool (to prevent them from
losing their shape immediately) and transported to the annealing lehrs.
The annealing lehrs are a further stage in the cooling process, where the
bottles are reheated to 600 C and then slowly cooled to remove stress points
and prevent the glass from becoming brittle. Finally the bottles are coated
with a shiny, slippery spray-on coating that temporarily protects them from
becoming scratched, and they are packed for delilvery to clients.
6.4 Type of Gass in Construction
To increase the efficiency of glass component in a building, diff innovative concept had
been developed in recent year.
a. Insulating glass
It consists of two or more lites of glass, separated by an air space, joined at
the edges to produce a hermetically sealed unit. Function as increase the
thermal efficiency of the glass, reduce the amount of surface condensation,
hence provides sound insulation without greatly affecting the entry of natural.
b. Transparent Mirror glass
This kind of glass just only can transparent from either sides only, depending
on the relative intensity of light on either sides.
c. Tinted Glass
It’s specially tinted. Function as reduce solar heat and cut down glare, to
provide a more restful atmosphere.
d. Laminated Glass
This comprises two or more layers of plain glass bonded by sheets of a clear
plastics/polyisobutyrate. It’s absorbs energy during impact so that toughness
of material is greatly increased. Failure does not lead to disintegration and
visibility, weatherproofing and security are normally retained.
e. Toughness Glass
Surface of glass subjected to cool air jets while in the hot state, it cool
relatively quickly while inner is still soft. Inner layers subsequently contract
impart a compressive stress to cool outer surface. This force balanced by
small tensile stress though the bulk of the glass.
It have 5 time greater impact strength than plain glass. Thickness required
for particular application can reduced.
f. Glass Blocks
Glass blocks are comparable to masonry unit but have addition feature of
transmitting light. This improved the illumination of building interior. They
made in two separate halve which are heat-sealed together to form hollow
unit with reasonably high thermal efficiency and sound insulation.
Its chosen based on its ability contribute to an overall design plan instead to
control daylight.
g. Heat absorbing glass
This product is pale bluish green or gray by adding ingredients to mix used in
making regular glass. Its absorb significant percentage of sun’s radiation
energy thus reduce build-up heat within the building.
6.5 Physical Properties of Glass
Glass is a most astounding building material. A typical piece of

6mm-thick clear float glass is 87 percent transparent to visible
light and yet strong enough to fulfill a number of building roles
that provide protection, security and comfort. This Glass Talks
post explores the general physical characteristics of glass. Glass
strength is highly variable and deliberately modified for differing
applications. This information is for general interest and not to be
used for design purposes. If you are seeking specific properties,
please refer to local standards for glass design or contact Viridian
Glass.
• Chemical Resistance
Glass will resist most acids with the exception of hydrofluoric, and
at high temperatures phosphoric acid. Alkalis will attack the
surface of unprotected glass. General water-born materials from
surrounding surfaces and the atmosphere may leave deposits on
glass, these should be removed for longevity and optimal
performance.
• Weight
Glass, like water, can be deceptively heavy even in relatively

small physical sizes. Glass has a density of 2,500 kilograms per
cubic meter, making it approximately 2.5 times heavier than the
equivalent volume of water and heavier for its size than many
other building materials. The weight aspect of glass means that
window frames and other structural elements need to be
specifically designed for their glazing role. Specialist products,
laminate units and double glazing can be exceptionally heavy in
large units and need specific safety, handling, mounting and
engineering consideration.
• Strength
Glass is a strong building material with greater capacity to resist

compression than stretching or sudden impact. Specialty
products, outlined in detail on the Viridian Glass website, are
produced with enhancements that add to the natural strength of
float glass. Typical float glass may have the following properties:
– Compressive strength – 248 Mpa for a 25mm cube.
– Tensile strength – 20 Mpa as a modulus of rupture (highly
variable depending upon the glass).
– Impact strength – Highly variable depending upon shape,
hardness and velocity of impacting object.
– Hardness scale – Around 6.0 on Moh’s scale of hardness and 575
Knoop hardness.
• Conductivity
Glass is generally a poor conductor of electricity, with volume

electrical resistivity of 310,000,000,000 Ωm. Glass is a better
conductor of heat, a typical thermal conductivity measure (U

