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The management of open dynamic systems requires careful attention to
important boundary spanning transactions. Boundary-spanning
transactions are actions that link an organization to specific external
sectors; exchanges that make the system dynamic and open.
Summary
Organizations are open dynamic systems for transforming resource inputs
into outputs of useful products and services that satisfy the needs of
customers and provide value to stakeholders. But the interests of various
stakeholders are not always aligned. This places conflicting pressures and
demands on managers.
At the highest organizational level, managers seek to navigate competitive
environmental forces by developing a mission to define the firm’s unique
business purpose and crafting superordinate goals to challenge and guide
employees. At all levels, managers diagnose and influence systems by
working with people and allocating resources to carry out tasks and achieve
goals within an environment of change. In performing their jobs, managers
behave in different roles, frequently shifting emphasis among interpersonal,
information, and decision-making roles.
To maintain organizational viability, managers work to achieve goals in the
areas of productivity, satisfaction, and revitalization. One of the realities of
life in organizations is that today’s effective practices are not likely to suffice
tomorrow. Whether pulled by the success of growth or jolted by crisis and
downturn, managers must periodically transform the system to adapt to
environmental realities. In the process of transformation, managers can
target changes in the key internal resources such as tasks, technology,
organization, people, and culture. Maintaining a dynamic balance among
these resources is what organizational behavior (OB) is all about.
The study of organizational behavior is important because of the growing
complexity and turbulence of the business environment and the related
growth in research knowledge about behavior within and between
organizations.
Book Summary – Management and Organizational Behavior
• Cook, C. W. & Hunsaker, P. L. (2001). Management and
Organizational Behavior (3rd edition).
1A. Mission
1B. Vision
6.
Controlling 2. Setting
& objectives
Improving
5.Impleme
3. Crafting
nting &
4. strategy
executing
Organizing
and
financing
Worldcom’s Mission
To be the preeminent global communications company for the digital
generation, generation d.
Enron’s Mission
Not found.
IBM’s Mission
At IBM, we strive to lead in the creation, development and manufacture of
the industry’s most advanced information technologies, including computer
systems, software, networking systems, storage devices and
microelectronics.
Microsoft’s Mission
To enable people and businesses throughout the world to realize their full
potential
Apple’s Mission
Apple is committed to bringing the best personal computing experience to
students, educators, creative professionals and consumers around the world
through its innovative hardware, software and Internet offerings.
TOPIC: Strategy fairly recent in business. Sun Tsu, The Art of War.
3. Craft Strategy to Fulfill the Mission and Vision
A strategy is a plan of actions to achieve a favorable position within the
competitive marketplace by strengthening the relationship between an
organization’s capabilities and its changing environment. Strategies
pertain to those destiny-shaping decisions concerning:
• The choice of technologies on which products and services are based
• The development and release of new products and services
• The processes for producing products and services
• The way products and services are marketed, distributed, and priced
• The ways in which the organization responds to rivals
TOPIC: More about strategies later
4. Organizing and Financing to Support Strategy
Two planning processes are close companions to crafting strategy, and
they must be resolved before (or at least concurrently with)
implementation.
The organizing function plans supportive structures and systems that
align people to the strategy. In organizing, structure provides a way of
grouping people and tasks into departments or work units to promote
coordination of communication, decisions, and action. Also in organizing,
systems provide guidelines or structured processes for handling
recurring transactions and events in a standardized or consistent way.
The financing function involves budget preparation and finding or
determining sources of funding to meet requirements for capital
investments and operating expenses.
5. Implementing and Executing Strategy
The greatest concentration of management and non-management effort
occurs with implementation (or execution) of strategy. Above all,
implementation requires leadership, the formation of teams, and the
nurturing of a supportive organizational culture.
TOPIC: Project management must be used to implement strategy
“A project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to achieve a particular aim.
Every project has a definite beginning and a definite end. While projects are
similar to operations in that both are performed by people, both are
generally constrained by limited resources, and both are planned, executed
and controlled, projects differ from operations in that operations are ongoing
and repetitive while projects are temporary and unique.” – The Project
Management Institute (PMI)
“Project management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools and
techniques to a broad range of activities in order to meet the requirements
of the particular project. Project management knowledge and practices are
best described in terms of their component processes. These processes can
be placed into five Process Groups: – Initiating, Planning, Executing,
Controlling and Closing – and nine Knowledge Areas – Project Integration
Management, Project Scope Management, Project Time Management, Project
Cost Management, Project Quality Management, Project Human Resource
Management, Project Communications Management, Project Risk
Management, and Project Procurement Management.” The Project
Management Institute (PMI)
This is the most common area where strategy falls down.
6. Controlling Results to Sustain Continuous Improvement
But profits are the result, or the derivative, of doing several things well.
While a certain level of profitability may be one objective, other objectives
and measures are needed to assure that people are focusing effort and
resources on the things they have to do to bring about favorable results,
to create customer satisfaction, and the like.
