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Ranga Sai
Introduction to Economics
Revised June 2010
First Year BMM Semester I, Economics (w.e.f. June 2009) 1
Dr.Ranga Sai
As per
First Year Bachelor of Mass Media (wef 2009-2010)
Semester-I: Paper VI
Section I
Basic Concepts of Micro Economics
1. Nature and scope of Micro Economics- Concept of equilibrium – assumptions
of Ceteris paribus
2. Market forces of demand and supply: their determinants- Elasticity’s of
demand and supply
3. Production function: short and long run – various in input proportions and
variations in scale
4. Cost of production: Meaning
• Total revenue, total cost and profit – breakeven analysis
• Concept of opportunity cost
• Various measures of cost: fixed variable cost, average and marginal costs,
production and selling costs
• Economies and diseconomies of scale
3. Introduction to competitive markets-
• Objectives of firms
• Features of perfect competition, monopoly, monopolistic competition and
oligopoly markets
I. Fundamentals of Macro economics
1. Basic concepts of income aggregates:
• National income, Gross domestic product, per capita income,
• State domestic product ( w r t economy of Maharashtra)
2. Introduction to money, banking and public finance
a. Concepts of money supply, velocity of circulation of money supply,
liquidity preference
Monetary policy and fiscal policy, Inflation
Features and phases of trade cycles
b. Banking and non banking financial institutions: features of commercial
banks and central bank, introduction to mutual funds and insurance sector
c. Components and functions of Indian financial system:
• Features and functions of financial markets
• Money and capital markets- characteristics of primary and
secondary markets
• Role of stock exchanges – role of SEBI
d. Introduction to public finance: direct and indirect taxes, Union budget
3. Introduction to external sector:
Balance of trade and balance of payments, exchange rate, foreign direct
investment and foreign portfolio investment
CONTENT
Section I: Basic Concepts of Micro Economics
1. Nature and scope of Micro Economics-
Concept of equilibrium
Ceteris paribus
Demand Elasticity’s of demand
Supply elasticity of supply
Market equilibrium
Production function: short and long run
Law of variable proportions
Isoquants and producers equilibrium
Laws of returns to scale
Cost concepts
Breakeven analysis
Economies and diseconomies of scale
Objectives of firms
Features of perfect competition, monopoly, monopolistic competition and
oligopoly, duopoly
Section II Fundamentals of Macro economics
National income, Gross domestic product, per capita income,
State domestic product of Maharashtra
Money supply, demand for money,
Liquidity preference
Monetary policy
Fiscal policy, Inflation
Trade cycles
Commercial banks
Central bank,
Mutual funds
Insurance sector
Indian financial system:
Features and functions of financial markets
Money markets-
Capital markets: primary and secondary markets
Role of stock exchanges
SEBI
Introduction to public finance
Direct and indirect taxes
Union budget
Balance of trade and balance of payments,
Exchange rate,
Foreign direct investment and foreign portfolio investment
India in a globalized world
Privatization, liberalization and globalization
Globalization and its impact on Indian economy
WTO agreements and India’s commitment to WTO
Economic equilibrium
Equilibrium is a state of rest where there is no urge to change. The
equilibrium is attained by a set of two or more economic forces.
At equilibrium, the objectives of economic activity are achieved.
Ceteris paribus
Ceteris paribus is a Latin phrase, which means “all other things being equal
or held constant”
By holding all the other relevant factors constant, a cause and effect
relationship can be studies in greater detail.
In economics the laws are made based on the cause and effect relationship.
These functional relationships relate one dependent variable and several
independent variables.
Market forces refer to demand and supply. The prices in a free economy are
determined by demand and supply. In any free market the price transacted
depends on the free will of buyers and sellers. The free will of buyers is
represented by demand and free will of seller is determined by supply.
Demand
Demand refers to
the desire backed by willing ness of the buyer and
willing to pay a price.
The quantity demanded depends on several factors
• Price: Price is major factor determining the quantity
demanded. There is an inverse relationship between piece
and quantity demanded.
• Taste, fashions and preferences: The quantity demanded
depends on tastes that are personal, fashions that are the
external influences on tastes and the preferences that are
selected out of given alternatives.
Law of demand
Elasticity of Demand
The price elasticity has a negative value, because the price decreases for an
increase in the quantity demanded.
ep = 1, Unitary elastic, reference elasticity
ep > 1, Relatively elastic, luxury goods
ep < 1, Relatively inelastic, necessary goods
ep = ∞, Perfectly elastic, hypothetical
ep = 0, Perfectly inelastic, hypothetical
Supply
Supply refers to the
It is the willingness of the produces to make available
goods for sale at a given price.
It is the quantity of goods available for sale at a given price.
Stock of goods refers to the amount of goods available or produced. Supply
is that part of stock which is available for sale at a given price.
Law of supply
According to the law of supply, the quantity of goods supplied increases
with increasing price and decreases with decreasing price.
There is appositive relationship between quantity supplied and the price.
Elasticity of Supply
Elasticity of demand measures intensity of changes in the quantity of a
commodity for changes in the price.
The elasticity of supply has a positive value, because the quantity decreases
for a decrease in the supply.
3. Long run is that time period where the industry has enough time to change
the fixed factors as well and bring large changes in the out put.
The supply will be highly elastic in the long run.
Supply and demand curve together determine the equilibrium price. The
equilibrium price is the one which is acceptable to both buyers and sellers.
This is determined by the large number of buyers and spellers.
3. Production function
Production function
A production function provides the relationship between out put and various
factors of production. A production function is a functional relation between
the inputs and out put.
