The Black Revolution – Where Do We Go From Here?

Philip Zeng

James Baldwin
1. Congress of Racial Equality, Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee; gaining
support through literary achievements
2. Wrote novels pertaining to white-black race relations - The Fire Next Time; No
Name in the Street -- own experience, assassinations of black leaders Malcolm X
and MLK, Jr.
3. To gather support through writings and protests
4. Ideally - somewhere between Malcolm X's Black Power and MLK, Jr.'s nonviolent
approach
5. At this point after MLK's assassination, violence can be justified with the white's
unwillingness to accept black rights.
6. I am an integrationist and I believe that all humans should live together
peacefully.
7. Important - Meeting with Robert F. Kennedy to discuss civil rights movement --
allowed exposure of the moral issue behind civil rights

Eldridge Cleaver
1.Eldridge Cleaver was the officer in the Black Panther Party and
author of Soul on Ice. His major accomplishment was becoming a
leader of the Black Panther Party. Because of his efforts in
spreading news about the party, the party was well known and
widely reported. He also helped create the Black House, which
was a cultural Center for African American youth.
2. The Black Panther Party was a group that wanted equal life for
black people and believed in African-American unity. As the
leader of the Black Panther party, he helped to spread the word
of the group with his writing skills. He was also the minister of
information and editor of The Black Panther.
3. The first priority of this movement was to urge blacks and
whites to oppose repression, police brutality, and unequal
economic measures.
4. He was once a disciple of the Black Muslim movement and was
influenced by the writings of Malcolm X. His strategy against racist whites
was to use extreme measures to overthrow society that discriminated
minorities.
5. Violence is justified because with the influences of Malcolm X, he calls
for a revolutionary violence against racism.
6. He supported segregation because he believed that it would be better
for the community of blacks and he disliked those that treated blacks
unequally.
7. He would work with white leaders to bring equality to African
Americans b/c his main goal was to gain equal rights for blacks, and
eventually he joined the Republican Party. It shows his efforts to try to
achieve his goals.

Rosa Parks
1. I am an active member of the Montgomery chapter of the
 NAACP. I serve as a secretary to the president, E.D. Nixon (from
1943 to 1957). I see the Civil Rights Act of 1964 the biggest
accomplishment of the Civil Rights Movement, as it outlawed
discrimination and racial segregation.
2. I took a stand against segregation and discrimination by
refusing to give up my designated seat on the bus to a white
passenger. My arrest motivated the start of the Montgomery Bus
Boycott and the formation of the Montgomery Improvement
Association. The boycott ended with the Supreme Court ruling
that racial segregation on public transportation in Montgomery
was illegal.
3. My priority would be to make it clear that we blacks do not
wish to be second class citizens any longer and to fight for the
end of discrimination.

4. By making our protests publicized, we can be more effective in our fight for
change.
5. We should follow the example of Martin Luther King Jr., nonviolent
protest.
6. We should work to end segregation. I support integration, working for
a... society in which blacks and whites have the same rights.
7. It is important that blacks work with white leaders for equality. The
NAACP was not made up entirely of African Americans. It was actually
originally founded by whites.

Martin Luther King, Jr.

1. Position: A young clergyman, leader of boycotts and protests,
first president of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference
(SCLC), led marches; biggest accomplishment: Civil Rights Act of
1964 which outlawed discrimination in public accommodations,
housing, and jobs and probably the Twenty-Fourth Amendment
(1964) and Voting Rights Act (1965) which allowed blacks to vote
2. Role: Leader of Montgomery Bus Boycott (result =
Montgomery had to desegregate its public transportation
system, March on Washington (1963) – where he delivered his “I
have A Dream” speech, wrote “Letter From Birmingham Jail”
(1963) – explanation of why he and his followers were unwilling
to wait any longer for justice, March to Montgomery (1965) – to
force Alabama authorities to allow blacks to register to vote
3.
First priority: goal of black voting rights, elimination of prejudice based on
race and religion
4. Strategy: Believed in nonviolence; expect authorities to react brutally
(attack his marchers) therefore attracted public sympathy for ...the
marchers (more support for the black cause) 5.
Martin Luther King, Jr. strongly believes in nonviolent resistance to gain
support and sympathy, but became more aggressive (tired of waiting)
6. Wished for a future where racial prejudice no longer existed and
people of all religions ...and colors could join hands (“I have a Dream”
speech); preferred integration 7. Very
 important to work with white leaders; “I have a Dream” speech – people
of all religions and colors to join hands = must work with white leaders to
make this happen

Roy Wilkins
1. I am currently the executive director of the National Association for the
Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). The biggest accomplishment of the Civil
Rights Movement is the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which marked the significant
change in American legislation toward the favor of the discriminated minorities.
2. I led the NAACP and other national organizations in the Civil Rights movement by
organizing peaceful marches and demonstrations. I also testified in Congressional
hearings and consulted with President Kennedy and Johnson.
3. My first priority is to ensure that the movement is continuing to move in a
positive and nonviolent direction so that the civil rights can be firmly established
and respected.
4. The most effective strategy will be the fundamental principle of nonviolent
protest and demonstration, such as peaceful marches.
5. I believe violence is absolutely not justified at this point. We have accomplished a
lot by nonviolent protest, and we have established a peaceful image of ourselves. If
violence is to take over, then it will give a negative image of us, and will ultimately
destroy all the accomplishments we have harvested.
6. I believe integration is better than segregation. Segregation will cause further
differences between us and the white community. These differences will be more
than enough reason for people to hate and discriminate. On the other hand,
integration will allow us to work peacefully alongside the white community. We will
all learn to work as a single society and discovery the positives in each other.
7. It is very important to work with white leaders to bring equality for African
Americans. Firstly, this will bring about respect cooperation among the leaders for
the sole purpose of equality. Second, this will create an example for all blacks and
white that peace and respect can be established among us all.