Continuous improvement is ongoing assessment and problem solving
aimed at improving designs, processes, and outcomes.
Assessment, thus, completes the strategic cycle, and in the process
generates new visions just as it promotes organizational learning of new
skills and knowledge bases.
L o w e r C o sD t i f f e r e n t i a t i o n
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F o c u s e d L o w -
D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n
C o s t S t r a t e g y
S t r a t e g y
F C
E D
How Do Control Systems Impact Continuous Improvement?
Although negative connotations persist, evaluation and control systems are a
must in organizations.
A control is any process to help align actions of people and systems with the
goals and interests of the organization.
A control system is evaluative and feedback processes to let people know
their managers are paying attention to what they do and can tell when
undesired deviations occur. Control systems can be formalized and
structured. However, as defined above, control systems also include
behavioral sources of control, such as organizational culture and leadership.
For social system controls to work, people need to know that someone in
authority knows what they are doing and is willing to call attention to gaps
between performance and objectives.
TOPIC: What control systems are we using in the classroom?
Measurement is preferred when outcomes can be quantified. To be effective,
any evaluation or measurement needs to assess outcomes or behaviors that
are affected by the actions of the unit or individual.
One paradox of management is that social expectations conveyed within an
organization’s culture provide better controls over people than do formal
measurement systems. The purpose of social controls is to get people to
commit themselves to the organization.
Many leaders engage their people in a Baldrige-type evaluation process
because it is broad-based and provides an eye-opening experience for
participants that typically dramatizes the gaps between current performance
and desired results. The Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award framework
for evaluating the qualities and processes of organizations dedicated to
quality performance as measured by seven dimensions of organizational life
ranging from leadership practices to performance results:
1. Leadership – senior leaders are involved in creating and sustaining
consensus regarding the organization’s mission, values, plans, and
goals; and focus on the stakeholder groups being served.
2. Planning – the process for short-, intermediate-, and long-range plans
are communicated and aligned throughout the organization.
3. Service orientation – processes are provided for learning about the
needs and expectations of the groups for which services are provided,
and satisfaction for these groups is monitored and improved
(especially relative to peer and benchmark institutions).
4. Information and analysis – information is assessed and managed to
track and improve overall organizational effectiveness and service
excellence.
5. Employees and workplace climate – employees at all levels are
encouraged to develop their full potential relative to the organizational
mission and goals, supported by an environment conducive to
excellence, participation, appreciation of diversity, and
personal/organizational growth.
6. Process management – key processes are developed, managed, and
improved to achieve superior organizational performance and a service
orientation.
7. Excellence levels and trends – achievements and improvements are
documents in key excellence areas, relative to past performance and
to peer and benchmark organizations.
Six-sigma is a high-performance, data driven approach to analyzing the root
causes of business problems and solving them after first lining the outputs of
a business directly to marketplace requirements. Organizations that embrace
six sigma analyze their customers’ requirements, and then build their
internal processes in a highly disciplined manner to fulfill these customer
requirements by driving out variances from the standard. They do this by
measuring and tracking performance, sharing data with those involved in the
process, analyzing why deviations occur, and then working to eliminate
causes of unacceptable performance. Critical to all this working is close
attention to employee training in statistical methods and the techniques for
process improvements. In this regard it is more an intervention to affect
organizational behavior than it is a statistical tool.
Three different managerial control orientations (depend on values and
commitments):
• A competitive team orientation focuses on adding value to the
market, with controls used to enhance the organization’s core
competence and strategic competitiveness. Information flow laterally
and informally throughout the organization to help people make timely
decisions.
• The classic command and control orientation is used most often in
firms that rely on a chain-of-command structure to emphasize
operating efficiency and conservation of corporate resources. Controls
focus on internal events, with vertical flows of information up the
hierarchy for top management review and oversight.
• The conformance orientation of control is found most often in
organizations doing business with the government. Work is organized
around a bureaucracy, with fixed control routines for processing
information and externally reporting it in compliance with government
regulations. The IRS is the archetype of an organization focused on
conformance control.
TOPIC: What examples of these control orientations have you seen?
The more stereotypical view of control is seen in the core values of
managers who view their roles more to police activities and people. They
emphasize oversight and surveillance and administration of rules and
procedures.
Team-oriented leadership is typical of organizations operating in dynamic,
fast-changing, high-tech environments. The team-centered manager is more
likely to use social expectations combined with quality-oriented methods to
foster commitment and self-accepted responsibility than the manager who
polices the behavior of others.
Book Summary – Management and Organizational Behavior
• Cook, C. W. & Hunsaker, P. L. (2001). Management and
Organizational Behavior (3rd edition).
Regulators
People
Technolog
Vendors Tasks Customers
y
Organizati
Organizatio
on & n Culture
Systems
Competito
rs
As firms age and grow in size, firms pass through an organizational life cycle
in which they move from simple to progressively more complex structures
and systems. The ultimate design for a firm diversified into several lines of
business is to take on characteristics of a network, loosely coupled by central
resource allocations. The focus of most reorganizations is to better align
organization design with business strategies and competitive forces,
although at times “reorganization” is simply a euphemism for reducing
headcount by layoffs.