The production function can be classified as per time period. There can be
short run production function and the long run production function. Between
time periods the nature of factors can change.
In the long run all factors change; when all factors change there can be large
changes in the out put can be brought, the technology can change, the cost
structure may be totally renewed. So, the expression of long run production
function will be
In the short run certain factors are fixed certain other variable. Fixed factors
remain fixed even with changing out put. On the other hand variable factors
change with changes in the out put. So the expression of production function
will have fixed and variable factors.
Where F represents the fixed factors which remain unchanged in the short
run and T is the level of technology given and constant.
The short run production function will always carry the expression fixed and
variable, separately.
Q, = f ( labour / F , T)
Where F represents the fixed factors which remain unchanged in the short
run and T is the level of technology given and constant.
Assumptions:
1. All factors re given and remain constant and only labour changes
2. The level of technology remains same.
3. There is perfect competition in product and factor markets.
Isoquants
An isoquant is made up of various combinations of two factors which give
rise to a fixed amount of out put.
Isoquant deals with a production function with two variable factors.
Each Isoquant deal with a specific level of out put. Isoquants away from the
origin represent higher out put and isoquants towards the axis represent
lower out put.
Firstly the producer will determine the level of out put to be produced; the
isoquant is selected. The producers' equilibrium is found at a place where the
slope of the isoquant is same as the factor price ratio line. Mathematically,
the slope of the isoquant is equal to the slope of the price ratio line. Or the
slope of the price ratio line is same as the Marginal rate of Technical
Substitution.
The producers' equilibrium finds the least cost combination. Least cost
combination is the combination of two factors which will produce a given
level of out put at least cost.
There are different least cost combinations for different levels of out put.
Assumptions
1. Producers’ equilibrium considers a production function with two
variable factors.
2. The level of technology remains same
3. All other factors are given and constant
4. There is perfect competition in factor and product markets.
The prices of two factors are given and remain unchanged.
Least cost combinations are found at different levels of out put by following
the condition of producers’ equilibrium. When all the points of equilibriums
or the least cost combinations at different levels of out put are joined, the
production path or the scale line can be derived.
The shape and position of the scale line will indicate the type of technology
or the intensity of factor usage. If the production path is towards the capital
axis it is capital intensive, if it is toward the labor axis the technology is
labor intensive.
The laws of returns to scale deals with the long run production function.
In the long run all factors change; when all factors change there can be large
changes in the out put can be brought, the technology can change, the cost
structure may be totally renewed. So, the expression of long run production
function will be
a. The out put may increase in larger proportions than the inputs used
called Increasing returns to scale
OR
b. The out put may increase in the same proportions as the inputs used
called Constant returns to scale
OR
c. The out put may increase in lesser proportions than the in puts used
called Diminishing returns to scale.
The laws of returns to scale can be explained with the help of isoquants.
By choosing isoquant we consider a production function with two variable
factors all other factors and technology remaining constant.
In the long run when the scale of production increase, the out put may
increase in the same proportions as the inputs used called Constant
returns to scale
In case of constant returns to scale the out put increases in the same
proportions as the inputs. The firm is a said to be operating on neutral
economies. The firms neither get nor loose any advantages due to large scale
production.
In the diagram it can be seen that the gap between the isoquants remain
constant thus showing that same ratio of factors are needed for producing
additional output. The per unit costs remain constant. This is case of
constant costs
In the long run when the scale of production increase, the out put may
increase in lesser proportions than the in puts used called Diminishing
returns to scale.
Diminishing returns to
Scale
In the diagram it can be seen that the gap between the isoquants keep on
increasing thus showing that more and more factors are needed for
producing additional output.
Assumptions:
1. It is case of long run production function
2. The scale of production increases
3. Technology remains same
4. There is a perfect completion in factor and product markets.
5. Each isoquant represents a fixed increment of output.
4. Cost of production:
Costs
There are several concepts of cost developed, each suitable for a different
purpose. There are financial cost and social costs, accounting cost and
economic costs, short run and long run costs and the opportunity cost.
3. Total cost
Total cost = Total fixed cost + Total variable cost
The total cost is the sum of total fixed cost and total variable cost. At
zero level of out put the total cost is equal to total fixed cost
6. Average Cost
Average cost is the cost of unit out put on the aggregate
Average Cost = Total cost
Out put
Or Average Cost = Average Fixed cost + Average Variable
Cost
1. Marginal cost
Marginal cost is the cost of an additional unit of out put. It is
measured as
Break even out refers to the level of output where TR = TC. This is the
minimum out put the firm need to produce its costs. Any output there after
will grant profit to the firm. Usage of break even point for corporate decision
making is called Break even analysis.
At break even point total cost is equal to total revenue. After break even
point the profitability begins. The out put less than break even out put shows
losses.
Every firm aims at break even level of output in the beginning. The break
even level is a no profit no loss condition. In other words it is case of normal
profits. The costs cover only the manager’s remuneration and there is no
surplus over that. It is similar to the condition AR = AC.
Where,
TR is total revenue
TC is total cost
P is price
AVC is average variable cost
TFC is total fixed cost
Q is out put
Angle of Incidence
The angle of incidence is the angle made by the TR and TC functions at the
break even point. In break even analysis the angle of incidence is very
important in selecting a project among various competing projects.
The angle of incidence decides the nature of break even point.
If the angle of incidence is larger the break even out put will be smaller. In
other words, if the angel of incidence is smaller the break even out put will
be larger.
