Timber structures - 3

3.1. DESIGN METHODS

Structures shall be designed and constructed safely and economically as
well as properly for the purposes. The objective of design is to assure that the
structure and the members possess adequate safety against all loads during both
service and construction stages, and to provide their functions efficiently for
ordinary services. In addition, it shall be considered that structures possess
sufficient durability, and match the environment during their lifetime.
There are two design methods, which can be used in wood engineering
structures design:

- allowable strengths design method (ASDM);

- limit states design method (LSDM).

3.1.1. Allowable strengths method

3.1.1.1 Design philosophy

The allowable strength design philosophy is a method in which design

stresses are derived on a statistical basis and deformations are also limited. This
method is based on the Bernoulli's hypothesis (the cross-sections are plane and
perpendicularly on the axes of the element before and after its loading
deformation) and the Hook's rule (the relationship between stress and strain is
given by linear analysis. The stress and the strain are available for elastic
behaviour of element only).
Allowable strength (allowable stress or permissible stress) is a unique
value which results from laboratory tests. This value represents the maximum
stress, which can appear in the wood element for a certain load.

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Design methods. Actions

The allowable strengths are based on the failure strengths of the small, clear
specimens and a drying process in which no products deterioration or degradation
occurs. Thus the allowable strengths for each specimen and each load (action) are
obtained from the results of standard tests on a small clear specimen, by dividing
the statistical medium value of failure strength by the unique appropriate safety
factor for material and manufacture conditions.
The failure strengths are noted and defined as:

- r = failure strength;
- r = failure shear strength.

The unique safety factor is noted c, therefore:

r r
a and a (3.1)
c c
where: - a = allowable strength;
- a = allowable shear strength.

The value of the unique safety factors are based on the analysis of:
- wood defects;
- moisture content;
- fibre and ring orientation;
- the difference between the performance of full-sized structural
elements and the results of tests based on small, clear, straight-
grain specimens;
- stress concentrations that occur due to the discontinuities of wood
fibres;
- the possibility to increase the loads more than they were
considered during design;
- load sharing;
- the design errors.

The maximum values of actual stresses or actual displacements are usually

noted: max,ef, max,ef and fmax,ef.

In the allowable strength design philosophy, the maximum effective

stresses and displacements should satisfy the following condition:

max,ef a (a)
max,ef (b) a (3.2)
f max,ef f a (c)
in which fa is the allowable displacement.

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3.1.2. Limit states method

3.1.2.1. Design philosophy

The ‘basic stresses’ in allowable strength methods were determined by

carrying out short-term loading tests on small timber specimens free from all
defects. The data were used to estimate the minimum strength, which was taken as
the value below which not more than 1% of the test results fell. These strengths
were multiplied by a reduction factor to give basic stresses (or allowable
strengths). Research studies had shown the need for a review of the stress values
and safety factor. The new approach for assessing the strength of timber moved
somewhat in line with limit states design philosophy.
Limit states are states beyond which the structure no longer satisfies the
design performance requirements. Limit states are classified into:

- ultimate limit states;

- serviceability limit states.

Ultimate limit states are those associated with collapse, or with other forms
of structural failure which may endanger the safety of people.
In Table 3.1 some examples of the ultimate limit states are given.

Table 3.1
Ultimate limit states Condition
Rupture of section Rupture of critical section of structural members.
Stability Loss of stability of the whole or a part of the structure as a
rigid body by overturning or other motions.
Displacement Loss of load carrying capacity of the structure due to large
displacement.
Deformation Loss of load carrying capacity of the structure due to
excessive deformation by plastic deformation, creep,
cracking and differential settlement.
Mechanism Transformation of the structure into a mechanism.

Ultimate limit states that may require consideration include:

- loss of equilibrium of the structure or any part of it, considered as
a rigid body;
- failure by excessive deformation, rupture, or loss of stability of
the structure or any part of it, including supports and foundations.

Serviceability limit states correspond to states beyond which specified

service requirements are no longer met.
The serviceability limit states are associated with normal use or durability
of the structure. Table 3.2 shows examples.

