Animal Cell Structure

Animal cells are typical of the eukaryotic cell, enclosed by a plasma membrane and containing a
membrane-bound nucleus and organelles. Unlike the eukaryotic cells of plants and fungi, animal cells do
not have a cell wall. This feature was lost in the distant past by the single-celled organisms that gave rise
to the kingdom Animalia. Most cells, both animal and plant, range in size between 1 and 100
micrometers and are thus visible only with the aid of a microscope.

The lack of a rigid cell wall allowed animals to develop a greater diversity of cell types, tissues, and
organs. Specialized cells that formed nerves and muscles—tissues impossible for plants to evolve—gave
these organisms mobility. The ability to move about by the use of specialized muscle tissues is a hallmark
of the animal world, though a few animals, primarily sponges, do not possess differentiated tissues.
Notably, protozoans locomote, but it is only via nonmuscular means, in effect, using cilia, flagella, and
pseudopodia.

The animal kingdom is unique among eukaryotic organisms because most animal tissues are bound
together in an extracellular matrix by a triple helix of protein known as collagen. Plant and fungal cells
are bound together in tissues or aggregations by other molecules, such as pectin. The fact that no other
organisms utilize collagen in this manner is one of the indications that all animals arose from a common
unicellular ancestor. Bones, shells, spicules, and other hardened structures are formed when the
collagen-containing extracellular matrix between animal cells becomes calcified.

Animals are a large and incredibly diverse group of organisms. Making up about three-quarters of the
species on Earth, they run the gamut from corals and jellyfish to ants, whales, elephants, and, of course,
humans. Being mobile has given animals, which are capable of sensing and responding to their
environment, the flexibility to adopt many different modes of feeding, defense, and reproduction. Unlike
plants, however, animals are unable to manufacture their own food, and therefore, are always directly or
indirectly dependent on plant life.
Most animal cells are diploid, meaning that their chromosomes exist in homologous pairs. Different
chromosomal ploidies are also, however, known to occasionally occur. The proliferation of animal cells
occurs in a variety of ways. In instances of sexual reproduction, the cellular process of meiosis is first
necessary so that haploid daughter cells, or gametes, can be produced. Two haploid cells then fuse to
form a diploid zygote, which develops into a new organism as its cells divide and multiply.

The earliest fossil evidence of animals dates from the Vendian Period (650 to 544 million years ago),
with coelenterate-type creatures that left traces of their soft bodies in shallow-water sediments. The first
mass extinction ended that period, but during the Cambrian Period which followed, an explosion of new
forms began the evolutionary radiation that produced most of the major groups, or phyla, known today.
Vertebrates (animals with backbones) are not known to have occurred until the early Ordovician Period
(505 to 438 million years ago).

Cells were discovered in 1665 by British scientist Robert Hooke who first observed them in his crude (by
today's standards) seventeenth century optical microscope. In fact, Hooke coined the term "cell", in a
biological context, when he described the microscopic structure of cork like a tiny, bare room or monk's
cell. Illustrated in Figure 2 are a pair of fibroblast deer skin cells that have been labeled with fluorescent
probes and photographed in the microscope to reveal their internal structure. The nuclei are stained with
a red probe, while the Golgi apparatus and microfilament actin network are stained green and blue,
respectively. The microscope has been a fundamental tool in the field of cell biology and is often used to
observe living cells in culture. Use the links below to obtain more detailed information about the various
components that are found in animal cells.