While comparing competing projects on the basis of break even points, a
project with larger angle of incidence will be selected. Because a firm will
always wishes to keep the Break even out put small so that, it can operate on
profits hat sooner.
However, the firm needs to allot revenues for different purposes depending
on the earnings of profit or revenue.
Firstly, the firm will slot revenue for depreciation on assets. Depreciation is
a nominal expenditure. It is that part of fixed assets that is consumed during
the year and that part of fixed cost that can be charged to the out put.
Depreciation is the first priority after attaining break even out put.
When a firm makes profits it has to pay taxes. The firm now provides for
taxes after deducting depreciation.
Finally, the revenue in excess of all these provisions yield profits that can be
distributed among owners or retained as reserves and surplus.
Limitations
Economics of Scale
In the long run all factors becomes viable and the firm can increases its scale
of production. When the firm increases the scale of production it gets certain
advantages. These advantages are called economies of scale.
Objectives of Firm
The firm may have several objectives ranging from, economic, short run,
long run material and non material in nature. All objectives are important.
However the firm may decide its own priorities in objectives. Certain firms
may have material objectives significant certain other firms may have
normative objectives significant. Some objectives are uniformly significant
for all firms.
a. Economic objectives
Economic objectives are material objectives which may be short as well as
long run. Economic objectives are normally considered by all firms. These
economic objectives can be classified as follows:
1. Profit maximization:
The firm will produce such out put which will give maximum profit.
The gap between TR and TC can be maximized by drawing two
tangents, one on each with same slope.
Firms may aim at maximizing rate of profit or profit. The rate of profit
is maximized by pricing so that there is larger gross profit margin. On
the other hand maximizing profit may be attained by maximizing out
put.
2. Workers welfare
2. Environmental protection
The firm may work in the direction of protecting the
environment. This is dome by being eco-friendly and having
less pollution.
3. Resource conservation
The resource conservation may help in reducing costs but it
also helps in reducing social costs. The society benefits form
resource conservation
4. Creating social infrastructure
The firm may create social infrastructure by constructing
educational institutions, hospitals, townships, and aforestation.
Perfect Competition
Perfect competition refers to a competition between large umber of buyers
and sellers dealing in homogenous product at uniform price.
At the same time when the profits decrease the less efficient firms
leave the industry. So in the long run, efficient firms which can
operate at normal profits only exist. In the long run the perfect
competition has only firm which operate on normal profits.
4. Perfect knowledge
The buyers and sellers have perfect knowledge of \demand, supply
and price.
5. Free mobility of factors of production
Free mobility of factors ensures that the cost of factors is same across
all the regions. Equal factor prices give all the firms same opportunity
to make profits and survive. So, efficiency of firms will determine the
profitability of firms.
6. No transport cost
The transport cost should be insignificant as compared wt the cost of
production. This is possible only when the firms cater to local
markets.
7. No advertising
The firms need not advertise, because each firm will have infinite
market at the given price. Advertising will add to cost and reduce
profits
8. Uniform price
Uniform price ensures that the consumers have choice between firms
and the firms have no reason to charge different price due to
homogenous product.
9. No Government restrictions
There are no government interventions by way of taxes or mobility of
goods.
Monopoly
Monopoly refers to an imperfect market situation where a single seller sells
the product in different markets at uniform or discriminating prices.
Monopoly is identified with single firm large number of buyers and the
monopolist as the price maker.
Features of Monopoly
4. Monopoly power: The entry into monopoly market for other firms is
restricted. This is due to the monopoly power the firm has. The
monopoly power is got by the firm due to following factors.
a. Legal restriction: The law may prevent other firms from
entering. E.g. Government monopolies on entry
b. Exclusive ownership of technology of production: If the
technology of production is known only to a single
firm the monopoly power remains un effected.
c. Exclusive ownership of raw material: Access to raw material
is held by a single firm, the monopoly power remains intact
d. Registered trade marks and brands: I case of registered trade
marks; firms can not duplicate and compete in a market. It
remains as monopoly.
e. Personal monopolies: Personal monopolies have individual
branding. They can not be duplicated. The personal
monopolies continue
5. Price discrimination: With price discrimination a monopolist sells the
same product at different prices in different markets at the same time.
The objective of price discrimination is profit maximization.
6. A monopolist faces a downward sloping demand curve: Under monopoly,
there is no distinction between firm and industry. The demand is
direct on to the firm. Incase of perfect competition, the industry faces
down ward sloping demand curve and the firm gets the perfectly
elastic demand curve. In case of monopoly the firm directly faced the
downward facing demand curve.
It means that the firm can sell more only by reducing price. With this
difference, the relation ship between AR and MR also changes
Q Price TR AR MR
1 10 10 10 -
2 9 18 9 8
3 8 24 8 6
4 7 28 7 4
5 6 30 6 2
Geometrically, AR curve cuts the plain below AR into two halves. So any
perpendicular drawn on Y axis will show the property, ab = bc
Monopolistic Competition
3. The prices need not be uniform. Each firm produces goods as per their
own market, so the product quality, utility differ. In such a case the
prices also differ.
4. Product differentiation
Product differentiation means the same product being projected different, by
modifying with additional utility, quality or term of sale.
The product differentiation is done in flowing ways:
a. By an additional quality: the firm may show a different quality of
the product which may not exist in the market. The quality should
be such that the utility of the product gets enhanced.
b. By an additional quality: The product can be designed with an
additional utility. Products with different utilities have elastic and
larger demand. This is one method of improving the appeal of the
product. It is seen that dual utilities have improved the quality of
the product like the two-in-one products.
c. By different term of sale: the fir may offer a different terms of sale.