James Farmer
1. Farmer was a civil rights activist who first started and
organized the 1961 freedom ride. This led to the desegregation
of interstate transportation. He also co-founded the Committee
of Racial Equality, later known as the Congress of Racial Equality
(CORE) that tried to end racial segregation through nonviolence.
2. As co-founder and first national director of CORE, Farmer was
eager to end segregation of interstate buses. As a result, he
planned the first freedom ride that journeyed through the South.
This was able to make Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy send
a petition to the ICC, forcing them to follow the bus-
desegregation ruling from Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company
(1955).
3. Farmer’s first priority was to desegregate interstate
transportation throughout the country. 4. The best
strategy to achieve the change is to use nonviolence but also make a
statement through freedom rides.
5. Nonviolence isn’t justified at this point. Farmer was inspired by
Krishnalal Shridharani's book War Without Violence, which explained
 Gandhi’s approach for organizing people and starting a nonviolent
campaign. As a result, he was able to accomplish his goals through
nonviolent protests such as freedom rides and marches. He believed that
if they used violence, it would only cause more hatred towards the
blacks.
6. Farmer believed in integration. He opposed to the idea of “separate
but equal”, believing in full equality for all. Everyone should have equal
rights and opportunities. Different group, such as the blacks shouldn’t be
discriminated against in all aspects such as seating in public
transportation. 7. It’s very important to work with white
leaders to bring equality for African Americans. It shows that it is possible
for all races to work together in achieving a goal. As a result, CORE was
open to anyone who believed that “all people are created equal” and
wants to achieve the goal of true equality in the world.

Stokely Carmichael
1. Position: Freedom Rider, worked on Freedom Summer and became chairman of
SNCC in 1966, continued James Meredith's March Against Fear with other civil rights
campaigners, Black Power speech, author, Black Panther Party. Accomplishment:
March Against Fear of Meredith and Black Power speech.
2. Freedom Riders, March Against Fear, Black Power.
3. To get African Americans together and lead their own organizations.
4. Best strategy is to completely reject the values of American society.
5. Although part of Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), he
criticized MLK and his ideology of nonviolence.
6. Carmichael would rather keep segregation. He adopted slogan of "Black is
Beautiful" and advocated a mood of black pride and a rejection of white values of
style and appearance.
7. Opposite of bringing equality for African Americans, Carmichael would have
rather kept the blacks and whites separate. Thus him and his organization worked
with white leaders or not did not matter.

Whitney Young
1. Young was president of the National Urban League’s
Omaha, Nebraska Chapter. He worked as a dean of social work at
Clark Atlanta University. Young’s biggest accomplishment was
the expansion of the NUL; it was increased from 38 employees to
1,600. “Street Academy,” an alternative education system to
prepare high school dropouts for college and “New Thrust,” an
effort to help black local black leaders identify and solve
community problems were developed. Young proposed a
domestic ‘Marshall Plan,’ to seek federal aid for cities.
2. As president along with NUL, Young pushed major
corporations to hire blacks. He brought NUL to the forefront of
the civil rights movement. Young initiated the “Street Academy,”
and “New Thrust” programs. As dean of social work at CAU, he
supported alumni in their boycott of the Georgia Conference of
Social Welfare.
3. Young’s primary goal was to expand socioeconomic
opportunity, placing more blacks into jobs generally held by whites.
 4. Young used strategy of non-violence and passiveness. He kept the
support of influential white businesses and political leaders during his
time with NUL.
5. Violence is not justified. Young was successful in his goal:
incorporating more blacks into the white workforce.
6. Young was completely for integration; he sought
socioeconomic opportunity for blacks,
7. Young during his leadership at NUL worked with white
businesses and leaders to seek socioeconomic equality.