Elitist Content
Elitist / Charismatic Elitist / Traditional
Core Ideology
Companies that others sought to emulate built their organizations on a
foundation core ideology. An organization’s core ideology combines
essential and enduring core values as a set of guiding principles with a
purpose that uniquely defines the fundamental reasons for the organization’s
existence (beyond making money). Ideology provides for stability over
generations of management; it is a set of precepts around which the
organization functions irrespective of its leaders, its strategies, its lines of
business, and its practices as they change over time.
• Purpose more than profits. Emulated organizations build their
organizations around an ideology that had more than an economic
purpose. HIGHLIGHT THIS!
• Ideologies vary across organizations. There was not a consistency of
themes or values embedded in the core ideologies of sustainable
visionary companies. What was central to all, was the authenticity of
the ideology. Behavior and actions that are consistently aligned with
the stated ideology are more critical than the content of the ideology
per se.
Psychological Contract
The psychological contract is the workers’ implicit expectations about
what they are expected to contribute to an organization and what they will
receive in return. Individuals contribute such qualities as their skills, effort,
time, loyalty, and commitment to an organization. In return the organization
offers such things as pay, benefits, security, and opportunities to satisfy such
motives as the need for achievement, power, status, and affiliation. Both the
individual and the organization feel satisfied if they perceive the
psychological contract as fair. The psychological contract is dynamic because
the expectations and contributions of both the individual and organization
change over time. Terms of the psychological contract are affected by
economic cycles and business trends.
TOPIC: What do you expect to contribute to BSU? Get at the end?
A social contract is a term used to describe collective psychological
contracts within a national culture. The general social contract in the US
included two common elements: employees would give regular attendance
and effort along with loyalty to the organization; In return, employers would
provide ‘fair’ pay and benefits, advancement based on seniority and merit,
and job security within reasonable limits.
TOPIC: American social contract. Has this changed in any way?
Recent times suggest that a revised social contract is needed including the
following elements: Employees will be expected to provide a high level of
performance, a commitment to the company’s objectives, and a willingness
to innovate or make suggestions and train to improve behavior; Employers in
turn, will provide interesting and challenging work, learning, flexibility,
performance-based compensation, and opportunities for participation and
involvement. This means that many workers will have to change from their
psychological dependence on their employers to a commitment to their craft
or profession.
Ability is the capacity to perform physical and intellectual tasks. Aptitude
is the capacity to learn an ability. People differ in both their abilities and
aptitudes. Managers should know what abilities are required to perform
various jobs and should try to match the jobs with people who have
appropriate abilities, or at least the aptitude to learn.
tend to perceive what they need, want and expect to see. The physical,
Organization
Classification We classify people in a variety of categories such as age,
People pay more attention to some stimuli than others and run the danger
of overlooking relevant clues. A major purpose for studying organizational
Interpretation
The perceptual process happens instantly. Our past learning and experience
as well as our current beliefs, assumptions, attitudes, and values all
influence the meaning we add to what we take in. Combined, they form our
individual frame of reference, which is the mental filter through which
perceptions are interpreted and evaluated.
Perceptual Distortions
TOPIC: Remodeling a Window Exercise, p 2.517
Selective perception is the tendency to focus on those attributes of people
and situations that fit our frame of reference. The potential danger of
selective perception is that we miss important data, and the omission causes
a distorted view of a person or situation.
A stereotype is a rigid, biased perception of a person, group, object, or
situation. We tend to categorize people by their obvious, and sometimes less
obvious, differences. Stereotypes can be positive or negative. Unwarranted
negative stereotypes can lead to bias, which in turn leads to destructive
attitudes such as sexism, racism, and nationalism.
A halo effect is the tendency to overrate a person based on a single trait.
Halo effects can lead to incomplete and inaccurate judgments and, like
stereotypes, may prompt someone to miss individual differences.
Projection is attributing to others one’s own thoughts, feelings, attitudes,
and traits.
Attribution
Attribution is an assumed explanation of why people behave as they do,
based on our observations and inferences. We also make attributions about
our own behavior. Theory suggests that when people observe another’s
behavior, they use certain criteria to determine whether it fits that person’s
general personality or is affected by other factors (often subconscious).
Individual
Behavior
Examples: Internal Causes
Examples: ability,
productivity, effort, attitude
promptness, Criteria
attendance Behavior
Distinctiveness
Situational Response
Consistency
Factors Consensus External Causes
Examples: work
Examples: demands,
workload, conditions, time
resources, pressures
support, time
Criteria
Distinctiveness is an attribution process used to explain whether a
person’s behavior fits with other behaviors.
Consistency is an attribution process used to explain the degree of variance
in behavior over time.
Consensus is an attribution process used to determine how others behave
in similar situations.