 Centrioles - Centrioles are self-replicating organelles made up of nine bundles of microtubules

and are found only in animal cells. They appear to help in organizing cell division, but aren't
essential to the process.
 Cilia and Flagella - For single-celled eukaryotes, cilia and flagella are essential for the
locomotion of individual organisms. In multicellular organisms, cilia function to move fluid or
materials past an immobile cell as well as moving a cell or group of cells.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum - The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of sacs that manufactures,
processes, and transports chemical compounds for use inside and outside of the cell. It is
connected to the double-layered nuclear envelope, providing a pipeline between the nucleus and
the cytoplasm.
 Endosomes and Endocytosis - Endosomes are membrane-bound vesicles, formed via a
complex family of processes collectively known as endocytosis, and found in the cytoplasm of
virtually every animal cell. The basic mechanism of endocytosis is the reverse of what occurs
during exocytosis or cellular secretion. It involves the invagination (folding inward) of a cell's
 plasma membrane to surround macromolecules or other matter diffusing through the extracellular
fluid.
 Golgi Apparatus - The Golgi apparatus is the distribution and shipping department for the cell's
chemical products. It modifies proteins and fats built in the endoplasmic reticulum and prepares
them for export to the outside of the cell.
 Intermediate Filaments - Intermediate filaments are a very broad class of fibrous proteins that
play an important role as both structural and functional elements of the cytoskeleton. Ranging in
size from 8 to 12 nanometers, intermediate filaments function as tension-bearing elements to help
maintain cell shape and rigidity.
 Lysosomes - The main function of these microbodies is digestion. Lysosomes break down
cellular waste products and debris from outside the cell into simple compounds, which are
transferred to the cytoplasm as new cell-building materials.
 Microfilaments - Microfilaments are solid rods made of globular proteins called actin. These
filaments are primarily structural in function and are an important component of the cytoskeleton.
 Microtubules - These straight, hollow cylinders are found throughout the cytoplasm of all
eukaryotic cells (prokaryotes don't have them) and carry out a variety of functions, ranging from
transport to structural support.
 Mitochondria - Mitochondria are oblong shaped organelles that are found in the cytoplasm of
every eukaryotic cell. In the animal cell, they are the main power generators, converting oxygen
and nutrients into energy.
 Nucleus - The nucleus is a highly specialized organelle that serves as the information processing
and administrative center of the cell. This organelle has two major functions: it stores the cell's
hereditary material, or DNA, and it coordinates the cell's activities, which include growth,
intermediary metabolism, protein synthesis, and reproduction (cell division).
 Peroxisomes - Microbodies are a diverse group of organelles that are found in the cytoplasm,
roughly spherical and bound by a single membrane. There are several types of microbodies but
peroxisomes are the most common.
 Plasma Membrane - All living cells have a plasma membrane that encloses their contents. In
prokaryotes, the membrane is the inner layer of protection surrounded by a rigid cell wall.
Eukaryotic animal cells have only the membrane to contain and protect their contents. These
membranes also regulate the passage of molecules in and out of the cells.
 Ribosomes - All living cells contain ribosomes, tiny organelles composed of approximately 60
percent RNA and 40 percent protein. In eukaryotes, ribosomes are made of four strands of RNA.
In prokaryotes, they consist of three strands of RNA.

In addition the optical and electron microscope, scientists are able to use a number of other techniques to
probe the mysteries of the animal cell. Cells can be disassembled by chemical methods and their
individual organelles and macromolecules isolated for study. The process of cell fractionation enables
the scientist to prepare specific components, the mitochondria for example, in large quantities for
investigations of their composition and functions. Using this approach, cell biologists have been able to
assign various functions to specific locations within the cell. However, the era of fluorescent proteins has
brought microscopy to the forefront of biology by enabling scientists to target living cells with highly
localized probes for studies that don't interfere with the delicate balance of life processes.

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/animalcell.html
Here is a typical animal cell. Cells are specialised to do different jobs. They are usually arranged
into tissues. A tissue contains many cells all of the same kind and all doing the same jobs. You
must know about a variety of animal cells for your GCSE exam, so here are some examples.

This is a fairly typical animal cell. Like all other animal cells it has a nucleus, cytoplasm and a
cell membrane. Liver cells have many jobs. They remove toxic chemicals from the blood, they
store glycogen, they remove excess amino-acids from the blood and make urea which is excreted
by the kidneys; they generate heat to warm your blood on a cold day; they store iron, and so on.