Value) of 5.9 W/m2°K for 6mm thick float glass (determined under
AFRC 100-2001 environmental conditions and varying slightly with
thickness). The thermal conductivity of standard glass is a
potential problem for energy efficient building that is addressed
by coating technology and double glazing (see our posts
on Energy Management with Glass).
• Light Transmission
Clear glass is not completely transparent, a 6mm-thick piece of

clear float glass will capture around 13-percent of light within the
visible spectrum, allowing 87-percent of the visible light to pass
through it. As the wave-length of light moves away from the
visible range, the transmission changes and for many frequencies,
glass is quite opaque. Almost as though it was created for our
viewing pleasure and natural light transmission. Glass is relatively
transparent to short wave infra-red but opaque to long-wave infra-
red. Float glass transmits very little in the short-wave length of
the ultraviolet band but transmission increases as the boundary
with the visible light spectrum is approached (in all cases,
transmission varies with glass type and thickness).
• Temperature Performance
Glass is created at high temperature (see our post

on Manufacturing Float Glass) and will return to liquid form if
heated sufficiently. This can be a problem for fire-resistance. Glass
products made for fire protection are enhanced with the addition
of substrates, laminates and other technologies to maintain
rigidity at high temperature. The most common temperature issue
with glass is not ‘high temperature’ but ‘thermal endurance’.

Normal 6mm-thick float glass will rupture if heated to 75-degrees
Celsius and plunged into 20-degree Celsius water (a temperature
differential of 55 degrees). For this reason many glass products
are toughened. Toughened float glass has a temperature
differential of around 250 degrees. Other temperature properties
of standard float glass include:
– Thermal conductivity – (K value) 1.05W/m°C.
– Softening point – 737°C.
– Annealing range – 480°C to 560°C.
– Strain point – 523°C.
– Mean specific heat – 1162 J/kg°C (25°C to 850°C).
– Coefficient of linear thermal expansion – 88 x 10-7/°C (lower
than most metals).
• Other Physical Properties
Other measures include elasticity, resonating frequencies,

dielectric constant and a range of other performance properties
required for complex engineering and construction purposes.
6.6 Environmental Consideration
The only substances discharged into the environment as a result of this process are the
CO2 and SO3 released during the batch melting process, and these gases are simply
released through a tall plant stack.
However, the glass industry is also working to support the environment by recycling its
product. This lowers costs (as cullet is cheaper and easier to melt than silica) and
prevents wastage. Foreign country , Europe country have been involved with recycling
to a small extent since they were established, and began using the yellow recycling bins
throughout the country. More recently KERB-side collections have been instituted
throughout the country to increase the level of glass recycling. The cullet thus collected
is then used as a raw material in glass production making up anywhere between 10%
(for clear glass) and 80% (for amber or green glass) of the final product. For this reason
glass recycling is practised to a much greater extent by manufacturers of glass bottles
than manufacturers of plate glass, as they produce a much greater volume of coloured
glass.
Environmental considerations include:

• Glass is very suitable for recycling- in fact used glass is an essential part of
the glass making process since it has a relatively low melting point.
• Conversely, if not recycled, glass does not readily break down over time and
can be a hazard.
• High temperature required for its manufacture (though in the quantities used
in building this should not constitute a serious environmental problem).
Consideration Assessment
Raw material availability Material in abundant supply

Extraction No specific problem in volume currently
requires
Energy used in manufacture Furnace required -1100 °C
Health/safety hazards Principal danger is lacerations due to
sharp edges
Recyclability potential Excellent
Disposal Does not break down readily in the
ground
Chapter7: ALLOY
7.1 DEFINITON
is a partial or complete solid solution of one or more elements in a metallic
matrix. Complete solid solution alloys give single solid phase microstructure,
while partial solutions give two or more phases that may be homogeneous in
distribution depending on thermal (heat treatment) history. Alloys usually
have different properties from those of the component elements.
THEORY
Alloying a metal is done with one or more other metals or non-metals often
enhances its properties. For example, steel is stronger than iron, its primary
element. The physical properties, such as density, reactivity, Young's
modulus, and electrical and thermal conductivity, of an alloy may not differ
greatly from those of its elements, but engineering properties such as tensile
strength and shear strength may be substantially different from those of the
constituent materials. This is sometimes due to the sizes of the atoms in the
alloy, since larger atoms exert a compressive force on neighboring atoms,
and smaller atoms exert a tensile force on their neighbors, helping the alloy
resist deformation. Sometimes alloys may exhibit marked differences in
behavior even when small amounts of one element occur. For example,
impurities in semi-conducting ferromagnetic alloys lead to different
properties, as first predicted by White, Hogan, Suhl, Tian Abrie and
Nakamura. Some alloys are made by melting and mixing two or more metals.
Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, was the first alloy discovered, during the
prehistoric period now known as the bronze age; it was harder than pure
copper and originally used to make tools and weapons, but was later
superseded by metals and alloys with better properties. In later times bronze
has been used for ornaments, bells, statues, and bearings. Brass is an alloy
made from copper and zinc.
Unlike pure metals, most alloys do not have a single melting point, but a
melting range in which the material is a mixture of solid and liquid phases.
The temperature at which melting begins is called the solidus, and the
temperature when melting is just complete is called the liquidus. However,
for most alloys there is a particular proportion of constituents (in rare cases
two)—the eutectic mixture—which gives the alloy a unique melting point.
7.2 TYPES OF ALLOY