Attribution of Internal-External Causality
After assessing observations using the above criteria, the cause of behavior
is likely to be attributed to internal and/or external factors.
Attributional error is the tendency to overestimate internal factors and
underestimate external factors when making attributions about others.
Self-serving bias is the tendency of individuals to attribute their own
positive performance to internal factors and their to negative performance to
external factors.
Accommodat
Divergence
Active ion Reflective
Experimen Observatio
-tation n
Convergence Assimilation
Abstract
Conceptu
al-ization
Kolb’s experiential learning model distinguishes two primary dimensions of
the learning process. These two dimensions are combined to suggest four
key learning abilities or processes. A complete pattern of learning flows in a
circular direction. Most people become highly skilled at one or two processes
rather than all four. When two adjacent processes are emphasized, a
dominant learning style emerges. The four distinct personal learning styles in
this model are:
• The Diverger: Learn best by reflecting on specific experiences and
drawing new inferences. The diverger tends to be highly imaginative,
excels at brainstorming, and likes involvement in the generation of
creative ideas. Academically, such learners often are interested in the
liberal arts, humanities, and fine arts. Human resource managers are
often divergers.
• The Assimilator: With their capability to combine reflective
observation and abstract conceptualization, assimilators are good at
creating theoretical models. Dealing with abstract ideas is the
assimilator’s domain, more so than seeking practical applications or
working with people. Individuals who adopt this learning style are
attracted to basic research; in business you may find them staffing
corporate research and planning departments.
• The Converger: Convergers use abstract concepts as a basis for
active experimentation. They focus on specific problems, looking for
answers and solutions. Like the assimilator, the converger prefers
working with ideas and specific tasks more than working with people.
Convergers tend to do well in the physical sciences and engineering.
• The Accommodator: The style focuses on doing. The
accommodator’s domain is active experimentation and the carrying
out of plans that lead to real experiences. Such people are risk takers,
able to adapt quickly to new situations. Although at ease with people,
accommodators tend to be impatient and assertive. Accommodation is
often the dominant style of individuals trained for the business world,
especially those who gravitate toward action-oriented management or
sales jobs.
Managers and organizations should value and consciously seek learning from
experience by budgeting time for the learning process. Second, managers
and organizations should value and include those with different learning
styles and perspectives. Action-oriented people should be combined with
those who are reflective, etc.
Brain-Hemisphere Dominance Learning
Our dominant brain hemisphere may play a significant role in how we learn.
The brain’s left hemisphere assimilates information in ordered, systematic
ways. Quantification and written language are handled by the left
hemisphere of the brain.
The world of the right hemisphere manager involves holistic, simultaneous,
creative learning. In addition, it emphasizes learning from face-to-face verbal
exchanges rather than from written reports. Hunches and judgment are
mental processes from which insights and new possibilities spring forth.
Personalities
Personality is the set of traits and behaviors that characterizes an
individual. Managers and others use personality to understand and predict
an individual’s behavior and to define the essence of an individual.
Personality emerges over time from the interaction of genetic and
environmental factors. People’s personalities become clearer and more
stable as they grow older. Personality can change and may do so slowly over
the years.
Sensatio
n
n
o
ti
a
Sensation Sensation
m
Thinkers Feelers
r
(ST) (SF)
o
f
n
Thinkin Evaluating Information Feeling
I
g g
n
Intuitive ri Intuitive
Thinkers e Feelers
(IT) h (IF)
t
a
Intuition
G
Introversion/Extroversion
E -- Extraverted: turned toward the outer world, of people and things. An extravert, or
extraverted type, is one whose dominant function is focused in an external
direction. Extraverts are inclined to express themselves, using their primary
function, directly.
I -- Introverted: turned toward the inner world of symbols, ideals and forms. An introvert, or
introverted type, is one whose dominant function is inwardly focused. Introverts
are inclined to express themselves, using their primary function, indirectly,
through inference and nuance.
What about P and J?
P stands for Perceiving, J for Judging. What they really represent is, again,
complex. For the E (extraverted) types, it's simple enough - P means that the
dominant function is a Perceiving function (iNtuition or Sensing); J means the
dominant function is a deciding or Judging function.
For Introverts, it's just the opposite. P actually means that the extraverted
function is a Perceiving (data-collecting, or irrational) function, but since the
dominant function is introverted (by definition for Introverts), the I _ _ P
types' first functions are Judging (deciding or rational) functions.
Chapter 6 – Motivation
People have different needs that direct their behavior. Some of these needs
depend on personal circumstances and outside events. Needs can cause
people to seek out experiences that enrich their lives. Alternatively, needs
can trigger behavior to avoid threatening conditions and feelings of
deprivation. Other needs are learned from rewarding experiences. These
learned needs become relatively persistent motives that influence a person
to seek out experiences that satisfy a particular motive, such as the need for
achievement or power.