Like all other animal and plant cells they contain mitochondria (singular mitochondrion). These
are cell organelles. Their job is to obtain energy from glucose by tissue respiration. The energy
produced by mitochondria is released into the cell in the form of ATP (Adenosine Tri-
Phosphate).

Here is a diagram of a sperm. It is a single cell and just like other cells it has a nucleus,
cytoplasm and a nucleus. It is specialised to carry genetic information. It has very little
cytoplasm. It has one very large mitochondrion. It has a ling tail. The tail gets ATP energy from
the mitochondrion. The tail lashes about like a whip driving the sperm forwards (swimming).
The acrosome contains enzymes which help it break into an egg to fertilize the egg.
This is a motor neurone (nerve cell). It is very long. The cell body at the left side of the diagram
is found in the spinal cord or brain. The motor end plates are found on the surface of a muscle.
Electrical messages (nerve impulses) are carried along the axon from your brain to one of your
muscles. When the impulse gets to a muscle, it makes the muscle contract.

You can see that the axon (nerve fibre) is covered in "Schwann Cells" which contain a lot of fat
and insulate each axon from all the others. I have not bothered to draw the nuclei of the Schwann
Cells in place, but they all have one.

This is a white blood cell: there are usually a few thousand white blood cells per cubic millimetre
of blood. Their jobs are to produce antibodies and to engulf bacteria, i.e. they fight disease.
When you have an infection, the number of white blood cells in your blood will rise. They can
change their shape and this helps them to squeeze themselves through cracks in your capillary
walls. White blood cells can escape from the blood into your tissues to fight infections.
This is a red blood cell. There are approximately five million red blood cells per cubic millimetre
of blood, slightly more in men and less in women. The number of red blood cells is higher in
people who live at high altitudes. Red blood cells have a perfect shape for absorbing and
releasing oxygen. They are full of an iron containing protein called haemoglobin. This protein
has a very high affinity for oxygen. When blood passes through your lungs it becomes saturated
with oxygen.

Haemoglobin is an amazing chemical because if you warm it slightly and add a bit of acid, it will
give up all its oxygen. Well, when your blood goes through your muscles, the heat from exercise
and carbon dioxide force the heamoglobin to give up its oxygen.

Red blood cells do not have nuclei. Developing red blood cells in your bone marrow do have
nuclei, but the nuclei disintigrate when they are fully developed: this is because the nuclei are not
needed any more.

I hope that you have learnt that all animal cells have a cell membrane, cytoplasm and a
nucleus (red blood cells excepted) and that cells are specialised to do different jobs. A
biologist would say that "their structures are related to their functions".

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Nucleus

The nucleus of a cell contains a very special chemical called DNA. This stands for Deoxyribo
Nucleic Acid: you do NOT need to remember the full name for your GCSE exam though you
will have to know it for "A" Level biology. It is actually acidic, hence the name. It is found in the
nucleus, hence the name. I contains a sugar called deoxyribose, hence the name.

DNA is very special because it contains information to control what the cytoplasm does. Another
similar chemical called RNA is used to pass the information from the nucleus to the cytoplasm.
RNA stand for Ribo Nucleic Acid: it contains a sugar called ribose. Again you do not need to
remember the full name for GCSE.

You and I have inherited feature from our parents: we are similar but not identical to our
siblings. I have three younger siblings, two are sisters and one is a brother. Please don't e-mail
me to tell me that you are identical to one of your siblings: if you are one of a pair of identical
twins you are a special case. You will already know that you and your sibling are identical
because you were made from the same sperma and egg.

The bits of information in the DNA molecules are called "genes". Have a look at my genetics
page if you want to know more about inheritance.

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Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is the part of the cell which does all the work. Different cells do different jobs,
however whatever the job is it will require energy in the form of a chemical called ATP. This
energy containing chemical is produced by tiny organelles in the cell called mitochondria.