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Design methods. Actions

Table 3.2
Serviceability limit states Conditions
Cracking Impairment of appearance, durability, or water
and air tightness of the structure.
Deformation Excessive deformation, which does not impair
stability and equilibrium, but is not suitable for
normal use.
Local damage Local damage which prevents normal use of
the structure.
Vibration Excessive vibration which is not suitable for
normal use, or produces uneasiness.

Serviceability limit states that may require consideration include:

- deformations or deflections, which affect the appearance or

effective use of the structure (including the malfunction of
machines or services) or cause damage to finishes or non-
structural elements;
- vibrations, which cause discomfort to people, damage to the
building or its contents, or which limit its functional
effectiveness;
- cracking of the wood which is likely to affect appearance,
durability or water tightness adversely;
- damaging of wood in the presence of excessive compression,
which is likely to lead to loss of durability.

The structural design of timber members according to the limit states

method is based on permissible stress design philosophy in which design stresses
are derived on a statistical basis and deformations are also limited. Elastic theory
is used to analyse structures under various loading conditions to give the worst
design case. The safety verification is based on the partial coefficient method.

The main parameters are the actions, the material properties and the
geometrical data. Normally, these parameters are stochastic variables with
distribution functions as shown in principle in fig. 3.1 for the action effects (S) and
the corresponding resistance (R), [26].
The distributions have the mean values Smean and Rmean and they can be
assigned characteristic values Sk and Rk defined as fractiles in the distribution. For
actions an upper fractile is normally used and for resistance a lower fractile or the
mean value may be appropriate. The purpose of the design is to get a low
probability of failure, i.e. a low probability of getting action values higher than the
resistances. This, in the partial coefficient method, is achieved by using design
values found by multiplying the characteristic actions and dividing the
characteristic strength parameters respectively, by partial safety coefficients.

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 Timber structures - 3

0
Smean Sk Rk Rmean

Figure 3.1 – Statistical distribution (idealised) for action effects (S) and
resistance (R)

In all relevant design situations, it must be verified that the limit states are
not reached when design values for actions, material properties and geometrical
data are used in the design models. In particular it must be verified that:
- the effects of design actions do not exceed the design resistance at
the ultimate limit states;
- the effect of design actions does not exceed the performance
criteria for the serviceability limit states.
In symbolic form, for ultimate states related to rupture, it must be verified
that:
S d Rd (3.3)

For ultimate states related to static equilibrium or to gross displacement of

the structure as a rigid body, the corresponding expression is:

S d ,dst S d ,stb (3.4)

For serviceability limit state it shall be verified that:

Sd Cd (3.5)

where: - Sd = the design value of the effects of the actions such as axial force,
moment or a vector of several forces and moments, displacement or
acceleration;
- Rd = the corresponding design resistance;
- Sd,dst = the design value of the effect of destabilising actions;
- Sd,stb = the design value of the effect of stabilising actions;
- Cd = a prescribed value.

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3.1.2.2. Design values

Design values of actions

The design actions may be different for the different limit states. Firstly, the
possible load cases are identified, i.e. compatible load arrangements, sets of
deformations and imperfections. A load arrangement identifies the position,
magnitude and direction of an action. Secondly, the actions are combined
according to the following symbolic expressions:

- for ultimate limit states

- fundamental load combinations
G , j Gk , j i Q ,i Qk ,i (3.6.a)
- special load combinations
Gk , j i Q k ,i Ak ,l (3.6.b)

- for serviceability limit states

Gk , j i Qk , i (3.7)
where: - = the partial factors or load factors;
- = the combination factors;
- G = the permanent actions;
- Q = the variable actions;
- A = the accidental actions.

The representative values multiplied by - values are called design actions.

Finally, the effects (S) of actions – for example internal forces and
moments, stresses, strains and displacements – are determined from the design
values of the actions (F), geometrical data (a), and where relevant, material
properties (X):

Sd S Fd ,1 , Fd ,2 ,.......a d ,1 , a d ,2 ,....... X d ,... (3.8)

Design values of resistances

The design value Xd of a material property with the characteristic value Xk

is defined as:
X
X d k mod k (3.9)
i

where: - I = partial safety factor for the property of the material;

- kmod = modification factor taking into account the effect on the strength
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parameters of the duration of the actions and the moisture content;

k mod m ui m di (3.10)

- mui and mdi were defined in chapter 2 (paragraphs 2.5.2 and 2.5.6);
- Xk = the characteristic value of the material property.