Beyond human needs and the acquired taste for specific motives, a different
explanation of motivation focuses on expectancies, or people’s expectations
about whether they can affect performance outcomes and how closely
desired rewards are linked to performance. People also consider the equity
of how they are treated, and those evaluations help determine whether they
will appear motivated or not.
Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence is twice as important as either technical skills or IQ as
a driver of outstanding performance. The five key components of emotional
intelligence are self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and
social skill.
How Do Expectations Affect Work Motivation?
Process theories of motivation are theories that focus on the ways
people think through motivation issues and how they determine whether
their actions were successful. The human tendency is to embrace the most
advantageous option or at least avoid functioning at a disadvantage.
Expectancy Theory
Expectancy theory is a theory of motivation based on a person’s beliefs
about effort-performance-outcome relationships.
The three variables of expectancy theory:
Expectancy Instrumentality Valence
The probability (from 0 The probability (from 0 The value (from positive
to 1) that an individual to 1) that an individual to negative) that a
believes his or her work anticipates that an person assigns to the
effort directly affects attained level of task personal consequences
the performance performance will have that follow work
outcome of a task. personal consequences. performance.
Identify behavioral
performance problems
Analyze existing
behavioral contingencies
Develop contingency
intervention strategy
Probl
em Yes
Chart frequency of Reinforce to maintain
Solve
resulting behavior desirable behavior
d?
By Others
Perceptions
Accepting
Modeling Self-concept
Mentoring By Self Self-esteem
Predisposition Self-efficacy
Outcomes
Competence Empowerment
By Managers Expectations
Behaviors
Job designs
Goal reward Self-initiated
Leadership Persistent
Adaptive
Self-concept is how we think about ourselves or see ourselves in a role.
Self-esteem is how we generally feel about our own worthiness – our self-
acceptance.
Self-efficacy is our self-perceptions about our ability to perform certain
types of tasks.
The empowered person undergoes two types of personal change. One is
motivational enhancement, especially when the source of empowerment is
positive change initiated by a manager. Empowered people usually intensify
their task focus and are energized to become more committed to a cause or
a goal. They experience self-efficacy, which stimulates motivation by
enabling people to see themselves as competent and capable of high
performance.
Empowerment is also active in problem solving behaviors that concentrate
energy on a goal. The empowered person is more flexible in behavior, tries
alternative paths when one is blocked, and eagerly initiates new tasks or
adds complexity to current ones. Behavior becomes self-motivated when the
individual seeks to carve out greater personal autonomy in undertaking tasks
without the manager’s help, or to draw support from team members.
Ultimately, the individual decides whether to act empowered. Not everyone
responds in the same way to empowerment. Expectancy motivation comes
into play in empowerment.
Book Summary – Management and Organizational Behavior
• Cook, C. W. & Hunsaker, P. L. (2001). Management and
Organizational Behavior (3rd edition).
What is Communication?
Communication is the process of one person sending a message to another
with the intent of evoking a response. Effective communication occurs when
the receiver interprets the message exactly as the sender intended. Efficient
communication uses less time and fewer resources. The most efficient
communication is not necessarily the most effective. What a manager wants
to achieve is effective communication in the most efficient way.
Communication in organizations serves three major purposes: it allows
members to coordinate actions, share information, and satisfy social needs.
Sender Message
Receiver
Origination – idea or Channel – the medium Perception – process
feeling through which a message is includes attention/selection,
transmitted organization, and
Encoding – translating interpretation
information into a message Verbal channel – words
appropriate for transmission spoken and transmitted Decoding – the receiver
through sound waves function of perceiving
Transmission – The act of communication stimuli and
conveying a communication Nonverbal channel – all interpreting their meaning
ways of communicating
without words, such as tone Response – no response in
of voice, facial expression, one-way communication
Problem
• Socialize employees
Solving
Communication that takes place among peers that can cut across departments &
work groups, resulting in:
on
Develop Credibility
The credibility of a sender is probably the single most important element in
effective interpersonal communications. Credibility is the sender’s degree
of trustworthiness, as perceived by the receiver.
• Expertise – receivers will be more attentive when they perceive that a
sender has expertise in the area about which he or she is communicating.
• Mutual trust – receivers prefer to have the sender’s motives clarified;
owning up to motives at the very beginning eliminates anxiety about a
sender’s real intentions and does much to establish common trust.
• Reliability – a sender’s perceived dependability, predictability, and
consistency in providing all relevant information reinforce the sender’s
perceived trustworthiness.
• Warmth and friendliness – a warm, friendly, supportive attitude is
conducive to credibility.
• Dynamic appearance – a sender who is dynamic, confident, and positive
is more credible.
• Personal reputation – if other members of the organization have told
the receiver that a sender is credible, the receiver usually will tend to
believe it.
Communicate Ethically
Interpersonal communications are ethical when they facilitate a person’s
freedom of choice by presenting accurate, relevant information.
Deception is the conscious alteration of information to significantly influence
another’s perceptions.
An overt lie is a false statement made with the deliberate intent to deceive.
Covert lying occurs when one omits something relevant, leading others to
draw incorrect inferences.