It may be by way of guarantees, after sale service, quizzes,
contests, prices, Etc.
5. Selling cost
Selling cot helps in generating demand, brand image and justifying the price.
Selling cost does not give utility. Selling cost is a burden on the consumer.
Production cost on the other hand generates utility. The production cost
decreases with increasing out put in, proportion. This is due to economies of
scale. Whereas, the selling cost increases in larger proportions to increasing
out put. This is because, advertising becomes more and more expensive,
with increasing out put.
Selling cost makes demand elastic and shifts demand curve u wards.
In the diagram it can be seen that, selling cot has increased the average cost.
Yet, the demand curve has shifted upwards and also became elastic. This is
the advantage the firm receives by spending selling cost.
Oligopoly
Oligopoly is an imperfect market condition identified with limited number
of firms with high interdependence competing with differentiated or uniform
product at uniform prices.
No firm can deviate and change the product description. Any change
made by the firm will lead to the consumer shifting to other
competing firms. The demand remains very flimsy for a firm. The
demand is maintained carefully by maintaining the same price, similar
product details and advertising.
5. Advertising
Advertising is an essential part of oligopoly market. Advertising is
essential for registering the product with the consumer. Advertising
allows the product to have the required exposure to the consumer so
that the consumer can include the product in his options.
Further, advertising make the demand elastic. By making the demand
elastic, the firm will be able to sell more goods at the given price.
6. Types of oligopoly
There are different types of oligopoly each based in a different
marketing practices followed to manage competition.
7. Cartels
Cartels are a case of collusive oligopoly. Firms in market
with intense competition form arrangements to avoid
competition by making agreements so that all firms tend
to benefit at the cot of the consumer. Cartels are harmful
The cartels can be operating at international levels, where the regions are
shared on the basis of trading currencies or countries. The counter may
form commodity agreements, bilateral agreements, and multilateral
agreements for a specific time. All these agreements where the firms or
the counties get captive markets belong to cartels.
Duopoly
Duopoly is a model of oligopoly market with two firms designed to study
the interdependence of firms for pricing.
Following are the feature of a model duopoly market:
1. Two firms:
The number of firms is limited to two. This is for the purpose of
studying the details of interdependence. Hence it is a model of
oligopoly.
Single firm can deviate and change the product description. Any
change made by the firm will lead to the consumer shifting to other
competing firm. The demand remains very flimsy for a firm. The
demand is maintained carefully by maintaining the same price, similar
product details and advertising.
5. Advertising
Advertising is an essential part of oligopoly market. Advertising is
essential for registering the product with the consumer. Advertising
allows the product to have the required exposure to the consumer so
that the consumer can include the product in his options.
Further, advertising make the demand elastic. By making the demand
elastic, the firm will be able to sell more goods at the given price.
Section II
1. Basic concepts of income aggregates
National Income
National income is the total of the value of the goods and the services which
are produced in an economy.
National income estimates are represented as Gross and net, Domestic and
national product and market prices and factor costs
1. Output approach,
2. Income approach and
3. Expenditure approach
1. Output approach,
Gross Domestic Product: Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
measures the value of output produced within the domestic
boundaries of a country over a given time period.
The method for calculating National Income by Output method considers the
value of output.
2. Income approach
The Income Method of calculating GDP (the Sum of Factor Incomes)
GDP is the sum of the incomes earned through the production of
goods and services.
3. Expenditure approach
The measurement of National Income by Expenditure Method
considers consumption, investment expenditure and government
expenditure, to this the net earnings from external sector is added.
GDP = C + I + G + (X - M)
Where:
C = Personal consumption expenditures
I = Gross investment
G = Government consumption
X = Gross exports
M = Gross imports
State Overview
• Sixth Largest Metropolitan Area in the World and Most
Cosmopolitan City in India
• Generates 5 percent of India’s GDP
• Headquarters of most corporates, banks, FIs and the Reserve
Bank
• Time Zone – is an added advantage
• BSE & NSE account for over 70 percent of the volume
across all Stock Exchanges in the country
• Over 90 percent of commodities turnover transactions
executed from NCDEX and MCX
• 90 percent of all merchant banking activities take place in
Mumbai
• Center of Entertainment – Bollywood
• The only Indian State to feature in the IMD Switzerland’s
World
• Attracted the highest FDI (21 percent of the country’s total)
between 1991-2007 with 3957 proposals having committed
investments of USD 17 Billion
• FICCI FDI Survey 2006 says Maharashtra continues to be
No. 1 State for FDI
Service Sector
Services contribute 61 percent to the State’s economy 25 percent of
the Top 500 Software Companies present 20 percent of country’s
software exports 32 percent of country’s IT professionals 90 percent
of all merchant banking activities take place In Mumbai Infrastructure
11 percent of National Road Network 9 percent of National Railway
Network 34 percent of international passengers and cargo handled by
Airports 56 percent of container traffic handled by Jawaharlal Nehru
Port in the State 4 international airports and domestic airports at all
major cities India’s only expressway upgrading Mumbai-Pune
connectivity to 10 lane Mumbai
Velocity of money
It is known that GDP = M x V; that is, GDP equals the quantity of money
times its velocity.
By dividing the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) by the Money Supply (M1)
Velocity of Money can be derived.
• Credit Supply
• Rate of Interest
• Banking habits
• Development of banking system
• Inflation
• Future expectations
• Liquidity preference
3. Gurley and Shaw offer the widest definition of money supply. According
to them, money supply shall include all that can be converted into
cash, depending on convertibility of asset.