It is generally assumed that the relationship between the resistance, R, and

the strength parameters, f, the stiffness parameters, E, and the geometrical data, a
is known. If this is the case, design values should be used to determine the design
resistance:

Rd R f 1,d , f 2 ,d ,....E1,d , E 2 ,d ,...a1,d , a 2 ,d ,... (3.11)

The design value Rd can also be determined directly from characteristic

values, Rk determined from tests:

Rk
Rd k mod (3.12)
i

3.2. ACTIONS
For the intended construction work, the designer is first faced with the
conceptual design of the structural system. This stage will consider the type of
structure and the construction material to be used. The structural design then starts
with an analysis of the actions that may be applied to the chosen structure.
Account should be taken of direct actions that are the applied external forces as
well as the indirect actions that result from imposed deformations.
An action is:
a force (load) applied to the structure (direct action);
an imposed deformation (indirect action), for example,
temperature effects or settlement.
In addition to the previous classifications, differentiation of the actions has
to be considered according to the variation of their magnitude in space and with
time:
a) - by their variation in time:
- permanent actions (G or P), e.g. self-weight of structures,
fittings, ancillaries and fixed equipment;
- variable actions (Q or V) which are also classified in:
- long term variable actions, e.g. snow load;
- short term variable actions, e.g. wind load.
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Design methods. Actions

- accidental actions (A or E), e.g. explosion or earthquake.

b) - by their spatial variation:

- fixed actions, e.g. self-weight;
- free actions, which result in different arrangements of actions,
e.g. movable imposed loads, wind loads, snow loads.

Indirect actions are either permanent (e.g. settlement of support) or variable

(e.g. temperature) and are treated accordingly. Supplementary classifications
relating to the response of the structure are given in the relevant clauses.
The following loads are of primary concern to a building designer:

1. Gravity loads
- dead load;
- live load;
- snow load.

2. Lateral loads
- wind load;
- seismic load;
- special loads and load effects (temperature influence variations,
structural foundation settlements, impact, and blast).

Characteristic values of actions are specified:

- in codes for actions or other relevant loading codes. The
Romanian standards and codes for actions are: STAS 10101/0-75,
STAS 10101/21-92, STAS 10101/20-90, STAS 10101/0A-77,
STAS 10101/0B-87, STAS 10101/23-75(78), STAS 10101/1-78,
STAS 10101/2-75, STAS 10101/23-75, P100/92 etc.

- by the client, or the designer in discussion with the client,

provided that minimum provisions, specified in the relevant codes
or by the competent authority, are observed.

Normally, a design specification does not prescribe the magnitudes of the

loads that are to be used as the basic input to the structural analysis. It is the role of
the specification to detail the methods and criteria to be used in design process.
The specification therefore reflects the requirements that must be satisfied by the
structure in order that it will have a response that allows it to achieve the needed
performance. Loads, on the other hand, are governed by the usage or type of
occupancy of the building, which in turn is dictated by the applicable local,
regional, and natural laws that are more commonly known as building codes.