Ethical behavior has very important consequences for a sender’s credibility.
Obtain Feedback
To ensure that each party understands what the other is trying to
communicate, interpretations of received messages can be fed back for
confirmation.
Criteria for Giving Feedback Criteria for Receiving Feedback
1. Make sure your comments are 1. Don’t be defensive
intended to help the recipient 2. Seek specific examples
2. Speak directly and with feeling 3. Be sure you understand
based on trust (summarize)
3. Describe what the person is doing 4. Share your feelings about the
and the effect the person is comments
having 5. Ask for definitions
4. Don’t be threatening or 6. Check out underlying assumptions
judgmental 7. Be sensitive to sender’s nonverbal
5. Be specific, not general (use clear messages
and recent examples) 8. Ask questions to clarify
6. Give feedback when the recipient
is open to accepting it
7. Check to ensure the validity of
your statements
8. Include only things the receiver
can do something about
9. Don’t overwhelm; make sure your
comments aren’t more than the
person can handle
Differences in Self-Disclosure
Self-disclosure is the process of revealing how you perceive and feel about
the present. Without self-disclosure, you cannot form a meaningful
relationship with another person.
The Johari window is a model of the different degrees of openness between
two people based on their degree of self-disclosure and feedback solicitation.
The model presents four windowpanes of awareness of others and ourselves.
Known to self
Feedback
Not known to self
disclosed and known by both certain things about you that are
others
you are aware of but do not share and needs or potential that
others
because you may be afraid that neither you nor the other are
Not
High Assertiveness
Low Assertiveness
Male/Female Differences
An early emphasis on relatedness and connection causes women to develop,
more highly than men, the qualities of vulnerability, empathy, and an ability
to empower and enable others. Men are socialized to deny feeling vulnerable
and are encouraged to strive for self-reliance, strength, and independence,
while women are expected to attend to their own and others’ feelings and
connect emotionally with others.
Women are better able to nonjudgmentally address weaknesses in
themselves and others.
Women learn to listen with empathy and to be responsive and sensitive to
others’ emotions. Men, on the other hand, are encouraged to be rational and
strong and to deny feelings in order to maintain rationality and control.
Finally, women grow up expecting a two-directional pattern of relational
growth, where contributing to the development of others will increase their
feelings of effectiveness and competence and where others will be motivated
to reciprocate. This is opposed to men’s early training, which emphasizes
independence and competiveness. Consequently, women are more naturally
adaptable to helping others at work in coaching or mentoring relationships.
Males and females differ in their reactions to authority figures and how they
prefer to deal with conflict. In terms of supervisor preference, females tend
to have more positive attitudes toward female managers than do males.
They also perceive female managers are more competent than males
perceive them.
With respect to conflict, more female managers than male managers have
been socialized to avoid confrontation altogether or to seek help in resolving
them. More women than men settle for noninfluential roles rather than
become involved in power struggles and conflicts. In contrast, many men
have been taught to overemphasize power and strive for one-upmanship
even when it is unnecessary or counter productive.
Effectively managing sexual attraction in relationships involves learning to
communicate directly, setting personal boundaries, and having a sense of
ethics.
Book Summary – Management and Organizational Behavior
• Cook, C. W. & Hunsaker, P. L. (2001). Management and
Organizational Behavior (3rd edition).
Formal Groups
A formal group is a group intentionally established by a manager to
accomplish specific organizational objectives.
A standing task group is a permanent group formally specified in the
organizational structure consisting of a supervisor and direct subordinates.
A task group is a temporary formal group created to solve specific
problems.
Contributions to Organizations Contributions to Individuals
1. Accomplish complex, interdependent 1. Satisfy needs for affiliation
tasks that are beyond the capabilities 2. Confirm identity and enhance self-
of individuals. esteem
2. Create new ideas 3. Test and share perceptions of social
3. Coordinate interdepartmental efforts reality
4. Solve complex problems requiring 4. Reduce feelings of insecurity and
varied information and perspectives powerlessness
5. Implement action plans 5. Provide a mechanism for solving
6. Socialize and train newcomers personal and interpersonal problems
Informal Groups
An informal group is a group that emerges through the efforts of
individuals to satisfy personal needs not met by the formal organization.
Membership in informal groups is based on common interests and mutual
attraction versus being assigned, as it is in formal groups. The subtle
influence of informal groups over their members’ behaviors often turns out
to be more powerful than the vested authority of formal groups. This
influence can be both positive and negative.
An interest group is an informal group consisting of individuals who affiliate
to achieve an objective of mutual interest.
A friendship group is an informal group based on common characteristics
that are not necessarily work related.
A reference group is a group with which an individual identifies to form
opinions and make decisions regardless of whether he or she is an actual
member. Reference groups are the basis for many friendship and interest
groups, but they may also exist outside of the organization and still influence
a person’s behavior at work. Reference groups are based on things like race,
gender, politics, religion, social class, education level, and profession.