M2 is specially designed for the Indian context. It brings out the strength of
the Post Office Savings Organization in India. India with its kind of spread,
1. Transactions Motive:
Money is demanded for regular economic transactions. Both
households and firms have to carry out a variety of transactions
for which they need money.
It is related to the size of the income and type of activities
performed by individuals, households and firms. Demand for
money to satisfy transactions motive is about 50 percent of the
size of an individual or household income.
2. Precautionary motive:
Money demanded to satisfy the precautionary motive is for
meant for unforeseen circumstances. This amount of money
kept aside can be used during times of uncertainty or
emergency. It depends mainly on the size and responsibilities of
the family and size of the income. In the short run these factors
remain constant and hence demand for money also remains
nearly constant.
3. Speculative motive:
The total demand for money or liquidity can be classified into two parts:
Monetary Policy
Monetary Policy deals with changing money supply and rate of interest for
the purpose of stabilizing the economy at full employment or potential
output level by influencing aggregate demand
The RBI makes use of instruments to regulate money supply and bank credit
so as to influence the level of aggregate demand for goods and services.
The monetary policy has to balance the objectives of economic growth and
price stability.
Changes in the monetary policy can be made anytime during the year. The
Central Bank may adopt an expansionary or contractionary policy
depending on the general economic policy of the Government and
conditions in the economy.
Monetary policy may also be used to influence the exchange rate of the
country’s currency.
Economic Growth:
Accelerating economic growth so as to raise national
income is another objective of the monetary policy. To
promote economic growth availability of bank credit is
increased and the cost of credit is reduced. Promotion
of economic growth needs a liberal monetary policy.
Fiscal Policy
Changes in fiscal policy can affect the economy and contribute to long
term economic growth.
Economics of Inflation
Inflation
Types of Inflation
Budgetary inflation:
This is the inflation caused by expansion of money supply resulting
out of Government’s budgetary activities. The Government may
increase money circulation to meet the deficits in the budget for
financing any contingency.
If Government expands money for non productive purposes it leads to
inflation. During Post Keynesian period, this has been a major cause
for rapid increase in inflation all over the world.
Wartime inflation:
During the emergencies of war, the Government generates resources
by currency expansion. In addition, the prices may incase due to
scarcity followed by hoarding and black marketing.
Such inflation is generally controlled after war. War time inflation is a
common occurrence these days.
1. Increasing prices
2. Decrease in the real income (purchasing power)
3. Decreasing in the standard of living.
4. Increase in demand for factors
5. Increase in demand for more wages
6. Wages increase due to strong trade union
7. Increase in the cost of production
8. The prices increase.
Under cost push inflation even with increasing demand the supply can not
shift. Against an inelastic supply curve an increase in demand D1, D2, and
D3 will shift the supply curve. The cost structure undergoes a change and the
equilibrium will be found on the same inelastic supply curve. The real out
put remains same and the value of out put increases to P1, P2, and P3. Hence
the prices will increase. This is cost push inflation.
Trade Cycles
Periodic changes in the level of economic acclivities in the long run are
commonly termed as trade cycles. The level of economic activity
periodically, increases and reaches a peak, shows a change in trend,
decreases and bottoms out and finally, changes trend towards increase. Such
cyclical changes in the level of economic activities constitute the trade cycle.
different phases in the trade cycle are named in relation to the full
employment level.
Accordingly, there are six phases of trade cycle:
1. Inflation
2. Boom
3. Deflation
4. Recession
5. Depression, and
6. Recovery
The reasons for the occurrence for the trade cycle has been not yet explained
satisfactorily. The Sun spot theory relates the level of economic activity with
the number of sun spots. In absence of any other theory, the Sun Spot theory
still holds valid.
In such case the ideal alternative is to find such a point on the curve which is
closest to the origin. By selecting such a combination, both inflation and
unemployment can be maintained at tolerable levels.
The Indian banking sector consists of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI),
which is the central bank, commercial banks and co-operative banks.
Commercial banks are of two types:
Commercial banking
Section 5b of the Banking Regulations Act, 1949, defines banking as
"Acceptance of deposits of money from the public for the purpose of
lending or investment".
These deposits are repayable on demand or otherwise, and withdrawable
by a cheque, draft, order or otherwise.
Banks are the only financial institutes which can accept demand deposits
(Saving / Current) which can be withdrawn by a cheque. In addition, a bank
performs the following functions:
• Custodial Services
• Investment services
• doing all such other things as are incidental or conducive to
the promotion or advancement of the business of the
company;
The finance sector is an important factor of rapid development. The role can
be explained as follows:
The Banking Regulation Act of 1949 gave RBI the control and supervision
of commercial Banks. The amendments to RBI Act in 1962 provided the
RBI as an apex institution has the overall control over the monetary policy.
It regulates the monetary economy by sets of guidelines pertaining to interest
rates, liquidity, lending operations of financial institutions etc. It also
promotes financial institutions to augment Government of India.
The basic functions include:
the bills drawn for period ranging from 91 days to 364 days. The
Treasury bill market operated at the RBI discount these bills. The
Treasury bill market is an important part of the Indian money market.
When the bills reach RBI, it retains them: thus RBI is the passive
holder of Treasury bill.
RBI may also suggest devaluation to suit the BOP position. At the
instance of RBI, in 1991, devaluation was effected in two rounds, to
the tune of 18 percent.