James Forman
1. James Forman was a leader in the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
(SNCC), Black Panther Party, and the International Black Workers Congress, as well
as an author of many books about his experience during the Civil Rights movement.
Forman became an important organizer in the SNCC, being able to organize support
for the youth and active expansion. After becoming the executive secretary in 1961,
Forman demanded reparations for the African Americans, demanding for $500
million for injustice on his people. After the decline of the SNCC, Forman joined
other radical black groups.
2. Forman was able to organize and provide his leadership in the SNCC, becoming
executive secretary and worked fulltime for the Civil Rights movement. Supervising
staff and directing fundraising, Forman was an important leader in the Civil Rights
movement, with SNCC participating in the March to Washington and expanding
activities in protests and riots.
3. Forman’s first priority in the movement was to reporting the civil rights struggle
in the South through being an editor to the Chicago Defender. He covered school
desegregation and afterwards, joined many black radical groups, including the
SNCC.
4. Forman used his skills of organization and his leadership to be able to carry out
the activities and protests of the SNCC, as well as being able to help the youth and
the old being able to deal with the segregation laws that were in place at the
moment.
5. Violence was not justified, as the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
prohibited against that; instead Forman focused on organized protests. Factions
began to grow as nonviolence had little progress to some SNCC members.
6. The SNCC was originally for integration and segregation was not the right move
in order for blacks to gain their civil rights. However as time passed, blacks were
becoming more disenchanted with the fact of blacks being inferior to the whites,
leading to black power.
7. Forman and the SNCC would not work with white liberals and federal government
in order gain civil rights for African Americans, because of black power; however,
Forman was able to expand his leadership and organizational skills in order for the
Civil Rights movement to progress forward.

Huey Newton
1. American political and urban activist. Founded the
Black Panther Party. He joined the Afro-American Association and
was a prominent member of the Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity.
Newton started many social programs in Oakland. One of which
was the Oakland Community School, which provided high-level
 education to 150 children of urban neighborhoods.
2. The Black Panther party was able to achieved national and
international impact through their involvement in the Black
Power movement. It advised African-Americans of their rights.
3. Newton’s first priority in the movement was freedom, full
employment, decent housing, education, and military exemption
for African Americans.
4. Newton and the Black Panther party observed police
procedures ensured that African-Americans were not abused.
5. Violence was justified. Black Panther was known for violence
against the forces. In order to protect the African-Americans
from abused, Newton fought with the police force.
6. Newton was for integration because he was for full civil
rights.
7. Newton felt that it was the white liberals’ job to depend the African-
Americans from the white radicals. The Black Panther had an alliance with
the Peace and Freedom Party that supported their programs in full.

Elijah Muhammad
1. Elijah Muhammad was the leader of the Black Muslim movement, the
Nation of Islam group. He advocated for a growing militancy of the
African Americans and hoped for a more separatist stance on the issue of
racial cooperation. Muhammad was especially attracted to the religion of
Islam, as unlike the society he lived in, the Islamic religion had no racial
bias, and advocated for real equality among all men. The biggest
accomplishment in Elijah Muhammad’s mind might have been the 24th
Amendment, which rejected the poll tax instituted in the south to keep
black from voting. Muhammad may have been proud of this measure as it
did not purposely wish for the integration of blacks and white (which he
opposed), and instead allowed for equality among the two races.
2. Elijah Muhammad’s tactics may have not directly resulted in major
legislation or direct results, however his organization and beliefs proved
the growing militancy of blacks. Muhammad’s Nation of Islam showed
America the distrust of blacks towards whites - and reversed the progress
of integration by advocating for separatism.
3. Muhammad’s priority for his group would have been to advocate
completely for a separated society - and the creation of a separate nation
for blacks.
4. The strategy most likely to reach the change would have been for
advocating the creation of a nation in Africa for African Americans. Like
Malcolm X, one of his initial followers, he supported the use of violence,
and black domination in contrast with King’s nonviolent methods.
5. Muhammad believed that violence was justified in order to reach his
ends. He simply believed that whites were devils created by God to
terrorize blacks; blacks instead must fight back and overthrow such white
domination. His militant strategies and more radical separatist ideas
proved that he was willing to use much more intense and violent methods
to gain what he believed was right.
6. Muhammad detested the idea of black and white integration. He felt
that whites could not be relied on, and could never coexist with African
 Americans. In order for society to truly thrive, blacks and whites must live
in separate societies. Muhammad’s total hate for integration led to his
urge for a nation in Africa for blacks instead. Muhammad’s dim view of
the white race proved that he could not ever accept integration,
coexistence or nonviolence as the answer and instead he supported
segregation, violence and true black militancy.
7. Muhammad, in accordance with his belief of segregation and
separatism, could never work with white leaders even for equality for
blacks. Muhammad’s Nation of Islam even argued that Christianity was
the religion for slave owners, and only Islamic ideals could show true
equality for the black world.

Floyd McKissack
1. He served as the national director of the Congress of Racial
Equality. He moved CORE from a pro-integration group into a
militant organization supporting black power. He also helped
create the Soul city which was primarily for blacks.
2. CORE used the strategy of nonviolent direct action, especially
the tactics of sit-ins, jail-ins, and freedom rides to ultimately
achieve their goals. Most members of CORE were volunteers and
interracial groups.
3. The first priority of this group is to change the racist minds of
the people by nonviolent actions.
4. The tactics of sit-ins, jail-ins, picketing, and freedom rides.
5. Violence is not justified in
any form. Passive protesting is the only way to achieve true
equality, not by violence.
6. We should work together in harmony instead of being
segregated. All men are created equal, including all races, not
just whites.
7. CORE would not exist if white leaders were not a part of this
organization. The white middle class and interracial pro
integration wanted to bring equality for all.