Reference groups provide values for individuals on which to base personal
decisions and norms that justify social behavior, both of which may or may
not be congruent with organizational preferences.
Contributions to Individuals Contributions to Organizations
1. Satisfaction of social and affiliation 1. Solidify common social values and
needs expectations congruent with
2. Satisfaction of needs for security and organizational culture
support 2. Provide and enforce guidelines for
3. Enhanced status for members if the appropriate behavior
group is perceived by others as 3. Provide social satisfaction unlikely for
prestigious anonymous individual workers to
4. Enhanced feelings of self-esteem if a experience
member is valued by other group 4. Provide a sense of identity that often
members includes a certain degree of status
5. Feeling more competent by sharing 5. Enhance members access to
the power of the group to influence information
and achieve 6. Help integrate new employees into
the information expectations of the
organization
Degenerative Climate
Climate that encourages
dysfunctional conflict.
• Win-lose attitudes
• People with different
values & expectations
• Merged cultural differences
Personal Differences
• Different values
• Different preferred way of
behaving
• Different views of the
world
Problem Awareness
1. Establish trust – people need to feel secure enough to acknowledge
that a problem exists.
2. Clarify objectives – an objective is a desired outcome that we want
to achieve. This provides a documented statement of what you intend
to accomplish; establishes a basis for measuring performance;
provides positive motivation through knowing what is expected; and
helps to provide a road map.
3. Assess the current situation – focus on the “what” and the “how” of the
organization and that of the people involved.
4. Identify problems – to identify a problem accurately, it must be
understood from all points of view. Many times a flowchart (process
flow diagram) is used to identify process problems.
Problem Definition
1. Analyze problems – the goal is to determine the root cause of the
problem. A cause-and-effect diagram (fishbone chart) are
sometimes used to represent the relationship between some “effect”
and all possible “causes” influencing it.
2. Agree on problems to be solved – you must set priorities regarding
which problem will be worked on first and which follow (and when or if
at all). A Pareto chart is a vertical bar graph that indicates which
problems, or causes of problems, should be solved first.
Decision Making
1. Establish decision-making criteria – criteria are statements of
objectives that need to be met for a problem to be solved. Effective
criteria should possess the following characteristics:
• Specific, measurable, and attainable
• Complementary – the achievement of one should not reduce the
likelihood of achieving another.
• Ethical – Criteria should be legal, fair, and observant of human
rights.
• Acceptable – criteria must be acceptable to all interested parties.
2. Develop action alternatives
3. Evaluate benefits and risks of alternatives – Important criteria to
consider in evaluating action alternatives are each alternative’s
probability of success and the associated degree of risk that negative
consequences will occur. Degree of risk can be given in four
categories:
• Certainty exists if the exact results of implementing a problem
solution are known in advance.
• Known risk is present when the probably that a given alternative
will produce specific outcomes can be predicted.
• Uncertainty exists when decision makers are unable to assign
any probabilities to the consequences associated with an
alternative.
• Turbulence occurs when the environment is rapidly changing and
decision makers are not even clear about relevant variables,
available solution options, or potential consequences of
decisions.
4. Decide on a plan – the decision-making goal is to select the best
solution alternative for solving the entire problem without creating any
additional negative consequences for anyone else in the organization.
You can use a decision making grid like the one below to assist:
Alternativ Benefits Probabilit Costs Risks Associate Timing
e y of d
success conseque
nces
Alternative
1
Alternative
2
Follow Through
1. Establish criteria for success – these criteria serve as the benchmarks
for measuring and comparing results.
2. Determine how to measure performance
3. Monitor the results – each implementation step may alter the problem
situation.
4. Take corrective action – as needed
Legal & Policy Analysis The legal system of the affected countries and localities
2. Is the action legal in all
countries and localities
were it would be taken?
3. Does the action violate Professional and organizational policies
any professional or
organizational codes of
conduct, rules, or
policies?
Ethical Analysis
4. Does the decision Utilitarianism – acting in such a way that the greatest good is
result in greater achieved for the greatest number.
benefits than
damages for society
as a whole, not just
for our organization?
5. Is the decision self- Kant’s Categorical Imperative - The person’s reasons for acting
serving, or would we be must be reasons that everyone could act on at least in principle; and
willing to have everyone the person’s reasons for acting must be reasons that he or she would
else take the same action be willing to have all others use, even as a basis of how they treat
him or her. An action is morally right for a person if, and only if, in
when faced with the performing the action, the person does not use others merely as a
same circumstances? means for advancing his or her own interests, but also both respects
and develops their capacity to choose freely for themselves.
(Velasquez, 2002).
6. We understand the need Social good – positive decision results such as happiness, benefit or
for social cooperation; least harm.
will our decision increase An ethic of care emphasizes two moral demands:
or decrease the • We each exist in a web of relationships and should preserve and
nurture those concrete and valuable relationships we have with
willingness of others to
specific persons;
contribute?