Its publication department comes out with research reports and data
periodically. RBI is actively engaged in economic research.
It has consultancy function for various commercial, co-operative
banks and term lending institutions.
Capital markets
Composition of Capital markets
Gilt-Edged Securities Market:
This market deals with the securities issued by Central Government, State
Government, All-India Financial Institutions like IDBI, ICICI, IFCI, State
Financial Institutions Like SFCs, SIDCs, and other governmental bodies.
The securities are issued in form of bonds and credit notes. The buyers of
such securities are banks, insurance companies, employee’s provident fund,
RBI and even individuals.
These types of securities have the full backing of the Government and as
such they are more secured as compared to other securities in the industrial
securities market. The securities normally issued with different maturity
dates.
Public Issue: This involves sale of securities, i.e. shares and debentures
to the members of the public.
Rights Issue: This is a method of raising further funds from existing
shareholders.
Private Placement: It involves selling securities to a small group of private
investors.
Secondary Market:
The market for outstanding securities is referred to as secondary market or
stock market. The stock markets are organized markets to trade securities i.e.
shares and debentures of well-established companies. Every day crores of
rupees are changing hands on the stock exchange.
2. Lending of funds:
The capital markets make it possible to lend funds to various
industrial concerns can borrow long - term funds from various
financial institutions in the country.
4. Easy liquidity:
The secondary market makes it possible for the investors to
sell off their holdings in form of shares and debentures and
convert them in liquid cash.
Foreign capital
The capital market also acts as a source of foreign capital.
Especially, since 1993 onwards, the foreign investors have
turned towards the Indian market.
The part of the capital market dealing with new securities is known as
Primary Market. It is also known as New Issue Market. Both private and or
public sector organizations can get funds by selling new shares or bonds.
Usually, small or medium scale companies enter into the market of new
securities in order to widen the scope of their business. The selling process
of new securities to investors is called underwriting. The security dealers
earn a commission that is added in the cost of the securities. A lot of
formalities are required to be fulfilled before a security can be sold. Some of
the important features of Primary Markets are as follows:
Stock exchange market is a market where stock, shares, gilt-edge, bond and
other securities are bought and sold.
At the Bombay Stock Exchange the securities are listed in three groups
1. A Group large turnover and high floating stock. There are 150 scrips
2. B1 groups with equity of more than Rs. 3 crore high potential and
trading frequency. There re around 1100 scrips in this group
3. B2 group are like B1 with fortnightly settlement. Low trading
volumes. There are 3200 scrips
New F group was started in 1996 pertaining to debt segment
Launched enterprise market for small and medium enterprises in 2005 to
provide small and medium enterprises an easy access to capital market
BSE introduced trading in derivatives
RBI empowered NSE for inter-bank security deals. NSE has greater market
capitalization than BSE. However, the Capital Market Segment performs
better than the Wholesale debt market
In 1988 the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) was established
by the Government of India as a fully autonomous and statutory Board, in
the year in 1992. It replaced the earlier Controller of Capital Issues.
SEBI has legislative, judicial and executive functions combined into one. It
drafts regulations, conducts investigation and enforcement action, and passes
rulings and orders in its judicial capacity.
SEBI has promoted trading in stock indices (like S&P CNX Nifty and
Sensex) in 2000. Such an index is useful because:
SEBI has to be responsive to the needs of three groups, which constitute the
market:
1. The issuers of securities: In the primary capital markets,
SEBI ensures fair play for the promoting companies as well
as investors.
2. The investors: The retail investor needs to be protected. As
well as the FII need to be regulated and encouraged to pump
in large funds
3. The market intermediaries: The market intermediaries like
banks, and other financial institutions should have a ideal
atmosphere to trade.
Functions
Limitations of SEBI
• The regulations of SEBI monitoring capital markets need to
be approved by the Government. This causes delays in
implementations
• SEBI will have to seek prior approval for filling criminal
complaints for violations for the regulations. This will again
cause delay at government level.
• SEBI has not been given autonomy. Its Board of Directors is
dominated by government nominees. Out of 5 directors only
2 can be from outside and these are to represent the
Ministries of Finance, Law and Reserve Bank of India..
Mutual Fund
In India, the Mutual Fund industry started with the setting up of Unit Trust
of India in 1964, as a single State Monopoly. Twenty-three years later Public
Sector banks and financial institutions were permitted to establish Mutual
Funds in 1987. The Industry was brought under the control of SEBI and
opened for private sector participation in 1993.
The private sector and foreign Institutions began setting up Mutual Funds
thereafter. The fast growing industry is regulated by the Securities and
Exchange Board of India (SEBI). A Mutual fund in India is registered /
incorporated as a public trust. As per Clause 14 of SEBI guidelines-
A mutual fund shall be constituted in the form of a trust
and the instrument of trust shall be in the form of a deed, duly
registered under the provisions of the Indian Registration Act,
1908 (16 of 1908) executed by the sponsor in favor of the
trustees named in such an instrument.
If the Trust Deed so provides the trustees can appoint an Asset Management
Company for the day to day administration of the MF and investment of its
funds.
All Mutual Funds are registered with SEBI and they function within the
provisions of strict regulations designed to protect the interests of investors.
The operations of Mutual Funds are regularly monitored by SEBI.
Insurance in India
Over a period of almost two centuries the insurance sector in India has
transformed from being an open competitive market to nationalization and
back to a liberalized market again.
The business of life insurance in India in its existing form started in India in
the year 1818 with the establishment of the Oriental Life Insurance
Company in Calcutta.