Alloy catergorized into two, which is ferrous and non-ferrous.Ferrous alloy is
an alloy that has iron-mixed with other elements in its content.Example of
ferrous alloy is steel and cast iron.Non-ferrous alloy is an alloy when non-iron
elements mixed with other elements.Example of non-ferrous alloy is
brass,duraluminium.
Figure 1 : Type of Alloy

An alloy consisting mostly of iron.Carbon content between 0.2% and 2.14%
by weight (C:110-10Fe), depending on grade.It is a combination of iron &
carbon( 0.01 – 1%).It contains varying amounts of manganese,
phosphorus,sulfur, silicon & 20 other alloys. Alloys added to produce steel of

different characteristics.To produce useful steel, iron need to be oxidized in
another furnace at about 1650°C.Most steel is made by the basic oxygen
process, electric-arc process. Carbon is the key element in controlling the
properties of ordinary steel called carbon steel.
Steel mainly catergorized into 3 types:
• Mild Steel
• Carbon Steel/Cast Steel
• Stainless Steel
TYPE OF STEEL Mild Steel Cast Steel

COMPOSITION Iron alloy with 0.3% Iron alloy with 0.5%-
carbon 1.5% carbon
PROPERTIES Malleable and ductile, Tough rather than
and therefore bends hard, and fairly
fairly easily ductile
APPERARANCE Bright drawn mild Has a smooth skin of
steel has a black oxide
smooth, bright
surface;
black mild steel is
covered with a blue-
grey oxide
DROPPING Gives out a ringing Gives out a high
note ringing note
GRINDING Gives off a shower of Moderate number of
long white sparks red sparks
EFFECT OF HEATING Slightly tougher but Becomes hard and
little change brittle
USES nuts, bolts, screws, Springs and most
tubes etc tools such as hammer
heads, drills,
chisels, shears etc
i) Stainless Steel
This type must contain over 10.5% chromium, <1% carbon. The chromium
alloying creates as Cr2O3 surface layer that resists oxidation and makes the
material "passive" or corrosion resistant (i.e. "stainless").
Three MAIN Branches:
• Ferritic → Cr Only, BCC (e.g. 430)
• Austenitic → Ni Added, FCC (e.g. 304)
• Martensitic → Hard & Brittle (e.g. 410)
TYPE Ferritic Austenitic Martensitic

CONTENT 12 to 18% Cr; Nickel added and 12 to 18%
<0.2% C the Cr level chromium
increased
CHARACTERISTIC -Are magnetic -Are not -Are magnetic
S -cannot be magnetic -Can be
hardened by -Cannot be hardened by
"heat treatment" hardened by "heat treatment"
-Poor Weld ability "heat treatment" -Have "poor"
but can welding
be hardened by characteristics
cold working -Machineable
-Have the best
corrosion
resistance
-Easily welded
-Have excellent
cleanability and
hygiene
characteristics
-Have
exceptional
resistance to
both high
and low
temperature
GRADES/FORMS -Metallurgical -Metallurgical -Metallurgical

structure -Ferritic structure structure -
-Grade: 409 (Austenitic) Martensitic
(high -Grade: 304 -Grade: 410
temperature), (most (most used),
430 (most used) used), 310 (for 420 (cutlery),
-UNS: S40900, high 440C (for very
S43000 temperature), high hardness)
316 (for -UNS: S41000,
better corrosion S42000,S44004
resistance), 317
(for
best corrosion
resistance)
USES Automotive -Kitchen sinks Knife
exhaust and fuel -Architectural blades,surgical
lines,architectura applications instruments,faste
l trim,cooking such as roofs ners
utensils,bank and gutters,
vaults doors and
windows, tubular
frames
-Food processing
equipment
-Chemical
Vessels
-Oven / Furnaces
-Heat
exchangers
-Workshop
machine
i) CAST IRON
Like the term steel, it identifies a large family of ferrous alloys