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The building code loads have traditionally been given as nominal values,
determined on the basis of material properties (e.g. dead load) or load surveys
(e.g. live load and snow load). To be reasonably certain that the loads are not
exceeded in a given structure, the code values have tended to be higher than the
loads on a random structure at an arbitrary point in time. This may, in fact, be one
of the reasons why excessive gravity loads are rarely the obvious cause of
structural failures. Be that as it may, the fact of the matter is that all of the various
types of structural loads exhibit random variations that are functions of time, and
the manner of variation also depends on the type of load. Rather than dealing with
nominal loads that appear to be deterministic in nature a realistic design procedure
should take load variability into account along with that of the strength, in order
that adequate structural safety can be achieved through rational means.
Since the random variation of loads is a function of time as well as of a
number of other factors, the modelling, strictly speaking, should take this into
account by using stochastic analyses to reflect the time and space
interdependence. For most design situations the code will specify the magnitude
of the loads as if they were static. Their time and space variation are covered
through the use of the maximum load occurring over a certain reference (return)
period, and its statistic.
The geographical location of the structure plays an important role for
certain loads. It is particularly applicable to snow, wind, and seismic loads.
The loads on the structure are normally assumed to be independent of the
type of structure and structural materials, with the exception of dead loads. The
response of a building, however, will be different for different materials.,
depending on the type of load.
The size of a structure (height, floor area) has a significant impact on the
magnitudes of most loads. All loads are influenced by the increasing height of a
multi-story building, for example.
All these aspects are covered by the use of load factor, which is given in
codes and it multiplies the nominal load value for giving the maximum its value.
There are many types of loads that may act on a building structure at one
time or other. After the estimation of the actions, the design requires the structural
analysis of the action effects. This stage involves the selection of realistic load
arrangements for which the structure or the structural components are to be
designed. Then the design values result from the combination of the actions.
Under normal operating conditions, two or more load types will act on a structure
at any given time. In other words, the load types combine to produce more severe
conditions than if only single loads were to act. When this is considered, together
with the different stochastic characteristics of the various loads, it is not
reasonable to expect that all loads will exert their maximum lifetime values
simultaneously on the structure. The governing load effect due to a certain
combination of load types is found when one of the loads attains its lifetime
maximum value, and all of the other loads take on their arbitrary point-in-time
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Design methods. Actions

values. Different methods can be used to account for the reduced probability of
heaving two or more loads appear simultaneously at their maximum lifetime
values. The effects are covered through the use of combination factor or of
different load factors for the same load type, depending on the particular
combination.
In theory, with the relatively large number of load types that may act on a
structure, the number of potential load combinations will be very large. However,
the only realistic design situations will be analysed in design process.

3.3. DESIGN STEPS OF WOOD STRUCTURES

3.3.1. Fundamental requirements

A wood structure shall be designed and constructed in such a way that:

with acceptable probability, it will remain fit for the purpose for
which it is required, being regard to its intended life and its cost;

with appropriate degrees of reality, it will sustain all actions and

influences likely to occur during execution and use and have
adequate durability in relation to maintenance cost.

A wood structure shall also be designed so that it will not be damaged by

events like explosions, impact, earthquake or consequences of human errors, to an
extent disproportionate to the original cause.
These requirements shall be met by the choice of suitable timber products,
by appropriate design and detailing and by specifying control procedures for
production, construction and use as relevant to the particular project.
For wood engineering structures design the Romanian design rules are given
by the standard STAS 856-71 and by code NP005-96. They are also based on
different prescriptions presented in other different units.

3.3.2. Design using allowable strength method

The Romanian standard STAS 856-71 is based on the allowable strength

method. The standard STAS 856-71 in tables 1 and 4 gives the values of
allowable strengths and displacements for different species of wood, and typical
loading. In chapter 2, Table 2.4 gives information regarding the allowable
strengths.
The standard allowable strength values are given for 15% moisture content.
Therefore, when the moisture content is more than 15% during lifetime of wood

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elements, or other parameters are different from those taken into consideration at
the test time, it is necessary to adjust them by other factors presented in standard
clauses.
The design process of a timber member and structure has the following
stages using ASDM (allowable strength design method):

(1) To determine the design values of the action effects (for examples
internal forces and moments). The procedure is based on the
characteristic values of the load (actions), the load arrangements and
load cases, and structure geometrical data:

- the characteristic values of the load are given by STAS 10101;

- a load arrangement identifies the position, magnitude and
direction of an action;
- a load case identifies compatible load arrangements, sets of
deformations and imperfections considered for a particular
verification. For each load case, design values for the effects of
actions shall be determined from combination rules. Wood
engineering design is based on three types of load combination.

They are:

I - sum of permanent actions + sum of long term variable

actions + one of short term variable actions;

II - sum of permanent actions + sum of long term variable

actions + two of short term variable actions;

III - sum of permanent actions + sum of long term variable

actions + sum of short term variable actions + accidental
actions.

These load combination rules must be analysed from the

probability point of view that the actions could apply together.