Some of the important milestones in the life insurance business in India are:
In India, the insurance business had been completely controlled by the state
through the Life Insurance Corporation of India and the General Insurance
Corporation of India, till August, 2000, when the market opened up.
The banking and accountancy sector opened up without much to-do. The
opposition has been in the legal and insurance sectors. In India, the
insurance business had been completely controlled by the state through the
Life Insurance Corporation of India and the General Insurance Corporation
of India, till August, 2000, when the market opened up.
3. Public debt
4. Fiscal/budgetary management
Taxation
Direct and Indirect taxes
Tax constitutes an important source of revenue. Tax is a compulsory
payment to be made by citizens with out quid-pro-quo. It means no
exchange like transaction; the Government is not liable to offer any thing in
return for the tax received.
Taxes are levied for raising revenue for financing public expenditure. It is a
fiscal tool. Tax is an useful component of fiscal policy. It helps in reducing
inflationary pressures, equalize income and generate resources.
There are two types of tax. Direct tax and indirect tax
Direct tax refers to tax on income and sources of income. It is called direct
because it is levied directly on the income at source. The income after
taxation is called disposable income.
Direct tax
• Direct tax is levied on the income. So the tax liability is
certain.
• Direct tax can be levied at source of income, so it can not be
evaded.
• Direct tax can offer concessions and exemptions, which may
not be easy with indirect tax.
• Direct tax can be made progressive. That is charging higher
tax from higher income groups and lower tax rates from
lower income groups.
• Direct tax has educational value. It prompts the tax payer
understand and participate in the fiscal exercise.
• In advanced countries, direct tax accounts for greater share
of tax revenues.
However
• Direct tax levies a direct burden, so it may not be acceptable
by the tax payer.
• Tax evasion is easy in case of non salary and business
incomes.
• If the tax burden is larger there is an urge to resist tax, evade
tax and corruption.
Indirect tax
Indirect tax is popular among developing economies as it can generate larger
revue as compared with direct tax. Countries with large income inequalities
and low incomes, direct tax fails to generate large revenue. Direct tax may
be resisted due to lower incomes. Indirect tax becomes more acceptable
because of its nature and characteristics.
• Indirect taxes are universal. The burden of tax falls on all the
citizens
• Indirect tax is considered as a part of consumption
expenditure or cost. So the burden is not clear and direct. It
easily accepted by people.
Levy of direct and indirect tax, in fact, is a case of duplication. However, the
governments levy tax for raising revenue for development purposes. In total
the amount of tax collected as a proportion of GDP is called the taxable
capacity. It is the tax liability that has public acceptance. In developing
economies it is as 40 percent. In India it is around 28 percent.
Capital Budget: The capital budget primarily comprises capital receipts and
payments.
Sources of revenue
Tax Revenues
Direct Tax
Traditionally, these are taxes where the burden of tax falls on the person on
whom it is levied. These are largely taxes on income or wealth. Income tax
(on corporates and individuals), are direct taxes.
Indirect Tax
In the case of indirect taxes the incidence of tax is usually not on the person
who pays the tax. These are largely taxes on expenditure and include
Customs, excise and service tax.
Indirect taxes are considered regressive, the burden on the rich and the poor
is alike. That is why governments strive to raise a higher proportion of taxes
through direct taxes. Moving on, we come to the next important receipt item
in the revenue account, non-tax revenue.
Non-tax Revenues
The most important receipts under this head are interest payments (received
on loans given by the government to states, railways and others) and
dividends and profits received from public sector companies.
Unproductive expenditure is the one which does not yield any revenue.
It does not directly generate welfare. Defense expenditure, interest
payment on public debt and the expenditure on calamity and disaster
management and relief fall under this group.
Non-plan Expenditure
This is largely the revenue expenditure of the government. The biggest
item of expenditure is interest payments, subsidies, salaries, defense
and pension. The capital component of the non-plan expenditure is
relatively small with the largest allocation going to defense.
Capital Receipt/Expenditure:
All receipts and expenditure that liquidate or create an asset would
in general be under capital account.
If the government sells shares (disinvests) in public sector companies,
like the receipts from the sale would go under capital account. On the
other hand, if the government gives someone a loan from which it
expects to receive interest, that expenditure would go under the capital
account. In respect of all the funds the government has to prepare a
Revenue Budget (detailing revenue receipts and revenue expenditure)
Types of Deficits
Fiscal Deficits
Fiscal deficit is one of the more comprehensive measures of government’s
deficit. It can be looked upon as the sum of budgetary deficit and borrowings
and other liabilities of the government.
In other words, fiscal deficit reflects the indebtedness of the government i.e.
the country’s ability or the inability to repay loans.
Budgetary Deficits
Budgetary deficit is nothing but the difference in total government earnings
(receipts) and the total government expenditure. In India, budgetary deficit is
covered mainly by creation of new money (called deficit financing).
Primary Deficits
The revenue expenditure includes interest payments on government's earlier
borrowings. The primary deficit is the fiscal deficit less interest payments. A
shrinking primary deficit would indicate progress towards fiscal health.
The concept of primary deficit was introduced for the first time in the budget
of 1993-94. This indicates the real posit ion of the government finances after
having paid off the interest burden.
The fiscal deficit may be large, but if it is small compared to the size of the
economy then it is not such a bad thing. Prudent fiscal management requires
that government does not borrow to consume, in the normal course.