• We each should exercise special care for those with whom we are
concretely related by attending to their particular needs, values,
desires, and concrete well-being as seen from their own personal
perspective, and by responding positively to these needs, values,
desires, and concrete well-being, particularly of those who are
vulnerable and dependant on our care. (Velasquez, 2002).
7. We recognize the • Fairness - Rawls: “A) Each person has an equal right to the most
importance of personal extensive basic liberties compatible with similar liberties for all
freedom; will our decision (these basic liberties include the right to vote, freedom of speech
increase or decrease the and conscience and other civil liberties, freedom to hold personal
liberty of others to act? property, and freedom from arbitrary arrest.), and B) Social and
8. Does the action result in economic inequalities are arranged so that they are both: 1) To the
benefit for the least greatest benefit of the least advantaged persons and 2) Attached
to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality
advantaged person?
of opportunity.” (Velasquez, 2002).
9. Would the benefits and Distributive justice –fair distribution of benefits and burdens
burdens resulting from across a group or society.
the action be distributed • Egalitarian justice: “every person should be given exactly equal
fairly? shares of a society’s or a groups benefits and burdens.”
(Velasquez, 2002).
• Capitalist justice: “benefits should be distributed according to
the value of the contribution the individual makes to a society, a
task, a group, or an exchange”. (Velasquez, 2002).
• Socialist justice: “from each according to his ability, to each
according to his need”. (Velasquez, 2002).
• Libertarian justice: “Everyone should act to ensure greater
freedom of choice, for this promotes market exchange, which is
essential for social productivity.” (Hosmer, 1996).
10. Does the action • Right is a justified claim or entitlement that an individual can
infringe on the moral make to behave or to have others behave toward him or her in a
rights or dignity of certain way.
others?
11. Does the action help • Virtue theory argues the aim of the moral life is to develop those
to build one of the moral general dispositions we call the moral virtues (courage,
virtues in that person? temperance, justice, prudence, faith, hope and charity), and to
exercise and exhibit them in the many situations that human life
sets before us (Velasquez, 2002).
12. How would I feel if • The front page of the New York Times test
this action becomes
public knowledge?
Encouraging Creativity
Brainstorming – a small group approach for achieving high participation
and increasing the number of action alternatives. Rules for effective
brainstorming promote the goal of quantity of ideas no matter how
farfetched, allow no criticism or evaluation of ideas as they are generated,
allow only one idea at a time from each person, and encourage people to
build on each other’s ideas.
Nominal Group Technique is a highly-structured group problem-solving
format that governs the decision-making process. First participants
independently write down their ideas about a problem. Second, each
presents one idea to the group in a round-robin fashion without discussion.
These ideas are summarized and written on a flip chart or blackboard so all
can see them. After a group discussion to clarify and evaluate the ideas, an
independent ranking of the proposals takes place. These rankings are pooled
to determine the proposal with the highest aggregate ranking, which is the
group’s decision.
Delphi Technique is a structured group problem-solving process where
participants do not meet together but interact through a series of written
judgments and suggestions. After each participant has been presented with
the problem, he or she writes down comments and possible solutions and
sends them to a central location for recording and reproduction. Each
participant then receives a copy of all other comments and solutions to use
as a springboard for additional ideas or comments. These also are returned
to the central location for compilation and reproduction, and an independent
vote on solution priority is taken.
Group Decision Support Systems are electronic and computer supported
data processing tools that can facilitate group decision-making in certain
situations.
Book Summary – Management and Organizational Behavior
• Cook, C. W. & Hunsaker, P. L. (2001). Management and
Organizational Behavior (3rd edition).
Chapter 14 – Leadership
What Distinguishes Managers from Leaders?
Managers are persons granted authority to be in charge of an
organizational unit and thus responsible for diagnosing and influencing
systems and people to achieve appropriate goals.
Authority is the right to make decisions and commit organizational
resources based on position within the organization.
Accountability is holding a person with authority answerable for setting
appropriate goals, using resources efficiently, and accomplishing task
responsibilities.
Leadership is the act of providing direction, energizing others, and
obtaining their voluntary commitment to the leader’s vision.
A leader is a person who creates a vision and goals, then energizes others
to voluntarily commit to that vision. Leaders can be found at all levels.
Leadership is observable even in the absence of formal managerial authority.
Leader Traits
Followers’ Behavior
Situational Variables
Acceptance/Rejection
Tasks/Strategies
Productive/Unproductive
Technology/Time Influence
Development/Decline
Organization/Policies
Satisfaction/Dissatisfactio
People (Followers)
n
Chapter 15 – Change
Change is the process of moving from one condition to another. Changes in
organizations are stimulated by multiple external and internal forces, often
interacting to reinforce one another.
Individuals resist change due to: selective perception, lack of information,
fear of the unknown, habit, and resentment toward the initiator.
Organizations resist change for many of the same reasons individuals do.
Additional sources of resistance are: power maintenance, structural stability,
functional sub-optimization, organizational culture, and group norms.