(multicomponent ferrous alloys). It contain major elements such as iron,
carbon and silicon, minor (<0.01%), and often alloying (>0.01%) elements.
It has higher carbon and silicon contents than steel. Because of the higher
carbon content, the structure of cast iron, as opposed to that of steel,exhibits
a rich carbon phase. This properties such as brittle, snaps before it will bend
and strong in compression.
Methods of Identification
Appearance:
➢ Grey with a granular surface
➢ Dropping:
➢ gives out a dull note
➢ Grinding:
➢ Gives off a few dull sparks
➢ Effect of Heating:
➢ No change
➢ The uses of cast iron is Vices, cylinder blocks for car engines,
frames for most machines.
NON-FERROUS ALLOYS
i) Aluminium alloys (Duraluminium)

• is composed of Aluminium, Copper and Manganese.
• Characteristics
i- Ductile
ii- Malleable
iii- Work Hardens.
• Uses - in the manufacturing of aircrafts and vehicle parts.
i) Brass
• Combination of 65% Copper and 35% Zinc.
• Characteristics
i- Very corrosive
ii- yellow in colour
iii- tarnishes very easily
iv- It is harder than copper and its good electrical conductor.
• Uses - Deep drawn containers, tanks, heat exchangers, architectural
panels, coins.
7.3 MANUFACTURING OF ALLOYS (STEEL)

• Step 1
Scrap metal is loaded into a “charge bucket” and brought into the melt shop
where it will go through two step melting process.
• Step 2
The first melting step begins when the scrap is unloaded from the charge
bucket into our 108 ton Electric Arc Furnace (EAF).As known as First Step
Melting.
• Step 3
The EAF uses electric power to heat the scrap to over 3,000 degrees
Fahrenheit and melt it into liquid form. In the process, slag forms and floats
to the top of the molten steel with oxidized impurities and discarded.
• Step 4
The refined molten steel is then transferred to our five-strand continuous

caster. Here, the steel is poured into molds, cooled and shaped into the
desired cross section, essentially forming a long bar called a billet.
• Step 5
As the billets move through the continuous caster, they are cut by torches
into desired lengths.
• Step 6
The completed billets are used as the feedstock for our rolling mill or sold on
the world market for use by other mills.
• Step 7
The hot rolling process begins by reheating the previously created billets in
our reheat furnace until they turn into a “plastic” state. In this photo, the
billets are entering the reheat furnace. This step called ‘Second Step
Melting’.
• Step 8
The reheated billets exit the reheat furnace and proceed to one of our two
rolling mills. Each rolling mill consists of a series of “stands”, each containing
a set of rollers that compress and lengthen the billets and then finish them
into the desired shape (i.e., reinforcing bar, wire rod, one of the merchant
shapes, etc). Water is used to keep the equipment from overheating.
• Step 9
The formed product is transferred to the cooling bed where it is allowed to

cool before it is cut and bundled. In this photo, you can see straight lengths
of reinforcing bar cooling. Hot rebar arrives on the right from the rolling mill
stands and cools as it progresses to the left.
7.4 Shape of manufactured steel

7.5 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES ABOUT ALLOY
MATERIALS ISSUES
Steel - Steel production uses a lot of
energy, but less than most metals.
- Steel is easily recycled - as it is
usually magnetic it is easily sorted
from mixed waste.
Cast iron - Iron production uses a lot of
- Cast iron is easily recycled - as it is
magnetic it is easily sorted from
mixed waste.
Stainless Steel - Steel production uses a lot of
- Steel is easily recycled - though
most stainless steels are not