These rules are available for wood structures in general,

exception is met for wood roof beams in hypothesis I, where only
the maximum value obtained from the following load
combinations is valid:

I-1 - sum of permanent loads + snow loads;

I-2 - sum of permanent loads + wind loads + 1/2 snow loads;

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Design methods. Actions

I-3 - sum of permanent loads + Q;

where Q = 800…1000 [N] is a concentrated force given by the
weight of a person. (For more details one must refer to the
standard STAS 856-71).

(2) To establish the geometrical data describing the wood elements, which
are the cross-sectional dimensions, area, section modulus and the first
and the second moment of area. The timber element cross-section sizes
are generally represented by their nominal values.

(3) To evaluate the maximum effective stresses and displacement based on

the action effects and geometrical data.

(4) To select the material properties. They are represented by the

characteristic value, which, in general, corresponds to a fraction in the
assumed statistical distribution of the particular property of the specified
conditions of the material. The allowable value of the property of a
material is generally defined as its characteristic value divided by its
unique safety factor.

(5) To verify the equations (3.2). The allowable strength and displacement
values for wood structural design process are given by STAS 856-71. If
the conditions presented in eqs. (3.2) are not satisfied, it is necessary to
modify the geometrical characteristics of the timber elements and/or
structure.

3.3.3. Design using limit states method

The Romanian code NP005 – 96 and the European code EUROCODE 5
(EC 5) present the design procedure of timber structures and members based on
limit states method. According to LSDM (limit states design method) the design
process of a timber member and structure has the following stages:

(1) To determine the design values of the action effects:

- the characteristic values of the load are given by STAS 10101;

- for each load case, design values for the effects of actions shall be
determined from combination rules presented by equations (3.6)
& (3.7). The load and combination factors are given in standards.

(2) To establish the geometrical data describing the wood elements. The
procedure is the same for both methods.
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(3) To chose the wood strength class used in design process and to establish
the material properties, which are represented by the characteristic
strength and stiffness values. They are shortly presented in chapter 2,
Tables 2.5 & 2.6, and extensively in NP005-96, EC 5 or SR-EN 338.

(4) To determine the design resistance, which represents the load capacity
of timber element, using the equations (3.11; 3.12). The design
resistance, Rd, is given by:
R
R d k mod i a i mTi Ric a i mTi (3.13)
i
where: - Rd = design resistance (load capacity);
- Ri = the characteristic strength of timber member subjected to
internal forces and moments as tension, compression,
bending, shear, etc. Using EC 5, the notation is replaced by
fk,i, which is also the characteristic strength (subscript i
means the type of loading);
c
- R i = the calculation strength value of timber member subjected
to internal forces and moments like tension, compression,
bending, shear, etc;
- ai = the geometrical characteristics (area, section modulus, etc);
- mTi = the coefficient due to the use of preservative substances;
its values range from 0.70 to 1.00 (table 4.1 of code
NP005-96).
- i = the partial safety factor for the specific property of the
material. Its values are given in table 2.7 in the Romanian
code NP005-96. A summary is presented here in Table 3.3.

Table 3.3
Type of load Symbol i values
Bending i 1.10
Tension t 1.20 – 1.40
Compression c 1.25
Shear parallel to the grain f// 1.10 – 1.25
Shear perpendicular to the grain f 1.10

The modification factor, kmod, which is taking into account the effect of
the duration of the actions and the moisture content, is given by the eq.
(3.10). The coefficient values for mui and mdi are given by the same
code in tables 2.5 and2.6.

(5) To verify the equations (3.3), (3.4) and (3.5). If they are not satisfied, it
is necessary to modify the geometrical characteristics or the strength
class of the timber elements.
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Design methods. Actions

Try to
answer
these

Questions for you

1. Describe the basic principle of the allowable strength method.

2. Describe the basic principle of the limit states method.

3. Define the following terms: ultimate limit states and serviceability limit
states.

4. List the type of actions.

5. Describe the design process stages based on the allowable strength method.

6. Describe the design process stages based on the limit states method.

7. Make a comparison related to the design philosophy between the allowable

strength method and the limit states method.

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