Muscle cells contain two very special chemicals called actin and myosin. These are made of
protein and they can join together to form actinomyosin. When a nerve impulse simulates a
muscle it makes the actinomyosin contract.

The cells in your salivary glands make mucin (a very slippery protein) and amylase (an enzyme).
The nuclei of the secretory cells in your salivary gland contain the information about how to
make these two proteins in their DNA.

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Cell Membranes

The cell membrane controls what comes into and goes out of the cell. Cell membranes are semi-
permeable. That means that they allow some things to pass through and prevent other things
from passing through. Membranes are NOT fully permeable, NOR are they completely
impermeable. You could go and have a look at my osmosis page to find out more on membranes
and permeability.

http://www.purchon.com/biology/animal.htm
 Plant Cell Printout
Animal Cell Anatomy
Bacterium Cell Printout

The cell is the basic unit of life. All organisms are made up of cells (or in some cases,
a single cell). Most cells are very small; most are invisible without using a
microscope. Cells are covered by a cell membrane and come in many different shapes.
The contents of a cell are called the protoplasm.

The following is a glossary of animal cell terms:

cell membrane - the thin layer of protein and fat that surrounds the cell. The cell
membrane is semipermeable, allowing some substances to pass into the cell and
blocking others.
centrosome - (also called the "microtubule organizing center") a small body located
near the nucleus - it has a dense center and radiating tubules. The centrosomes is
where microtubules are made. During cell division (mitosis), the centrosome divides
and the two parts move to opposite sides of the dividing cell. The centriole is the
dense center of the centrosome.
cytoplasm - the jellylike material outside the cell nucleus in which the organelles are
located.
Golgi body - (also called the Golgi apparatus or golgi complex) a flattened, layered,
sac-like organelle that looks like a stack of pancakes and is located near the nucleus. It
produces the membranes that surround the lysosomes. The Golgi body packages
proteins and carbohydrates into membrane-bound vesicles for "export" from the cell.
lysosome - (also called cell vesicles) round organelles surrounded by a membrane and
containing digestive enzymes. This is where the digestion of cell nutrients takes place.
mitochondrion - spherical to rod-shaped organelles with a double membrane. The
inner membrane is infolded many times, forming a series of projections (called
cristae). The mitochondrion converts the energy stored in glucose into ATP
(adenosine triphosphate) for the cell.
nuclear membrane - the membrane that surrounds the nucleus.
nucleolus - an organelle within the nucleus - it is where ribosomal RNA is produced.
Some cells have more than one nucleolus.
nucleus - spherical body containing many organelles, including the nucleolus. The
nucleus controls many of the functions of the cell (by controlling protein synthesis)
and contains DNA (in chromosomes). The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear
membrane.
ribosome - small organelles composed of RNA-rich cytoplasmic granules that are
sites of protein synthesis.
rough endoplasmic reticulum - (rough ER) a vast system of interconnected,
membranous, infolded and convoluted sacks that are located in the cell's cytoplasm
(the ER is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane). Rough ER is covered with
ribosomes that give it a rough appearance. Rough ER transports materials through the
cell and produces proteins in sacks called cisternae (which are sent to the Golgi body,
or inserted into the cell membrane).
smooth endoplasmic reticulum - (smooth ER) a vast system of interconnected,
membranous, infolded and convoluted tubes that are located in the cell's cytoplasm
(the ER is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane). The space within the ER is
called the ER lumen. Smooth ER transports materials through the cell. It contains
enzymes and produces and digests lipids (fats) and membrane proteins; smooth ER
buds off from rough ER, moving the newly-made proteins and lipids to the Golgi
body, lysosomes, and membranes.
vacuole - fluid-filled, membrane-surrounded cavities inside a cell. The vacuole fills
with food being digested and waste material that is on its way out of the cell.

http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/animals/cell/