magnetic, so they are harder to sort
from mixed waste.
Duraluminium - Aluminium production uses lots of
energy (4% of total US energy
consumption!)
- Aluminium is easily recycled - this
only uses 1% of the energy needed
to produce the metal.
- Aluminium use in cars is growing
rapidly - low weight means good
fuel economy and low emissions
metal.
Brass - Copper and brass production uses
quite a lot of energy.
- Brass is easy to recycle, but the
volume in use is small.
REFERENCE:
Chapter 2 plastic
• http://www.citycollegiate.com/plastics_XII.html
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic
• http://mould-technology.blogspot.com/2008/01/plastic-processing-
methode.html
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_recycling
Chapter 3 Rubber
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_rubber
• http://ezinearticles.com/?Waste-Tyre-Utilization-in-Civil-Engineering-
Applications---Part-2-of-3&id=4873404
• http://www.liquidrubbereurope.com/applications-civil-engineering.html
• http://www.ehow.com/facts_7542890_use-rubber-tires-highway-
construction.html
• http://www.liquidrubber.ca/
• http://www.liquidrubbereurope.com/index.html
Chapter 6 Glass
• Materials in Construction- G.D Taylor

• Materials of Construction 4th edition- SMITH ANDRES
• Mitchell’s Materials 5th edition- Alan Everett, received by C M H Barritt
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass
• http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-glass.htm
Thank You

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BFC 10502 – CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIAL

Chapter1: Bitumen and tar

1.4 Types of bitumen

PROPERTY BITUMEN TAR

1.5 Comparison of Bitumen and Tar

1.6 Bitumen Mixtures

1.7 Environmental issue for Bitumen and Tar

Bitumen is not a health hazard, nor does it damage the environment.

2.2 Types of rubber

Other plants containing latex include gutta-percha (Palaquium gutta).

Latex is a natural polymer of isoprene (most often cis-1,4-polyisoprene) –

Polyisoprene is also created synthetically, producing what is sometimes

2.4 Uses of Rubber

The use of rubber is widespread, ranging from household to industrial

theautomotive industry in what is known as the "under the bonnet"

Additionally, rubber produced as a fiber sometimes called elastic, has

Liquid Rubber is a non-toxic, environmentally friendly anti corrosive

Liquid Rubber Engineered Coatings are innovators in environmentally safe

Liquid Rubber has grown to be one of Canada’s leading suppliers of industrial

All of Liquid Rubber’s products are water-based emulsions, meaning no

2.6 Applications of Rubber for Civil Engineering

Liquid Rubber B-300™ is an effective 100% seamless and fully adhered

Liquid Rubber B-300™ is asphalt based, and elastomer modified

• Tunnel liners systems

High performance seamless fully bonded waterproofing membrane ideal for

Liquid Rubber B-300™ is an elastomeric membrane designed for

• Tank and earthen containment systems

Liquid Rubber B-300™ and Liquid Rubber SealRoof A-100™ surface

durability, excellent flexibility, abrasion resistance, and high chemical

• Canals and containment walls

Lining canals prevent precious water loss, structural deterioration and

On containment walls Liquid Rubber B-300™ protects the concrete surface

• Pre-cast pipe and concrete utility vaults

Liquid Rubber B-250™ and HighBuild S-200™ protects concrete

2.7 Environmental issue of rubber

3.1 HISTORY OF PLASTIC

The first human-made plastic was invented by Alexander Parkes in 1855, he

3.2 THE MEANING OF PLASTIC

A plastic material is any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-

3.3 MANUFACTURING OF PLASTIC

2. Extrusion Molding Method

4. Blow Molding Process

we can divided blow mold four types as :

6. Reaction Injection Molding (RIM)

10. Casting Mold

11. Rotational Mold

3.4 THE PROPERTIES OF PLASTIC

Physical properties: transparency, flexibility, elasticity, permeability, water resistant,

3.5 TYPE OF PLASTIC

The main type of plastic:

3.6 RAW MATERIAL OF PLASTIC

3.7 THE USAGE OF PLASTIC IN CONSTRUCTION

3.8 Application of sustainable materials to overcome

1) Concept 3R (recycle reuse reduce)

2) Biodegradable (compostable) plastics

that break down with exposure to sunlight (e.g., ultra-violet radiation),

A polymer is a large molecule (macromolecule) composed of repeating

4.2 Historical development

in high volume on appropriately scaled organic synthetic techniques.

4.3 Polymer synthesis

The synthesis of proteins involves multiple enzyme-mediated processes to

4.4 Polymer properties