Revenue deficits
The excess of disbursements over receipts on revenue account is called
revenue deficit. This is an important control indicator. All expenditure on
revenue account should ideally be met from receipts on revenue account; the
revenue deficit should be zero. When revenue disbursement exceeds
receipts, the government would have to borrow. Such borrowing is
considered regressive as it is for consumption and not for creating assets. It
results in a greater proportion of revenue receipts going towards interest
payment and eventually, a debt trap.
Monetized Deficit
Monetized deficit is indicated by the increase in holdings of treasury bills by
the Reserve Bank of India and its contribution to the market borrowings of
the government. This it shows the extent of deficit financing (creation of
new money) on the part of government.
Balance Of Payments
Balance of payments is a systematic record of transactions between one
country and rest of the world during a period of time.
2. Capital account :
It deals with capital movements between one country and rest of the
world. Capital movements can be private, governmental or
institutional ( IMF, World Bank and others).It can be again classified
as short term and long term capital movements.
Finally, the balance of payments will have the deficit or surplus, reflecting
the overall position of all the international transactions.
Important ratios:
1. Balance of trade:
Balance of trade is an important indicator of the efficiency of export
sector and import substitution sector. It is the position of an
economy in terms of merchandise on current account. It is an
important indicator because it will highlight the foreign exchange
commitments of the country with respect to each country and
currency.
2. Basic balance:
This is the difference between exports + inflow of long term capital
AND imports + out flow of private capital. It is measure of gross
movements in currencies in and out of the economy.
3. Liquidity balance:
In international trade, liquidity is a major consideration in
international payments. Liquidity balance deals with the difference
in the official exchange holdings over a given period of time. High
liquidity balance improves the credit worthiness of a country.
During gold standards the exchange rate remained fixed because gold was a
neutral commodity which had no seasonality in supply or demand. The fixed
exchange rate provides stability of value in international transaction.
The gold standard was replaced with paper Standards. The currency is how
valued on the basis of its purchasing power. The price determines domestic
value of currency as well as exchange rate.
With the exchange rate becomes highly flexible and floating. Such flexible
exchange rate mechanism makes an economy open to the external sector can
be brought about with domestic policy.
The purchasing power is worked out on the basis of prices existing in the
economy for the basket of consumption. With the changing price the
exchange rate also freely changes. The domestic rates of inflation and
monetary policy determines international exchange rate.
It involves no interest payment, but only a share in the profit to the extent of
shares owned by foreigners. In India equity participation by foreigners is
permissible up to 51 percent of the capital of a project, with higher limits of
investment in selected areas, such as technology, up gradation and exports.
Foreign capital, mostly from the developed countries has been playing an
important role in the development of the Indian economy. It has entered the
country in various forms, both on govt. account and private account. It has
given rise to a number of problems, the most serious being that of debt
servicing. Foreign capital has played an important role in the early stages of
industrialization of most of the advanced countries of today like countries of
Europe & North America. There is a general view that foreign capital, if
properly diverted and utilized, can arrest the economic development of
developing countries like India.
Foreign capital so far, used has been both for long - term purposes & short
term needs. Long term capital refers to capital that has maturity of more
than a year, short term capital has a maturity of more than a years, short term
capital has maturity of a one year or less. It has been composed of different
types of capital. The amount of capital under various types has been
different & has varied over times.
Foreign aid
Under the foreign exchange regulation Act (FERA), a non resident Indian is
one who has gone out of India for business, profit, service, employment, etc.
for an uncertain period of time. Non - Resident of Indian origin are those
who have an Indian citizenship and an Indian passport or having Indian
Parent or Indian wife or husband, etc. Non -resident foreign citizen of Indian
origin are treated on equal terms as the Non -resident Indian citizens.
Portfolio Investment
Advantages
• Inflow of FPI can provide a developing country non-debt creating
source of foreign investment.
• Increased inflow of foreign capital increases the allocative efficiency
of capital in a country.
• FPI affects domestic capital market. It gives an upward thrust to the
domestic stock market prices.
Portfolio Investment is very easy to sell off the securities and pull out the
foreign portfolio investment. Hence, FPI can be much more volatile than
FDI. For a country on the rise, FPI can bring about rapid development,
helping an emerging economy move quickly to take advantage of economic
opportunity, creating many new jobs and significant wealth.
Globalization in India
The Indian economy was in major crisis in 1991 when foreign currency
reserves went down to $1 billion and inflation was as high as 17 percent.
That was the time when India underwent a major policy change. The new
economic reform, popularly known as, Liberalization, Privatization and
Globalization aimed at making India grow faster and globally competitive.
Several reforms were initiated with regard to industrial, trade and social
sector to make the economy more competitive. The economic changes had a
effect on the overall growth of the economy.
These reforms made India a global economy.
• The reduction of the peak customs tariff from over 300 per cent
prior to the 30 per cent rate that applies now.
Summary
• In respect of market capitalization, India ranks fourth in the world.
• But even after globalization, condition of agriculture has not
improved. The share of agriculture in the GDP is only 17 percent.
• The number of landless families has increased and farmers are still
committing suicide.
From 1947 to 1994, General Agreement on Trade and Tariff (GATT) was
the forum for managing trade barriers. The World Trade Organization
(WTO) was established on 1st January 1995. . The WTO has 148 members,
accounting for over 97 percent of world trade. Around 30 others are
negotiating membership.
Services sector represent the fastest growing sector of the global economy
and account for two thirds of global output, one third of global employment
(e) Patents;
• Patents shall be granted for any inventions, whether products
or processes, in all field of technology, provided they are
new.
• The term of protection shall be at least 20 years from the
date of application.
(25535) 24-04-2010